Frequently Asked Questions

FAQFrequently Asked Questions

Coordinating Editors: Sophie Berger (France/Belgium), Sarah L. Connors (France/United Kingdom)

Drafting Authors:Richard P. Allan (United Kingdom), Paola A. Arias (Colombia), Kyle Armour (United States of America), Terje Berntsen (Norway), Lisa Bock (Germany), Ruth Cerezo-Mota (Mexico), Kim Cobb (United States of America), Alejandro Di Luca (Australia, Canada/Argentina), Paul Edwards (United States of America), Tamsin L. Edwards (United Kingdom), Seita Emori (Japan), François Engelbrecht (South Africa), Veronika Eyring (Germany), Piers Forster (United Kingdom), Baylor Fox- Kemper (United States of America), Sandro Fuzzi (Italy), John C. Fyfe (Canada), Nathan P. Gillett (Canada), Nicholas R. Golledge (New Zealand/United Kingdom), Melissa I. Gomis (France/Switzerland), William J. Gutowski (United States of America), Rafiq Hamdi (Belgium), Mathias Hauser (Switzerland), Ed Hawkins (United Kingdom), Nigel Hawtin (United Kingdom), Darrell S. Kaufman (United States of America), Megan Kirchmeier-Young (Canada/ United States of America), Charles Koven (United States of America), June-Yi Lee (Republic of Korea), Sophie Lewis (Australia), Jochem Marotzke (Germany), Valérie Masson-Delmotte (France), Thorsten Mauritsen (Sweden/Denmark), Thomas K. Maycock (United States of America), Shayne McGregor (Australia), Sebastian Milinski (Germany), Olaf Morgenstern (New Zealand/Germany), Swapna Panickal (India), Joeri Rogelj (United Kingdom/Belgium), Maisa Rojas (Chile), Alex C. Ruane (United States of America), Bjørn H. Samset (Norway), Trude Storelvmo (Norway), Sophie Szopa (France), Jessica Tierney (United States of America), Russell S. Vose (United States of America), Masahiro Watanabe (Japan), Sönke Zaehle (Germany), Xuebin Zhang (Canada), Kirsten Zickfeld (Canada/Germany)

These Frequently Asked Questions have been extracted from the chapters of the underlying report and are compiled

Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 1.1 Do We Understand Climate Change Better Now Compared to When the IPCC Started? .... 6

FAQ 1.1.aFAQ 1.2 Where Is Climate Change Most Apparent? ...................................... 8

FAQ 1.2.aFAQ 1.1.bFAQ 1.3 What Can Past Climate Teach Us About the Future? ................................ 10

FAQ 1.3.aFAQ 1.2.bFAQ 1.1.cFAQ 2.1 The Earth’s Temperature Has Varied Before. How Is the Current Warming Any Different? .......... 12

FAQ 2.1.aFAQ 1.3.bFAQ 1.2.cFAQ 1.1.dFAQ 2.2 What Is the Evidence for Climate Change? ............................. 14

FAQ 2.2.aFAQ 2.1.bFAQ 1.3.cFAQ 1.2.dFAQ 1.1.eFAQ 3.1 How Do We Know Humans Are Responsible for Climate Change? .. 16

FAQ 3.1.aFAQ 2.2.bFAQ 2.1.cFAQ 1.3.dFAQ 1.2.eFAQ 1.1.fFAQ 3.2 What is Natural Variability and How Has it Influenced Recent Climate Changes? ..................... 18

FAQ 3.2.aFAQ 3.1.bFAQ 2.2.cFAQ 2.1.dFAQ 1.3.eFAQ 1.2.fFAQ 1.1.gFAQ 3.3 Are Climate Models Improving? ........... 20

FAQ 3.3.aFAQ 3.2.bFAQ 3.1.cFAQ 2.2.dFAQ 2.1.eFAQ 1.3.fFAQ 1.2.gFAQ 1.1.hFAQ 4.1 How Will the Climate Change Over the Next Twenty Years? ................ 22

FAQ 4.1.aFAQ 3.3.bFAQ 3.2.cFAQ 3.1.dFAQ 2.2.eFAQ 2.1.fFAQ 1.3.gFAQ 1.2.hFAQ 1.1.iFAQ 4.2 How Quickly Would We See the Effects of Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions? .................. 24

FAQ 4.2.aFAQ 4.1.bFAQ 3.3.cFAQ 3.2.dFAQ 3.1.eFAQ 2.2.fFAQ 2.1.gFAQ 1.3.hFAQ 1.2.iFAQ 1.1.jFAQ 4.3 At a Given Level of Global Warming, What Are the Spatial Patterns of Climate Change? .............................. 26

FAQ 4.3.aFAQ 4.2.bFAQ 4.1.cFAQ 3.3.dFAQ 3.2.eFAQ 3.1.fFAQ 2.2.gFAQ 2.1.hFAQ 1.3.iFAQ 1.2.jFAQ 1.1.kFAQ 5.1 Is the Natural Removal of Carbon From the Atmosphere Weakening? ....... 28

FAQ 5.1.aFAQ 4.3.bFAQ 4.2.cFAQ 4.1.dFAQ 3.3.eFAQ 3.2.fFAQ 3.1.gFAQ 2.2.hFAQ 2.1.iFAQ 1.3.jFAQ 1.2.kFAQ 1.1.lFAQ 5.2 Can Thawing Permafrost Substantially Increase Global Warming? .................... 30

FAQ 5.2.aFAQ 5.1.bFAQ 4.3.cFAQ 4.2.dFAQ 4.1.eFAQ 3.3.fFAQ 3.2.gFAQ 3.1.hFAQ 2.2.iFAQ 2.1.jFAQ 1.3.kFAQ 1.2.lFAQ 1.1.mFAQ 5.3 Could Climate Change Be Reversed By Removing Carbon Dioxide From the Atmosphere? .......................... 32

FAQ 5.3.aFAQ 5.2.bFAQ 5.1.cFAQ 4.3.dFAQ 4.2.eFAQ 4.1.fFAQ 3.3.gFAQ 3.2.hFAQ 3.1.iFAQ 2.2.jFAQ 2.1.kFAQ 1.3.lFAQ 1.2.mFAQ 1.1.nFAQ 5.4 What Are Carbon Budgets? .................. 34

FAQ 5.4.aFAQ 5.3.bFAQ 5.2.cFAQ 5.1.dFAQ 4.3.eFAQ 4.2.fFAQ 4.1.gFAQ 3.3.hFAQ 3.2.iFAQ 3.1.jFAQ 2.2.kFAQ 2.1.lFAQ 1.3.mFAQ 1.2.nFAQ 1.1.oFAQ 6.1 What Are Short-lived Climate Forcers and How Do They Affect the Climate? .. 36

FAQ 6.1.aFAQ 5.4.bFAQ 5.3.cFAQ 5.2.dFAQ 5.1.eFAQ 4.3.fFAQ 4.2.gFAQ 4.1.hFAQ 3.3.iFAQ 3.2.jFAQ 3.1.kFAQ 2.2.lFAQ 2.1.mFAQ 1.3.nFAQ 1.2.oFAQ 1.1.pFAQ 6.2 What Are the Links Between Limiting Climate Change and Improving Air Quality? .................. 38

FAQ 6.2.aFAQ 6.1.bFAQ 5.4.cFAQ 5.3.dFAQ 5.2.eFAQ 5.1.fFAQ 4.3.gFAQ 4.2.hFAQ 4.1.iFAQ 3.3.jFAQ 3.2.kFAQ 3.1.lFAQ 2.2.mFAQ 2.1.nFAQ 1.3.oFAQ 1.2.pFAQ 1.1.qFAQ 7.1 What Is the Earth’s Energy Budget, and What Does It Tell Us About Climate Change? ........................ 40

FAQ 7.1.aFAQ 6.2.bFAQ 6.1.cFAQ 5.4.dFAQ 5.3.eFAQ 5.2.fFAQ 5.1.gFAQ 4.3.hFAQ 4.2.iFAQ 4.1.jFAQ 3.3.kFAQ 3.2.lFAQ 3.1.mFAQ 2.2.nFAQ 2.1.oFAQ 1.3.pFAQ 1.2.qFAQ 1.1.rFAQ 7.2 What Is the Role of Clouds in a Warming Climate? .......................... 42

FAQ 7.2.aFAQ 7.1.bFAQ 6.2.cFAQ 6.1.dFAQ 5.4.eFAQ 5.3.fFAQ 5.2.gFAQ 5.1.hFAQ 4.3.iFAQ 4.2.jFAQ 4.1.kFAQ 3.3.lFAQ 3.2.mFAQ 3.1.nFAQ 2.2.oFAQ 2.1.pFAQ 1.3.qFAQ 1.2.rFAQ 1.1.sFAQ 7.3 What Is Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity and How Does It Relate to Future Warming? .............................. 44

FAQ 7.3.aFAQ 7.2.bFAQ 7.1.cFAQ 6.2.dFAQ 6.1.eFAQ 5.4.fFAQ 5.3.gFAQ 5.2.hFAQ 5.1.iFAQ 4.3.jFAQ 4.2.kFAQ 4.1.lFAQ 3.3.mFAQ 3.2.nFAQ 3.1.oFAQ 2.2.pFAQ 2.1.qFAQ 1.3.rFAQ 1.2.sFAQ 1.1.tFAQ 8.1 How Does Land Use Change Alter the Water Cycle? .......................... 46

FAQ 8.1.aFAQ 7.3.bFAQ 7.2.cFAQ 7.1.dFAQ 6.2.eFAQ 6.1.fFAQ 5.4.gFAQ 5.3.hFAQ 5.2.iFAQ 5.1.jFAQ 4.3.kFAQ 4.2.lFAQ 4.1.mFAQ 3.3.nFAQ 3.2.oFAQ 3.1.pFAQ 2.2.qFAQ 2.1.rFAQ 1.3.sFAQ 1.2.tFAQ 1.1.uFAQ 8.2 Will Floods Become More Severe or More Frequent as a Result of Climate Change? .............................. 48

FAQ 8.2.aFAQ 8.1.bFAQ 7.3.cFAQ 7.2.dFAQ 7.1.eFAQ 6.2.fFAQ 6.1.gFAQ 5.4.hFAQ 5.3.iFAQ 5.2.jFAQ 5.1.kFAQ 4.3.lFAQ 4.2.mFAQ 4.1.nFAQ 3.3.oFAQ 3.2.pFAQ 3.1.qFAQ 2.2.rFAQ 2.1.sFAQ 1.3.tFAQ 1.2.uFAQ 1.1.vFAQ 8.3 What Causes Droughts, and Will Climate Change Make Them Worse? ................. 50

FAQ 8.3.aFAQ 8.2.bFAQ 8.1.cFAQ 7.3.dFAQ 7.2.eFAQ 7.1.fFAQ 6.2.gFAQ 6.1.hFAQ 5.4.iFAQ 5.3.jFAQ 5.2.kFAQ 5.1.lFAQ 4.3.mFAQ 4.2.nFAQ 4.1.oFAQ 3.3.pFAQ 3.2.qFAQ 3.1.rFAQ 2.2.sFAQ 2.1.tFAQ 1.3.uFAQ 1.2.vFAQ 1.1.wFAQ 9.1 Can Continued Melting of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets Be Reversed? How Long Would It Take for Them to Grow Back? ...................................... 52

FAQ 9.1.aFAQ 8.3.bFAQ 8.2.cFAQ 8.1.dFAQ 7.3.eFAQ 7.2.fFAQ 7.1.gFAQ 6.2.hFAQ 6.1.iFAQ 5.4.jFAQ 5.3.kFAQ 5.2.lFAQ 5.1.mFAQ 4.3.nFAQ 4.2.oFAQ 4.1.pFAQ 3.3.qFAQ 3.2.rFAQ 3.1.sFAQ 2.2.tFAQ 2.1.uFAQ 1.3.vFAQ 1.2.wFAQ 1.1.xFAQ 9.2 How Much Will Sea Level Rise in the Next Few Decades? .................... 54

FAQ 9.2.aFAQ 9.1.bFAQ 8.3.cFAQ 8.2.dFAQ 8.1.eFAQ 7.3.fFAQ 7.2.gFAQ 7.1.hFAQ 6.2.iFAQ 6.1.jFAQ 5.4.kFAQ 5.3.lFAQ 5.2.mFAQ 5.1.nFAQ 4.3.oFAQ 4.2.pFAQ 4.1.qFAQ 3.3.rFAQ 3.2.sFAQ 3.1.tFAQ 2.2.uFAQ 2.1.vFAQ 1.3.wFAQ 1.2.xFAQ 1.1.yFAQ 9.3 Will the Gulf Stream Shut Down? ......... 56

FAQ 9.3.aFAQ 9.2.bFAQ 9.1.cFAQ 8.3.dFAQ 8.2.eFAQ 8.1.fFAQ 7.3.gFAQ 7.2.hFAQ 7.1.iFAQ 6.2.jFAQ 6.1.kFAQ 5.4.lFAQ 5.3.mFAQ 5.2.nFAQ 5.1.oFAQ 4.3.pFAQ 4.2.qFAQ 4.1.rFAQ 3.3.sFAQ 3.2.tFAQ 3.1.uFAQ 2.2.vFAQ 2.1.wFAQ 1.3.xFAQ 1.2.yFAQ 1.1.zFAQ 10.1 How Can We Provide Useful Climate Information for Regional Stakeholders? .................. 58

FAQ 10.1.aFAQ 9.3.bFAQ 9.2.cFAQ 9.1.dFAQ 8.3.eFAQ 8.2.fFAQ 8.1.gFAQ 7.3.hFAQ 7.2.iFAQ 7.1.jFAQ 6.2.kFAQ 6.1.lFAQ 5.4.mFAQ 5.3.nFAQ 5.2.oFAQ 5.1.pFAQ 4.3.qFAQ 4.2.rFAQ 4.1.sFAQ 3.3.tFAQ 3.2.uFAQ 3.1.vFAQ 2.2.wFAQ 2.1.xFAQ 1.3.yFAQ 1.2.zFAQ 1.1.aaFAQ 10.2 Why Are Cities Hotspots of Global Warming? .............................. 60

FAQ 10.2.aFAQ 10.1.bFAQ 9.3.cFAQ 9.2.dFAQ 9.1.eFAQ 8.3.fFAQ 8.2.gFAQ 8.1.hFAQ 7.3.iFAQ 7.2.jFAQ 7.1.kFAQ 6.2.lFAQ 6.1.mFAQ 5.4.nFAQ 5.3.oFAQ 5.2.pFAQ 5.1.qFAQ 4.3.rFAQ 4.2.sFAQ 4.1.tFAQ 3.3.uFAQ 3.2.vFAQ 3.1.wFAQ 2.2.xFAQ 2.1.yFAQ 1.3.zFAQ 1.2.aaFAQ 1.1.abFAQ 11.1 How Do Changes In Climate Extremes Compare With Changes In Climate Averages? ............................ 62

FAQ 11.1.aFAQ 10.2.bFAQ 10.1.cFAQ 9.3.dFAQ 9.2.eFAQ 9.1.fFAQ 8.3.gFAQ 8.2.hFAQ 8.1.iFAQ 7.3.jFAQ 7.2.kFAQ 7.1.lFAQ 6.2.mFAQ 6.1.nFAQ 5.4.oFAQ 5.3.pFAQ 5.2.qFAQ 5.1.rFAQ 4.3.sFAQ 4.2.tFAQ 4.1.uFAQ 3.3.vFAQ 3.2.wFAQ 3.1.xFAQ 2.2.yFAQ 2.1.zFAQ 1.3.aaFAQ 1.2.abFAQ 1.1.acFAQ 11.2 Will Unprecedented Extremes Occur As a Result Of Human-Induced Climate Change? ................................... 64

FAQ 11.2.aFAQ 11.1.bFAQ 10.2.cFAQ 10.1.dFAQ 9.3.eFAQ 9.2.fFAQ 9.1.gFAQ 8.3.hFAQ 8.2.iFAQ 8.1.jFAQ 7.3.kFAQ 7.2.lFAQ 7.1.mFAQ 6.2.nFAQ 6.1.oFAQ 5.4.pFAQ 5.3.qFAQ 5.2.rFAQ 5.1.sFAQ 4.3.tFAQ 4.2.uFAQ 4.1.vFAQ 3.3.wFAQ 3.2.xFAQ 3.1.yFAQ 2.2.zFAQ 2.1.aaFAQ 1.3.abFAQ 1.2.acFAQ 1.1.adFAQ 11.3 Did Climate Change Cause That Recent Extreme Event In My Country? ...................................... 65

FAQ 11.3.aFAQ 11.2.bFAQ 11.1.cFAQ 10.2.dFAQ 10.1.eFAQ 9.3.fFAQ 9.2.gFAQ 9.1.hFAQ 8.3.iFAQ 8.2.jFAQ 8.1.kFAQ 7.3.lFAQ 7.2.mFAQ 7.1.nFAQ 6.2.oFAQ 6.1.pFAQ 5.4.qFAQ 5.3.rFAQ 5.2.sFAQ 5.1.tFAQ 4.3.uFAQ 4.2.vFAQ 4.1.wFAQ 3.3.xFAQ 3.2.yFAQ 3.1.zFAQ 2.2.aaFAQ 2.1.abFAQ 1.3.acFAQ 1.2.adFAQ 1.1.aeFAQ 12.1 What Is a  Climatic Impact-driver (CID)? ............... 67

FAQ 12.1.aFAQ 11.3.bFAQ 11.2.cFAQ 11.1.dFAQ 10.2.eFAQ 10.1.fFAQ 9.3.gFAQ 9.2.hFAQ 9.1.iFAQ 8.3.jFAQ 8.2.kFAQ 8.1.lFAQ 7.3.mFAQ 7.2.nFAQ 7.1.oFAQ 6.2.pFAQ 6.1.qFAQ 5.4.rFAQ 5.3.sFAQ 5.2.tFAQ 5.1.uFAQ 4.3.vFAQ 4.2.wFAQ 4.1.xFAQ 3.3.yFAQ 3.2.zFAQ 3.1.aaFAQ 2.2.abFAQ 2.1.acFAQ 1.3.adFAQ 1.2.aeFAQ 1.1.afFAQ 12.2 What Are Climatic Thresholds and Why Are They Important? .............. 69

FAQ 12.2.aFAQ 12.1.bFAQ 11.3.cFAQ 11.2.dFAQ 11.1.eFAQ 10.2.fFAQ 10.1.gFAQ 9.3.hFAQ 9.2.iFAQ 9.1.jFAQ 8.3.kFAQ 8.2.lFAQ 8.1.mFAQ 7.3.nFAQ 7.2.oFAQ 7.1.pFAQ 6.2.qFAQ 6.1.rFAQ 5.4.sFAQ 5.3.tFAQ 5.2.uFAQ 5.1.vFAQ 4.3.wFAQ 4.2.xFAQ 4.1.yFAQ 3.3.zFAQ 3.2.aaFAQ 3.1.abFAQ 2.2.acFAQ 2.1.adFAQ 1.3.aeFAQ 1.2.afFAQ 1.1.agFAQ 12.3 How Will Climate Change Affect the Regional Characteristics

FAQ 12.3.aFAQ 12.2.bFAQ 12.1.cFAQ 11.3.dFAQ 11.2.eFAQ 11.1.fFAQ 10.2.gFAQ 10.1.hFAQ 9.3.iFAQ 9.2.jFAQ 9.1.kFAQ 8.3.lFAQ 8.2.mFAQ 8.1.nFAQ 7.3.oFAQ 7.2.pFAQ 7.1.qFAQ 6.2.rFAQ 6.1.sFAQ 5.4.tFAQ 5.3.uFAQ 5.2.vFAQ 5.1.wFAQ 4.3.xFAQ 4.2.yFAQ 4.1.zFAQ 3.3.aaFAQ 3.2.abFAQ 3.1.acFAQ 2.2.adFAQ 2.1.aeFAQ 1.3.afFAQ 1.2.agFAQ 1.1.ahFAQ

FAQ 12.3.bFAQ 12.2.cFAQ 12.1.dFAQ 11.3.eFAQ 11.2.fFAQ 11.1.gFAQ 10.2.hFAQ 10.1.iFAQ 9.3.jFAQ 9.2.kFAQ 9.1.lFAQ 8.3.mFAQ 8.2.nFAQ 8.1.oFAQ 7.3.pFAQ 7.2.qFAQ 7.1.rFAQ 6.2.sFAQ 6.1.tFAQ 5.4.uFAQ 5.3.vFAQ 5.2.wFAQ 5.1.xFAQ 4.3.yFAQ 4.2.zFAQ 4.1.aaFAQ 3.3.abFAQ 3.2.acFAQ 3.1.adFAQ 2.2.aeFAQ 2.1.afFAQ 1.3.agFAQ 1.2.ahFAQ 1.1.aiFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 12.3.cFAQ 12.2.dFAQ 12.1.eFAQ 11.3.fFAQ 11.2.gFAQ 11.1.hFAQ 10.2.iFAQ 10.1.jFAQ 9.3.kFAQ 9.2.lFAQ 9.1.mFAQ 8.3.nFAQ 8.2.oFAQ 8.1.pFAQ 7.3.qFAQ 7.2.rFAQ 7.1.sFAQ 6.2.tFAQ 6.1.uFAQ 5.4.vFAQ 5.3.wFAQ 5.2.xFAQ 5.1.yFAQ 4.3.zFAQ 4.2.aaFAQ 4.1.abFAQ 3.3.acFAQ 3.2.adFAQ 3.1.aeFAQ 2.2.afFAQ 2.1.agFAQ 1.3.ahFAQ 1.2.aiFAQ 1.1.ajFAQ 1.1 | Do We Understand Climate Change Better Now Compared to When the IPCC Started?

FAQ 1.1.aFAQ 12.3.dFAQ 12.2.eFAQ 12.1.fFAQ 11.3.gFAQ 11.2.hFAQ 11.1.iFAQ 10.2.jFAQ 10.1.kFAQ 9.3.lFAQ 9.2.mFAQ 9.1.nFAQ 8.3.oFAQ 8.2.pFAQ 8.1.qFAQ 7.3.rFAQ 7.2.sFAQ 7.1.tFAQ 6.2.uFAQ 6.1.vFAQ 5.4.wFAQ 5.3.xFAQ 5.2.yFAQ 5.1.zFAQ 4.3.aaFAQ 4.2.abFAQ 4.1.acFAQ 3.3.adFAQ 3.2.aeFAQ 3.1.afFAQ 2.2.agFAQ 2.1.ahFAQ 1.3.aiFAQ 1.2.ajFAQ 1.1.akYes, much better. The first IPCC report, released in 1990, concluded that human-caused climate change would soon become evident, but could not yet confirm that it was already happening. Today, evidence is overwhelming that the climate has indeed changed since the pre-industrial era and that human activities are the principal cause of that change. With much more data and better models, we also understand more about how the atmosphere interacts with the ocean, ice, snow, ecosystems and land surfaces of the Earth. Computer climate simulations have also improved dramatically, incorporating many more natural processes and providing projections at much higher resolutions.

FAQ 1.1.bFAQ 12.3.eFAQ 12.2.fFAQ 12.1.gFAQ 11.3.hFAQ 11.2.iFAQ 11.1.jFAQ 10.2.kFAQ 10.1.lFAQ 9.3.mFAQ 9.2.nFAQ 9.1.oFAQ 8.3.pFAQ 8.2.qFAQ 8.1.rFAQ 7.3.sFAQ 7.2.tFAQ 7.1.uFAQ 6.2.vFAQ 6.1.wFAQ 5.4.xFAQ 5.3.yFAQ 5.2.zFAQ 5.1.aaFAQ 4.3.abFAQ 4.2.acFAQ 4.1.adFAQ 3.3.aeFAQ 3.2.afFAQ 3.1.agFAQ 2.2.ahFAQ 2.1.aiFAQ 1.3.ajFAQ 1.2.akFAQ 1.1.alSince the first IPCC report in 1990, large numbers of new instruments have been deployed to collect data in the air, on land, at sea and from outer space. These instruments measure temperature, clouds, winds, ice, snow, ocean currents, sea level, soot and dust in the air, and many other aspects of the climate system. New satellite instruments have also provided a wealth of increasingly fine-grained data. Additional data from older observing systems and even hand-written historical records are still being incorporated into observational datasets, and these datasets are now better integrated and adjusted for historical changes in instruments and measurement techniques. Ice cores, sediments, fossils, and other new evidence from the distant past have taught us much about how Earth’s climate has changed throughout its history.

FAQ 1.1.cFAQ 12.3.fFAQ 12.2.gFAQ 12.1.hFAQ 11.3.iFAQ 11.2.jFAQ 11.1.kFAQ 10.2.lFAQ 10.1.mFAQ 9.3.nFAQ 9.2.oFAQ 9.1.pFAQ 8.3.qFAQ 8.2.rFAQ 8.1.sFAQ 7.3.tFAQ 7.2.uFAQ 7.1.vFAQ 6.2.wFAQ 6.1.xFAQ 5.4.yFAQ 5.3.zFAQ 5.2.aaFAQ 5.1.abFAQ 4.3.acFAQ 4.2.adFAQ 4.1.aeFAQ 3.3.afFAQ 3.2.agFAQ 3.1.ahFAQ 2.2.aiFAQ 2.1.ajFAQ 1.3.akFAQ 1.2.alFAQ 1.1.amUnderstanding of climate system processes has also improved. For example, in 1990 very little was known about how the deep ocean responds to climate change. Today, reconstructions of deep-ocean temperatures extend as far back as 1871. We now know that the oceans absorb most of the excess energy trapped by greenhouse gases and that even the deep ocean is warming up. As another example, in 1990, relatively little was known about exactly how or when the gigantic ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica would respond to warming. Today, much more data and better models of ice-sheet behaviour reveal unexpectedly high melt rates that will lead to major changes within this century, including substantial sea level rise (FAQ 9.2).

FAQ 1.1.dFAQ 12.3.gFAQ 12.2.hFAQ 12.1.iFAQ 11.3.jFAQ 11.2.kFAQ 11.1.lFAQ 10.2.mFAQ 10.1.nFAQ 9.3.oFAQ 9.2.pFAQ 9.1.qFAQ 8.3.rFAQ 8.2.sFAQ 8.1.tFAQ 7.3.uFAQ 7.2.vFAQ 7.1.wFAQ 6.2.xFAQ 6.1.yFAQ 5.4.zFAQ 5.3.aaFAQ 5.2.abFAQ 5.1.acFAQ 4.3.adFAQ 4.2.aeFAQ 4.1.afFAQ 3.3.agFAQ 3.2.ahFAQ 3.1.aiFAQ 2.2.ajFAQ 2.1.akFAQ 1.3.alFAQ 1.2.amFAQ 1.1.anThe major natural factors contributing to climate change on time scales of decades to centuries are volcanic eruptions and variations in the sun’s energy output. Today, data show that changes in incoming solar energy since 1900 have contributed only slightly to global warming, and they exhibit a slight downward trend since the 1970s. Data also show that major volcanic eruptions have sometimes cooled the entire planet for relatively short periods of time (typically several years) by erupting aerosols (tiny airborne particles) high into the atmosphere.

FAQ 1.1.eFAQ 12.3.hFAQ 12.2.iFAQ 12.1.jFAQ 11.3.kFAQ 11.2.lFAQ 11.1.mFAQ 10.2.nFAQ 10.1.oFAQ 9.3.pFAQ 9.2.qFAQ 9.1.rFAQ 8.3.sFAQ 8.2.tFAQ 8.1.uFAQ 7.3.vFAQ 7.2.wFAQ 7.1.xFAQ 6.2.yFAQ 6.1.zFAQ 5.4.aaFAQ 5.3.abFAQ 5.2.acFAQ 5.1.adFAQ 4.3.aeFAQ 4.2.afFAQ 4.1.agFAQ 3.3.ahFAQ 3.2.aiFAQ 3.1.ajFAQ 2.2.akFAQ 2.1.alFAQ 1.3.amFAQ 1.2.anFAQ 1.1.aoThe main human causes of climate change are the heat-absorbing greenhouse gases released by fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and agriculture, which warm the planet; and aerosols such as sulphate from burning coal, which have a short-term cooling effect that partially counteracts human-caused warming. Since 1990, we have more and better observations of these human factors as well as improved historical records, resulting in more precise estimates of human influence on the climate system (FAQ 3.1).

FAQ 1.1.fFAQ 12.3.iFAQ 12.2.jFAQ 12.1.kFAQ 11.3.lFAQ 11.2.mFAQ 11.1.nFAQ 10.2.oFAQ 10.1.pFAQ 9.3.qFAQ 9.2.rFAQ 9.1.sFAQ 8.3.tFAQ 8.2.uFAQ 8.1.vFAQ 7.3.wFAQ 7.2.xFAQ 7.1.yFAQ 6.2.zFAQ 6.1.aaFAQ 5.4.abFAQ 5.3.acFAQ 5.2.adFAQ 5.1.aeFAQ 4.3.afFAQ 4.2.agFAQ 4.1.ahFAQ 3.3.aiFAQ 3.2.ajFAQ 3.1.akFAQ 2.2.alFAQ 2.1.amFAQ 1.3.anFAQ 1.2.aoFAQ 1.1.apWhile most climate models in 1990 focused on the atmosphere, using highly simplified representations of oceans and land surfaces, today’s Earth system simulations include detailed models of oceans, ice, snow, vegetation and many other variables. An important test of models is their ability to simulate Earth’s climate over the period of instrumental records (since about 1850). Several rounds of such testing have taken place since 1990, and the testing itself has become much more rigorous and extensive. As a group and at large scales, models have predicted the observed changes well in these tests (FAQ 3.3). Since there is no way to do a controlled laboratory experiment on the actual Earth, climate model simulations can also provide a kind of ‘alternate Earth’ to test what would have happened without human influence. Such experiments show that the observed warming would not have occurred without human influence.

FAQ 1.1.gFAQ 12.3.jFAQ 12.2.kFAQ 12.1.lFAQ 11.3.mFAQ 11.2.nFAQ 11.1.oFAQ 10.2.pFAQ 10.1.qFAQ 9.3.rFAQ 9.2.sFAQ 9.1.tFAQ 8.3.uFAQ 8.2.vFAQ 8.1.wFAQ 7.3.xFAQ 7.2.yFAQ 7.1.zFAQ 6.2.aaFAQ 6.1.abFAQ 5.4.acFAQ 5.3.adFAQ 5.2.aeFAQ 5.1.afFAQ 4.3.agFAQ 4.2.ahFAQ 4.1.aiFAQ 3.3.ajFAQ 3.2.akFAQ 3.1.alFAQ 2.2.amFAQ 2.1.anFAQ 1.3.aoFAQ 1.2.apFAQ 1.1.aqFinally, physical theory predicts that human influence on the climate system should produce specific patterns of change, and we see those patterns in both observations and climate simulations. For example, nights are warming faster than days, less heat is escaping to space, and the lower atmosphere (troposphere) is warming but the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) has cooled. These confirmed predictions are all evidence of changes driven primarily by increases in GHG concentrations rather than natural causes.

FAQ 1.1.hFAQ 12.3.kFAQ 12.2.lFAQ 12.1.mFAQ 11.3.nFAQ 11.2.oFAQ 11.1.pFAQ 10.2.qFAQ 10.1.rFAQ 9.3.sFAQ 9.2.tFAQ 9.1.uFAQ 8.3.vFAQ 8.2.wFAQ 8.1.xFAQ 7.3.yFAQ 7.2.zFAQ 7.1.aaFAQ 6.2.abFAQ 6.1.acFAQ 5.4.adFAQ 5.3.aeFAQ 5.2.afFAQ 5.1.agFAQ 4.3.ahFAQ 4.2.aiFAQ 4.1.ajFAQ 3.3.akFAQ 3.2.alFAQ 3.1.amFAQ 2.2.anFAQ 2.1.aoFAQ 1.3.apFAQ 1.2.aqFAQ 1.1.arFAQ

FAQ 1.1.iFAQ 12.3.lFAQ 12.2.mFAQ 12.1.nFAQ 11.3.oFAQ 11.2.pFAQ 11.1.qFAQ 10.2.rFAQ 10.1.sFAQ 9.3.tFAQ 9.2.uFAQ 9.1.vFAQ 8.3.wFAQ 8.2.xFAQ 8.1.yFAQ 7.3.zFAQ 7.2.aaFAQ 7.1.abFAQ 6.2.acFAQ 6.1.adFAQ 5.4.aeFAQ 5.3.afFAQ 5.2.agFAQ 5.1.ahFAQ 4.3.aiFAQ 4.2.ajFAQ 4.1.akFAQ 3.3.alFAQ 3.2.amFAQ 3.1.anFAQ 2.2.aoFAQ 2.1.apFAQ 1.3.aqFAQ 1.2.arFAQ 1.1.asFAQ 1.1 (continued)

FAQ 1.1.aFAQ 1.1.jFAQ 12.3.mFAQ 12.2.nFAQ 12.1.oFAQ 11.3.pFAQ 11.2.qFAQ 11.1.rFAQ 10.2.sFAQ 10.1.tFAQ 9.3.uFAQ 9.2.vFAQ 9.1.wFAQ 8.3.xFAQ 8.2.yFAQ 8.1.zFAQ 7.3.aaFAQ 7.2.abFAQ 7.1.acFAQ 6.2.adFAQ 6.1.aeFAQ 5.4.afFAQ 5.3.agFAQ 5.2.ahFAQ 5.1.aiFAQ 4.3.ajFAQ 4.2.akFAQ 4.1.alFAQ 3.3.amFAQ 3.2.anFAQ 3.1.aoFAQ 2.2.apFAQ 2.1.aqFAQ 1.3.arFAQ 1.2.asFAQ 1.1.at?

FAQ 1.1.bFAQ 1.1.kFAQ 12.3.nFAQ 12.2.oFAQ 12.1.pFAQ 11.3.qFAQ 11.2.rFAQ 11.1.sFAQ 10.2.tFAQ 10.1.uFAQ 9.3.vFAQ 9.2.wFAQ 9.1.xFAQ 8.3.yFAQ 8.2.zFAQ 8.1.aaFAQ 7.3.abFAQ 7.2.acFAQ 7.1.adFAQ 6.2.aeFAQ 6.1.afFAQ 5.4.agFAQ 5.3.ahFAQ 5.2.aiFAQ 5.1.ajFAQ 4.3.akFAQ 4.2.alFAQ 4.1.amFAQ 3.3.anFAQ 3.2.aoFAQ 3.1.apFAQ 2.2.aqFAQ 2.1.arFAQ 1.3.asFAQ 1.2.atFAQ 1.1.auYes. Between 1990 and 2021, observations, models and climate understanding improved, while the dominant role of human influence in global warming was confirmed.

FAQ 1.1.cFAQ 1.1.lFAQ 12.3.oFAQ 12.2.pFAQ 12.1.qFAQ 11.3.rFAQ 11.2.sFAQ 11.1.tFAQ 10.2.uFAQ 10.1.vFAQ 9.3.wFAQ 9.2.xFAQ 9.1.yFAQ 8.3.zFAQ 8.2.aaFAQ 8.1.abFAQ 7.3.acFAQ 7.2.adFAQ 7.1.aeFAQ 6.2.afFAQ 6.1.agFAQ 5.4.ahFAQ 5.3.aiFAQ 5.2.ajFAQ 5.1.akFAQ 4.3.alFAQ 4.2.amFAQ 4.1.anFAQ 3.3.aoFAQ 3.2.apFAQ 3.1.aqFAQ 2.2.arFAQ 2.1.asFAQ 1.3.atFAQ 1.2.auFAQ 1.1.avUnderstanding

FAQ 1.1.dFAQ 1.1.mFAQ 12.3.pFAQ 12.2.qFAQ 12.1.rFAQ 11.3.sFAQ 11.2.tFAQ 11.1.uFAQ 10.2.vFAQ 10.1.wFAQ 9.3.xFAQ 9.2.yFAQ 9.1.zFAQ 8.3.aaFAQ 8.2.abFAQ 8.1.acFAQ 7.3.adFAQ 7.2.aeFAQ 7.1.afFAQ 6.2.agFAQ 6.1.ahFAQ 5.4.aiFAQ 5.3.ajFAQ 5.2.akFAQ 5.1.alFAQ 4.3.amFAQ 4.2.anFAQ 4.1.aoFAQ 3.3.apFAQ 3.2.aqFAQ 3.1.arFAQ 2.2.asFAQ 2.1.atFAQ 1.3.auFAQ 1.2.avFAQ 1.1.awObservations

FAQ 1.1.eFAQ 1.1.nFAQ 12.3.qFAQ 12.2.rFAQ 12.1.sFAQ 11.3.tFAQ 11.2.uFAQ 11.1.vFAQ 10.2.wFAQ 10.1.xFAQ 9.3.yFAQ 9.2.zFAQ 9.1.aaFAQ 8.3.abFAQ 8.2.acFAQ 8.1.adFAQ 7.3.aeFAQ 7.2.afFAQ 7.1.agFAQ 6.2.ahFAQ 6.1.aiFAQ 5.4.ajFAQ 5.3.akFAQ 5.2.alFAQ 5.1.amFAQ 4.3.anFAQ 4.2.aoFAQ 4.1.apFAQ 3.3.aqFAQ 3.2.arFAQ 3.1.asFAQ 2.2.atFAQ 2.1.auFAQ 1.3.avFAQ 1.2.awFAQ 1.1.axClimate modelsGlobalGlobalRegional

FAQ 1.1.fFAQ 1.1.oFAQ 12.3.rFAQ 12.2.sFAQ 12.1.tFAQ 11.3.uFAQ 11.2.vFAQ 11.1.wFAQ 10.2.xFAQ 10.1.yFAQ 9.3.zFAQ 9.2.aaFAQ 9.1.abFAQ 8.3.acFAQ 8.2.adFAQ 8.1.aeFAQ 7.3.afFAQ 7.2.agFAQ 7.1.ahFAQ 6.2.aiFAQ 6.1.ajFAQ 5.4.akFAQ 5.3.alFAQ 5.2.amFAQ 5.1.anFAQ 4.3.aoFAQ 4.2.apFAQ 4.1.aqFAQ 3.3.arFAQ 3.2.asFAQ 3.1.atFAQ 2.2.auFAQ 2.1.avFAQ 1.3.awFAQ 1.2.axFAQ 1.1.ay1990IPCCFirst Assessment

FAQ 1.1.gFAQ 1.1.pFAQ 12.3.sFAQ 12.2.tFAQ 12.1.uFAQ 11.3.vFAQ 11.2.wFAQ 11.1.xFAQ 10.2.yFAQ 10.1.zFAQ 9.3.aaFAQ 9.2.abFAQ 9.1.acFAQ 8.3.adFAQ 8.2.aeFAQ 8.1.afFAQ 7.3.agFAQ 7.2.ahFAQ 7.1.aiFAQ 6.2.ajFAQ 6.1.akFAQ 5.4.alFAQ 5.3.amFAQ 5.2.anFAQ 5.1.aoFAQ 4.3.apFAQ 4.2.aqFAQ 4.1.arFAQ 3.3.asFAQ 3.2.atFAQ 3.1.auFAQ 2.2.avFAQ 2.1.awFAQ 1.3.axFAQ 1.2.ayFAQ 1.1.az2021IPCC Sixth Assessment

FAQ 1.1.hFAQ 1.1.qFAQ 12.3.tFAQ 12.2.uFAQ 12.1.vFAQ 11.3.wFAQ 11.2.xFAQ 11.1.yFAQ 10.2.zFAQ 10.1.aaFAQ 9.3.abFAQ 9.2.acFAQ 9.1.adFAQ 8.3.aeFAQ 8.2.afFAQ 8.1.agFAQ 7.3.ahFAQ 7.2.aiFAQ 7.1.ajFAQ 6.2.akFAQ 6.1.alFAQ 5.4.amFAQ 5.3.anFAQ 5.2.aoFAQ 5.1.apFAQ 4.3.aqFAQ 4.2.arFAQ 4.1.asFAQ 3.3.atFAQ 3.2.auFAQ 3.1.avFAQ 2.2.awFAQ 2.1.axFAQ 1.3.ayFAQ 1.2.azFAQ 1.1.baHuman influence on climate

FAQ 1.1.iFAQ 1.1.rFAQ 12.3.uFAQ 12.2.vFAQ 12.1.wFAQ 11.3.xFAQ 11.2.yFAQ 11.1.zFAQ 10.2.aaFAQ 10.1.abFAQ 9.3.acFAQ 9.2.adFAQ 9.1.aeFAQ 8.3.afFAQ 8.2.agFAQ 8.1.ahFAQ 7.3.aiFAQ 7.2.ajFAQ 7.1.akFAQ 6.2.alFAQ 6.1.amFAQ 5.4.anFAQ 5.3.aoFAQ 5.2.apFAQ 5.1.aqFAQ 4.3.arFAQ 4.2.asFAQ 4.1.atFAQ 3.3.auFAQ 3.2.avFAQ 3.1.awFAQ 2.2.axFAQ 2.1.ayFAQ 1.3.azFAQ 1.2.baFAQ 1.1.bbGlobal warming since late 1800s

FAQ 1.1.jFAQ 1.1.sFAQ 12.3.vFAQ 12.2.wFAQ 12.1.xFAQ 11.3.yFAQ 11.2.zFAQ 11.1.aaFAQ 10.2.abFAQ 10.1.acFAQ 9.3.adFAQ 9.2.aeFAQ 9.1.afFAQ 8.3.agFAQ 8.2.ahFAQ 8.1.aiFAQ 7.3.ajFAQ 7.2.akFAQ 7.1.alFAQ 6.2.amFAQ 6.1.anFAQ 5.4.aoFAQ 5.3.apFAQ 5.2.aqFAQ 5.1.arFAQ 4.3.asFAQ 4.2.atFAQ 4.1.auFAQ 3.3.avFAQ 3.2.awFAQ 3.1.axFAQ 2.2.ayFAQ 2.1.azFAQ 1.3.baFAQ 1.2.bbFAQ 1.1.bcLand surface temperature

FAQ 1.1.kFAQ 1.1.tFAQ 12.3.wFAQ 12.2.xFAQ 12.1.yFAQ 11.3.zFAQ 11.2.aaFAQ 11.1.abFAQ 10.2.acFAQ 10.1.adFAQ 9.3.aeFAQ 9.2.afFAQ 9.1.agFAQ 8.3.ahFAQ 8.2.aiFAQ 8.1.ajFAQ 7.3.akFAQ 7.2.alFAQ 7.1.amFAQ 6.2.anFAQ 6.1.aoFAQ 5.4.apFAQ 5.3.aqFAQ 5.2.arFAQ 5.1.asFAQ 4.3.atFAQ 4.2.auFAQ 4.1.avFAQ 3.3.awFAQ 3.2.axFAQ 3.1.ayFAQ 2.2.azFAQ 2.1.baFAQ 1.3.bbFAQ 1.2.bcFAQ 1.1.bdGeological records

FAQ 1.1.lFAQ 1.1.uFAQ 12.3.xFAQ 12.2.yFAQ 12.1.zFAQ 11.3.aaFAQ 11.2.abFAQ 11.1.acFAQ 10.2.adFAQ 10.1.aeFAQ 9.3.afFAQ 9.2.agFAQ 9.1.ahFAQ 8.3.aiFAQ 8.2.ajFAQ 8.1.akFAQ 7.3.alFAQ 7.2.amFAQ 7.1.anFAQ 6.2.aoFAQ 6.1.apFAQ 5.4.aqFAQ 5.3.arFAQ 5.2.asFAQ 5.1.atFAQ 4.3.auFAQ 4.2.avFAQ 4.1.awFAQ 3.3.axFAQ 3.2.ayFAQ 3.1.azFAQ 2.2.baFAQ 2.1.bbFAQ 1.3.bcFAQ 1.2.bdFAQ 1.1.beGlobal ocean heat content

FAQ 1.1.mFAQ 1.1.vFAQ 12.3.yFAQ 12.2.zFAQ 12.1.aaFAQ 11.3.abFAQ 11.2.acFAQ 11.1.adFAQ 10.2.aeFAQ 10.1.afFAQ 9.3.agFAQ 9.2.ahFAQ 9.1.aiFAQ 8.3.ajFAQ 8.2.akFAQ 8.1.alFAQ 7.3.amFAQ 7.2.anFAQ 7.1.aoFAQ 6.2.apFAQ 6.1.aqFAQ 5.4.arFAQ 5.3.asFAQ 5.2.atFAQ 5.1.auFAQ 4.3.avFAQ 4.2.awFAQ 4.1.axFAQ 3.3.ayFAQ 3.2.azFAQ 3.1.baFAQ 2.2.bbFAQ 2.1.bcFAQ 1.3.bdFAQ 1.2.beFAQ 1.1.bf0.3–0.6°C

FAQ 1.1.nFAQ 1.1.wFAQ 12.3.zFAQ 12.2.aaFAQ 12.1.abFAQ 11.3.acFAQ 11.2.adFAQ 11.1.aeFAQ 10.2.afFAQ 10.1.agFAQ 9.3.ahFAQ 9.2.aiFAQ 9.1.ajFAQ 8.3.akFAQ 8.2.alFAQ 8.1.amFAQ 7.3.anFAQ 7.2.aoFAQ 7.1.apFAQ 6.2.aqFAQ 6.1.arFAQ 5.4.asFAQ 5.3.atFAQ 5.2.auFAQ 5.1.avFAQ 4.3.awFAQ 4.2.axFAQ 4.1.ayFAQ 3.3.azFAQ 3.2.baFAQ 3.1.bbFAQ 2.2.bcFAQ 2.1.bdFAQ 1.3.beFAQ 1.2.bfFAQ 1.1.bgEnergy budgetOpen (inconsistent estimates)

FAQ 1.1.oFAQ 1.1.xFAQ 12.3.aaFAQ 12.2.abFAQ 12.1.acFAQ 11.3.adFAQ 11.2.aeFAQ 11.1.afFAQ 10.2.agFAQ 10.1.ahFAQ 9.3.aiFAQ 9.2.ajFAQ 9.1.akFAQ 8.3.alFAQ 8.2.amFAQ 8.1.anFAQ 7.3.aoFAQ 7.2.apFAQ 7.1.aqFAQ 6.2.arFAQ 6.1.asFAQ 5.4.atFAQ 5.3.auFAQ 5.2.avFAQ 5.1.awFAQ 4.3.axFAQ 4.2.ayFAQ 4.1.azFAQ 3.3.baFAQ 3.2.bbFAQ 3.1.bcFAQ 2.2.bdFAQ 2.1.beFAQ 1.3.bfFAQ 1.2.bgFAQ 1.1.bh5 million years (temperature)

FAQ 1.1.pFAQ 1.1.yFAQ 12.3.abFAQ 12.2.acFAQ 12.1.adFAQ 11.3.aeFAQ 11.2.afFAQ 11.1.agFAQ 10.2.ahFAQ 10.1.aiFAQ 9.3.ajFAQ 9.2.akFAQ 9.1.alFAQ 8.3.amFAQ 8.2.anFAQ 8.1.aoFAQ 7.3.apFAQ 7.2.aqFAQ 7.1.arFAQ 6.2.asFAQ 6.1.atFAQ 5.4.auFAQ 5.3.avFAQ 5.2.awFAQ 5.1.axFAQ 4.3.ayFAQ 4.2.azFAQ 4.1.baFAQ 3.3.bbFAQ 3.2.bcFAQ 3.1.bdFAQ 2.2.beFAQ 2.1.bfFAQ 1.3.bgFAQ 1.2.bhFAQ 1.1.bi5 million years (sea level)

FAQ 1.1.qFAQ 1.1.zFAQ 12.3.acFAQ 12.2.adFAQ 12.1.aeFAQ 11.3.afFAQ 11.2.agFAQ 11.1.ahFAQ 10.2.aiFAQ 10.1.ajFAQ 9.3.akFAQ 9.2.alFAQ 9.1.amFAQ 8.3.anFAQ 8.2.aoFAQ 8.1.apFAQ 7.3.aqFAQ 7.2.arFAQ 7.1.asFAQ 6.2.atFAQ 6.1.auFAQ 5.4.avFAQ 5.3.awFAQ 5.2.axFAQ 5.1.ayFAQ 4.3.azFAQ 4.2.baFAQ 4.1.bbFAQ 3.3.bcFAQ 3.2.bdFAQ 3.1.beFAQ 2.2.bfFAQ 2.1.bgFAQ 1.3.bhFAQ 1.2.biFAQ 1.1.bj160,000 years (CO2)

FAQ 1.1.rFAQ 1.1.aaFAQ 12.3.adFAQ 12.2.aeFAQ 12.1.afFAQ 11.3.agFAQ 11.2.ahFAQ 11.1.aiFAQ 10.2.ajFAQ 10.1.akFAQ 9.3.alFAQ 9.2.amFAQ 9.1.anFAQ 8.3.aoFAQ 8.2.apFAQ 8.1.aqFAQ 7.3.arFAQ 7.2.asFAQ 7.1.atFAQ 6.2.auFAQ 6.1.avFAQ 5.4.awFAQ 5.3.axFAQ 5.2.ayFAQ 5.1.azFAQ 4.3.baFAQ 4.2.bbFAQ 4.1.bcFAQ 3.3.bdFAQ 3.2.beFAQ 3.1.bfFAQ 2.2.bgFAQ 2.1.bhFAQ 1.3.biFAQ 1.2.bjFAQ 1.1.bk1955–1981 (two regions)

FAQ 1.1.sFAQ 1.1.abFAQ 12.3.aeFAQ 12.2.afFAQ 12.1.agFAQ 11.3.ahFAQ 11.2.aiFAQ 11.1.ajFAQ 10.2.akFAQ 10.1.alFAQ 9.3.amFAQ 9.2.anFAQ 9.1.aoFAQ 8.3.apFAQ 8.2.aqFAQ 8.1.arFAQ 7.3.asFAQ 7.2.atFAQ 7.1.auFAQ 6.2.avFAQ 6.1.awFAQ 5.4.axFAQ 5.3.ayFAQ 5.2.azFAQ 5.1.baFAQ 4.3.bbFAQ 4.2.bcFAQ 4.1.bdFAQ 3.3.beFAQ 3.2.bfFAQ 3.1.bgFAQ 2.2.bhFAQ 2.1.biFAQ 1.3.bjFAQ 1.2.bkFAQ 1.1.blEstablished fact

FAQ 1.1.tFAQ 1.1.acFAQ 12.3.afFAQ 12.2.agFAQ 12.1.ahFAQ 11.3.aiFAQ 11.2.ajFAQ 11.1.akFAQ 10.2.alFAQ 10.1.amFAQ 9.3.anFAQ 9.2.aoFAQ 9.1.apFAQ 8.3.aqFAQ 8.2.arFAQ 8.1.asFAQ 7.3.atFAQ 7.2.auFAQ 7.1.avFAQ 6.2.awFAQ 6.1.axFAQ 5.4.ayFAQ 5.3.azFAQ 5.2.baFAQ 5.1.bbFAQ 4.3.bcFAQ 4.2.bdFAQ 4.1.beFAQ 3.3.bfFAQ 3.2.bgFAQ 3.1.bhFAQ 2.2.biFAQ 2.1.bjFAQ 1.3.bkFAQ 1.2.blFAQ 1.1.bm0.95–1.20°C

FAQ 1.1.uFAQ 1.1.adFAQ 12.3.agFAQ 12.2.ahFAQ 12.1.aiFAQ 11.3.ajFAQ 11.2.akFAQ 11.1.alFAQ 10.2.amFAQ 10.1.anFAQ 9.3.aoFAQ 9.2.apFAQ 9.1.aqFAQ 8.3.arFAQ 8.2.asFAQ 8.1.atFAQ 7.3.auFAQ 7.2.avFAQ 7.1.awFAQ 6.2.axFAQ 6.1.ayFAQ 5.4.azFAQ 5.3.baFAQ 5.2.bbFAQ 5.1.bcFAQ 4.3.bdFAQ 4.2.beFAQ 4.1.bfFAQ 3.3.bgFAQ 3.2.bhFAQ 3.1.biFAQ 2.2.bjFAQ 2.1.bkFAQ 1.3.blFAQ 1.2.bmFAQ 1.1.bnUp to 40,000 stations (1750–2020)

FAQ 1.1.vFAQ 1.1.aeFAQ 12.3.ahFAQ 12.2.aiFAQ 12.1.ajFAQ 11.3.akFAQ 11.2.alFAQ 11.1.amFAQ 10.2.anFAQ 10.1.aoFAQ 9.3.apFAQ 9.2.aqFAQ 9.1.arFAQ 8.3.asFAQ 8.2.atFAQ 8.1.auFAQ 7.3.avFAQ 7.2.awFAQ 7.1.axFAQ 6.2.ayFAQ 6.1.azFAQ 5.4.baFAQ 5.3.bbFAQ 5.2.bcFAQ 5.1.bdFAQ 4.3.beFAQ 4.2.bfFAQ 4.1.bgFAQ 3.3.bhFAQ 3.2.biFAQ 3.1.bjFAQ 2.2.bkFAQ 2.1.blFAQ 1.3.bmFAQ 1.2.bnFAQ 1.1.boClosed (inputs = outputs + retained energy)

FAQ 1.1.wFAQ 1.1.afFAQ 12.3.aiFAQ 12.2.ajFAQ 12.1.akFAQ 11.3.alFAQ 11.2.amFAQ 11.1.anFAQ 10.2.aoFAQ 10.1.apFAQ 9.3.aqFAQ 9.2.arFAQ 9.1.asFAQ 8.3.atFAQ 8.2.auFAQ 8.1.avFAQ 7.3.awFAQ 7.2.axFAQ 7.1.ayFAQ 6.2.azFAQ 6.1.baFAQ 5.4.bbFAQ 5.3.bcFAQ 5.2.bdFAQ 5.1.beFAQ 4.3.bfFAQ 4.2.bgFAQ 4.1.bhFAQ 3.3.biFAQ 3.2.bjFAQ 3.1.bkFAQ 2.2.blFAQ 2.1.bmFAQ 1.3.bnFAQ 1.2.boFAQ 1.1.bpSea level budgetOpen (inconsistent estimates) Closed (sum of contributions = observed sea level rise)

FAQ 1.1.xFAQ 1.1.agFAQ 12.3.ajFAQ 12.2.akFAQ 12.1.alFAQ 11.3.amFAQ 11.2.anFAQ 11.1.aoFAQ 10.2.apFAQ 10.1.aqFAQ 9.3.arFAQ 9.2.asFAQ 9.1.atFAQ 8.3.auFAQ 8.2.avFAQ 8.1.awFAQ 7.3.axFAQ 7.2.ayFAQ 7.1.azFAQ 6.2.baFAQ 6.1.bbFAQ 5.4.bcFAQ 5.3.bdFAQ 5.2.beFAQ 5.1.bfFAQ 4.3.bgFAQ 4.2.bhFAQ 4.1.biFAQ 3.3.bjFAQ 3.2.bkFAQ 3.1.blFAQ 2.2.bmFAQ 2.1.bnFAQ 1.3.boFAQ 1.2.bpFAQ 1.1.bq65 million years (temperature)

FAQ 1.1.yFAQ 1.1.ahFAQ 12.3.akFAQ 12.2.alFAQ 12.1.amFAQ 11.3.anFAQ 11.2.aoFAQ 11.1.apFAQ 10.2.aqFAQ 10.1.arFAQ 9.3.asFAQ 9.2.atFAQ 9.1.auFAQ 8.3.avFAQ 8.2.awFAQ 8.1.axFAQ 7.3.ayFAQ 7.2.azFAQ 7.1.baFAQ 6.2.bbFAQ 6.1.bcFAQ 5.4.bdFAQ 5.3.beFAQ 5.2.bfFAQ 5.1.bgFAQ 4.3.bhFAQ 4.2.biFAQ 4.1.bjFAQ 3.3.bkFAQ 3.2.blFAQ 3.1.bmFAQ 2.2.bnFAQ 2.1.boFAQ 1.3.bpFAQ 1.2.bqFAQ 1.1.br50 million years (sea level)

FAQ 1.1.zFAQ 1.1.aiFAQ 12.3.alFAQ 12.2.amFAQ 12.1.anFAQ 11.3.aoFAQ 11.2.apFAQ 11.1.aqFAQ 10.2.arFAQ 10.1.asFAQ 9.3.atFAQ 9.2.auFAQ 9.1.avFAQ 8.3.awFAQ 8.2.axFAQ 8.1.ayFAQ 7.3.azFAQ 7.2.baFAQ 7.1.bbFAQ 6.2.bcFAQ 6.1.bdFAQ 5.4.beFAQ 5.3.bfFAQ 5.2.bgFAQ 5.1.bhFAQ 4.3.biFAQ 4.2.bjFAQ 4.1.bkFAQ 3.3.blFAQ 3.2.bmFAQ 3.1.bnFAQ 2.2.boFAQ 2.1.bpFAQ 1.3.bqFAQ 1.2.brFAQ 1.1.bs450 milion years (CO2)

FAQ 1.1.aaFAQ 1.1.ajFAQ 12.3.amFAQ 12.2.anFAQ 12.1.aoFAQ 11.3.apFAQ 11.2.aqFAQ 11.1.arFAQ 10.2.asFAQ 10.1.atFAQ 9.3.auFAQ 9.2.avFAQ 9.1.awFAQ 8.3.axFAQ 8.2.ayFAQ 8.1.azFAQ 7.3.baFAQ 7.2.bbFAQ 7.1.bcFAQ 6.2.bdFAQ 6.1.beFAQ 5.4.bfFAQ 5.3.bgFAQ 5.2.bhFAQ 5.1.biFAQ 4.3.bjFAQ 4.2.bkFAQ 4.1.blFAQ 3.3.bmFAQ 3.2.bnFAQ 3.1.boFAQ 2.2.bpFAQ 2.1.bqFAQ 1.3.brFAQ 1.2.bsFAQ 1.1.bt1871–2018 (global)

FAQ 1.1.abFAQ 1.1.akFAQ 12.3.anFAQ 12.2.aoFAQ 12.1.apFAQ 11.3.aqFAQ 11.2.arFAQ 11.1.asFAQ 10.2.atFAQ 10.1.auFAQ 9.3.avFAQ 9.2.awFAQ 9.1.axFAQ 8.3.ayFAQ 8.2.azFAQ 8.1.baFAQ 7.3.bbFAQ 7.2.bcFAQ 7.1.bdFAQ 6.2.beFAQ 6.1.bfFAQ 5.4.bgFAQ 5.3.bhFAQ 5.2.biFAQ 5.1.bjFAQ 4.3.bkFAQ 4.2.blFAQ 4.1.bmFAQ 3.3.bnFAQ 3.2.boFAQ 3.1.bpFAQ 2.2.bqFAQ 2.1.brFAQ 1.3.bsFAQ 1.2.btFAQ 1.1.buSatellite remote sensingTemperature, snow cover, Earth radiation budget Temperature, cryosphere, Earth radiation budget, CO2, sea level, clouds, aerosols, land cover, many others

FAQ 1.1.acFAQ 1.1.alFAQ 12.3.aoFAQ 12.2.apFAQ 12.1.aqFAQ 11.3.arFAQ 11.2.asFAQ 11.1.atFAQ 10.2.auFAQ 10.1.avFAQ 9.3.awFAQ 9.2.axFAQ 9.1.ayFAQ 8.3.azFAQ 8.2.baFAQ 8.1.bbFAQ 7.3.bcFAQ 7.2.bdFAQ 7.1.beFAQ 6.2.bfFAQ 6.1.bgFAQ 5.4.bhFAQ 5.3.biFAQ 5.2.bjFAQ 5.1.bkFAQ 4.3.blFAQ 4.2.bmFAQ 4.1.bnFAQ 3.3.boFAQ 3.2.bpFAQ 3.1.bqFAQ 2.2.brFAQ 2.1.bsFAQ 1.3.btFAQ 1.2.buFAQ 1.1.bvState of the art

FAQ 1.1.adFAQ 1.1.amFAQ 12.3.apFAQ 12.2.aqFAQ 12.1.arFAQ 11.3.asFAQ 11.2.atFAQ 11.1.auFAQ 10.2.avFAQ 10.1.awFAQ 9.3.axFAQ 9.2.ayFAQ 9.1.azFAQ 8.3.baFAQ 8.2.bbFAQ 8.1.bcFAQ 7.3.bdFAQ 7.2.beFAQ 7.1.bfFAQ 6.2.bgFAQ 6.1.bhFAQ 5.4.biFAQ 5.3.bjFAQ 5.2.bkFAQ 5.1.blFAQ 4.3.bmFAQ 4.2.bnFAQ 4.1.boFAQ 3.3.bpFAQ 3.2.bqFAQ 3.1.brFAQ 2.2.bsFAQ 2.1.btFAQ 1.3.buFAQ 1.2.bvFAQ 1.1.bwTypical model resolution

FAQ 1.1.aeFAQ 1.1.anFAQ 12.3.aqFAQ 12.2.arFAQ 12.1.asFAQ 11.3.atFAQ 11.2.auFAQ 11.1.avFAQ 10.2.awFAQ 10.1.axFAQ 9.3.ayFAQ 9.2.azFAQ 9.1.baFAQ 8.3.bbFAQ 8.2.bcFAQ 8.1.bdFAQ 7.3.beFAQ 7.2.bfFAQ 7.1.bgFAQ 6.2.bhFAQ 6.1.biFAQ 5.4.bjFAQ 5.3.bkFAQ 5.2.blFAQ 5.1.bmFAQ 4.3.bnFAQ 4.2.boFAQ 4.1.bpFAQ 3.3.bqFAQ 3.2.brFAQ 3.1.bsFAQ 2.2.btFAQ 2.1.buFAQ 1.3.bvFAQ 1.2.bwFAQ 1.1.bxMajor elements

FAQ 1.1.afFAQ 1.1.aoFAQ 12.3.arFAQ 12.2.asFAQ 12.1.atFAQ 11.3.auFAQ 11.2.avFAQ 11.1.awFAQ 10.2.axFAQ 10.1.ayFAQ 9.3.azFAQ 9.2.baFAQ 9.1.bbFAQ 8.3.bcFAQ 8.2.bdFAQ 8.1.beFAQ 7.3.bfFAQ 7.2.bgFAQ 7.1.bhFAQ 6.2.biFAQ 6.1.bjFAQ 5.4.bkFAQ 5.3.blFAQ 5.2.bmFAQ 5.1.bnFAQ 4.3.boFAQ 4.2.bpFAQ 4.1.bqFAQ 3.3.brFAQ 3.2.bsFAQ 3.1.btFAQ 2.2.buFAQ 2.1.bvFAQ 1.3.bwFAQ 1.2.bxFAQ 1.1.by500 km

FAQ 1.1.agFAQ 1.1.apFAQ 12.3.asFAQ 12.2.atFAQ 12.1.auFAQ 11.3.avFAQ 11.2.awFAQ 11.1.axFAQ 10.2.ayFAQ 10.1.azFAQ 9.3.baFAQ 9.2.bbFAQ 9.1.bcFAQ 8.3.bdFAQ 8.2.beFAQ 8.1.bfFAQ 7.3.bgFAQ 7.2.bhFAQ 7.1.biFAQ 6.2.bjFAQ 6.1.bkFAQ 5.4.blFAQ 5.3.bmFAQ 5.2.bnFAQ 5.1.boFAQ 4.3.bpFAQ 4.2.bqFAQ 4.1.brFAQ 3.3.bsFAQ 3.2.btFAQ 3.1.buFAQ 2.2.bvFAQ 2.1.bwFAQ 1.3.bxFAQ 1.2.byFAQ 1.1.bzCirculating atmosphere and ocean

FAQ 1.1.ahFAQ 1.1.aqFAQ 12.3.atFAQ 12.2.auFAQ 12.1.avFAQ 11.3.awFAQ 11.2.axFAQ 11.1.ayFAQ 10.2.azFAQ 10.1.baFAQ 9.3.bbFAQ 9.2.bcFAQ 9.1.bdFAQ 8.3.beFAQ 8.2.bfFAQ 8.1.bgFAQ 7.3.bhFAQ 7.2.biFAQ 7.1.bjFAQ 6.2.bkFAQ 6.1.blFAQ 5.4.bmFAQ 5.3.bnFAQ 5.2.boFAQ 5.1.bpFAQ 4.3.bqFAQ 4.2.brFAQ 4.1.bsFAQ 3.3.btFAQ 3.2.buFAQ 3.1.bvFAQ 2.2.bwFAQ 2.1.bxFAQ 1.3.byFAQ 1.2.bzFAQ 1.1.ca100 km

FAQ 1.1.aiFAQ 1.1.arFAQ 12.3.auFAQ 12.2.avFAQ 12.1.awFAQ 11.3.axFAQ 11.2.ayFAQ 11.1.azFAQ 10.2.baFAQ 10.1.bbFAQ 9.3.bcFAQ 9.2.bdFAQ 9.1.beFAQ 8.3.bfFAQ 8.2.bgFAQ 8.1.bhFAQ 7.3.biFAQ 7.2.bjFAQ 7.1.bkFAQ 6.2.blFAQ 6.1.bmFAQ 5.4.bnFAQ 5.3.boFAQ 5.2.bpFAQ 5.1.bqFAQ 4.3.brFAQ 4.2.bsFAQ 4.1.btFAQ 3.3.buFAQ 3.2.bvFAQ 3.1.bwFAQ 2.2.bxFAQ 2.1.byFAQ 1.3.bzFAQ 1.2.caFAQ 1.1.cbCirculating atmosphere and ocean

FAQ 1.1.ajFAQ 1.1.asFAQ 12.3.avFAQ 12.2.awFAQ 12.1.axFAQ 11.3.ayFAQ 11.2.azFAQ 11.1.baFAQ 10.2.bbFAQ 10.1.bcFAQ 9.3.bdFAQ 9.2.beFAQ 9.1.bfFAQ 8.3.bgFAQ 8.2.bhFAQ 8.1.biFAQ 7.3.bjFAQ 7.2.bkFAQ 7.1.blFAQ 6.2.bmFAQ 6.1.bnFAQ 5.4.boFAQ 5.3.bpFAQ 5.2.bqFAQ 5.1.brFAQ 4.3.bsFAQ 4.2.btFAQ 4.1.buFAQ 3.3.bvFAQ 3.2.bwFAQ 3.1.bxFAQ 2.2.byFAQ 2.1.bzFAQ 1.3.caFAQ 1.2.cbFAQ 1.1.cc25–50 km

FAQ 1.1.akFAQ 1.1.atFAQ 12.3.awFAQ 12.2.axFAQ 12.1.ayFAQ 11.3.azFAQ 11.2.baFAQ 11.1.bbFAQ 10.2.bcFAQ 10.1.bdFAQ 9.3.beFAQ 9.2.bfFAQ 9.1.bgFAQ 8.3.bhFAQ 8.2.biFAQ 8.1.bjFAQ 7.3.bkFAQ 7.2.blFAQ 7.1.bmFAQ 6.2.bnFAQ 6.1.boFAQ 5.4.bpFAQ 5.3.bqFAQ 5.2.brFAQ 5.1.bsFAQ 4.3.btFAQ 4.2.buFAQ 4.1.bvFAQ 3.3.bwFAQ 3.2.bxFAQ 3.1.byFAQ 2.2.bzFAQ 2.1.caFAQ 1.3.cbFAQ 1.2.ccFAQ 1.1.cdRadiative transfer

FAQ 1.1.alFAQ 1.1.auFAQ 12.3.axFAQ 12.2.ayFAQ 12.1.azFAQ 11.3.baFAQ 11.2.bbFAQ 11.1.bcFAQ 10.2.bdFAQ 10.1.beFAQ 9.3.bfFAQ 9.2.bgFAQ 9.1.bhFAQ 8.3.biFAQ 8.2.bjFAQ 8.1.bkFAQ 7.3.blFAQ 7.2.bmFAQ 7.1.bnFAQ 6.2.boFAQ 6.1.bpFAQ 5.4.bqFAQ 5.3.brFAQ 5.2.bsFAQ 5.1.btFAQ 4.3.buFAQ 4.2.bvFAQ 4.1.bwFAQ 3.3.bxFAQ 3.2.byFAQ 3.1.bzFAQ 2.2.caFAQ 2.1.cbFAQ 1.3.ccFAQ 1.2.cdFAQ 1.1.ceLand physics

FAQ 1.1.amFAQ 1.1.avFAQ 12.3.ayFAQ 12.2.azFAQ 12.1.baFAQ 11.3.bbFAQ 11.2.bcFAQ 11.1.bdFAQ 10.2.beFAQ 10.1.bfFAQ 9.3.bgFAQ 9.2.bhFAQ 9.1.biFAQ 8.3.bjFAQ 8.2.bkFAQ 8.1.blFAQ 7.3.bmFAQ 7.2.bnFAQ 7.1.boFAQ 6.2.bpFAQ 6.1.bqFAQ 5.4.brFAQ 5.3.bsFAQ 5.2.btFAQ 5.1.buFAQ 4.3.bvFAQ 4.2.bwFAQ 4.1.bxFAQ 3.3.byFAQ 3.2.bzFAQ 3.1.caFAQ 2.2.cbFAQ 2.1.ccFAQ 1.3.cdFAQ 1.2.ceFAQ 1.1.cfSea ice

FAQ 1.1.anFAQ 1.1.awFAQ 12.3.azFAQ 12.2.baFAQ 12.1.bbFAQ 11.3.bcFAQ 11.2.bdFAQ 11.1.beFAQ 10.2.bfFAQ 10.1.bgFAQ 9.3.bhFAQ 9.2.biFAQ 9.1.bjFAQ 8.3.bkFAQ 8.2.blFAQ 8.1.bmFAQ 7.3.bnFAQ 7.2.boFAQ 7.1.bpFAQ 6.2.bqFAQ 6.1.brFAQ 5.4.bsFAQ 5.3.btFAQ 5.2.buFAQ 5.1.bvFAQ 4.3.bwFAQ 4.2.bxFAQ 4.1.byFAQ 3.3.bzFAQ 3.2.caFAQ 3.1.cbFAQ 2.2.ccFAQ 2.1.cdFAQ 1.3.ceFAQ 1.2.cfFAQ 1.1.cgRadiative transfer

FAQ 1.1.aoFAQ 1.1.axFAQ 12.3.baFAQ 12.2.bbFAQ 12.1.bcFAQ 11.3.bdFAQ 11.2.beFAQ 11.1.bfFAQ 10.2.bgFAQ 10.1.bhFAQ 9.3.biFAQ 9.2.bjFAQ 9.1.bkFAQ 8.3.blFAQ 8.2.bmFAQ 8.1.bnFAQ 7.3.boFAQ 7.2.bpFAQ 7.1.bqFAQ 6.2.brFAQ 6.1.bsFAQ 5.4.btFAQ 5.3.buFAQ 5.2.bvFAQ 5.1.bwFAQ 4.3.bxFAQ 4.2.byFAQ 4.1.bzFAQ 3.3.caFAQ 3.2.cbFAQ 3.1.ccFAQ 2.2.cdFAQ 2.1.ceFAQ 1.3.cfFAQ 1.2.cgFAQ 1.1.chLand physics

FAQ 1.1.apFAQ 1.1.ayFAQ 12.3.bbFAQ 12.2.bcFAQ 12.1.bdFAQ 11.3.beFAQ 11.2.bfFAQ 11.1.bgFAQ 10.2.bhFAQ 10.1.biFAQ 9.3.bjFAQ 9.2.bkFAQ 9.1.blFAQ 8.3.bmFAQ 8.2.bnFAQ 8.1.boFAQ 7.3.bpFAQ 7.2.bqFAQ 7.1.brFAQ 6.2.bsFAQ 6.1.btFAQ 5.4.buFAQ 5.3.bvFAQ 5.2.bwFAQ 5.1.bxFAQ 4.3.byFAQ 4.2.bzFAQ 4.1.caFAQ 3.3.cbFAQ 3.2.ccFAQ 3.1.cdFAQ 2.2.ceFAQ 2.1.cfFAQ 1.3.cgFAQ 1.2.chFAQ 1.1.ciSea ice

FAQ 1.1.aqFAQ 1.1.azFAQ 12.3.bcFAQ 12.2.bdFAQ 12.1.beFAQ 11.3.bfFAQ 11.2.bgFAQ 11.1.bhFAQ 10.2.biFAQ 10.1.bjFAQ 9.3.bkFAQ 9.2.blFAQ 9.1.bmFAQ 8.3.bnFAQ 8.2.boFAQ 8.1.bpFAQ 7.3.bqFAQ 7.2.brFAQ 7.1.bsFAQ 6.2.btFAQ 6.1.buFAQ 5.4.bvFAQ 5.3.bwFAQ 5.2.bxFAQ 5.1.byFAQ 4.3.bzFAQ 4.2.caFAQ 4.1.cbFAQ 3.3.ccFAQ 3.2.cdFAQ 3.1.ceFAQ 2.2.cfFAQ 2.1.cgFAQ 1.3.chFAQ 1.2.ciFAQ 1.1.cjAtmospheric chemistry

FAQ 1.1.arFAQ 1.1.baFAQ 12.3.bdFAQ 12.2.beFAQ 12.1.bfFAQ 11.3.bgFAQ 11.2.bhFAQ 11.1.biFAQ 10.2.bjFAQ 10.1.bkFAQ 9.3.blFAQ 9.2.bmFAQ 9.1.bnFAQ 8.3.boFAQ 8.2.bpFAQ 8.1.bqFAQ 7.3.brFAQ 7.2.bsFAQ 7.1.btFAQ 6.2.buFAQ 6.1.bvFAQ 5.4.bwFAQ 5.3.bxFAQ 5.2.byFAQ 5.1.bzFAQ 4.3.caFAQ 4.2.cbFAQ 4.1.ccFAQ 3.3.cdFAQ 3.2.ceFAQ 3.1.cfFAQ 2.2.cgFAQ 2.1.chFAQ 1.3.ciFAQ 1.2.cjFAQ 1.1.ckLand use/cover

FAQ 1.1.asFAQ 1.1.bbFAQ 12.3.beFAQ 12.2.bfFAQ 12.1.bgFAQ 11.3.bhFAQ 11.2.biFAQ 11.1.bjFAQ 10.2.bkFAQ 10.1.blFAQ 9.3.bmFAQ 9.2.bnFAQ 9.1.boFAQ 8.3.bpFAQ 8.2.bqFAQ 8.1.brFAQ 7.3.bsFAQ 7.2.btFAQ 7.1.buFAQ 6.2.bvFAQ 6.1.bwFAQ 5.4.bxFAQ 5.3.byFAQ 5.2.bzFAQ 5.1.caFAQ 4.3.cbFAQ 4.2.ccFAQ 4.1.cdFAQ 3.3.ceFAQ 3.2.cfFAQ 3.1.cgFAQ 2.2.chFAQ 2.1.ciFAQ 1.3.cjFAQ 1.2.ckFAQ 1.1.clLand and ocean biogeochemistry

FAQ 1.1.atFAQ 1.1.bcFAQ 12.3.bfFAQ 12.2.bgFAQ 12.1.bhFAQ 11.3.biFAQ 11.2.bjFAQ 11.1.bkFAQ 10.2.blFAQ 10.1.bmFAQ 9.3.bnFAQ 9.2.boFAQ 9.1.bpFAQ 8.3.bqFAQ 8.2.brFAQ 8.1.bsFAQ 7.3.btFAQ 7.2.buFAQ 7.1.bvFAQ 6.2.bwFAQ 6.1.bxFAQ 5.4.byFAQ 5.3.bzFAQ 5.2.caFAQ 5.1.cbFAQ 4.3.ccFAQ 4.2.cdFAQ 4.1.ceFAQ 3.3.cfFAQ 3.2.cgFAQ 3.1.chFAQ 2.2.ciFAQ 2.1.cjFAQ 1.3.ckFAQ 1.2.clFAQ 1.1.cmAerosol and cloud interations

FAQ 1.1.auFAQ 1.1.bdFAQ 12.3.bgFAQ 12.2.bhFAQ 12.1.biFAQ 11.3.bjFAQ 11.2.bkFAQ 11.1.blFAQ 10.2.bmFAQ 10.1.bnFAQ 9.3.boFAQ 9.2.bpFAQ 9.1.bqFAQ 8.3.brFAQ 8.2.bsFAQ 8.1.btFAQ 7.3.buFAQ 7.2.bvFAQ 7.1.bwFAQ 6.2.bxFAQ 6.1.byFAQ 5.4.bzFAQ 5.3.caFAQ 5.2.cbFAQ 5.1.ccFAQ 4.3.cdFAQ 4.2.ceFAQ 4.1.cfFAQ 3.3.cgFAQ 3.2.chFAQ 3.1.ciFAQ 2.2.cjFAQ 2.1.ckFAQ 1.3.clFAQ 1.2.cmFAQ 1.1.cnGeneral circulation modelsEarth system modelsHigh-resolution models

FAQ 1.1.avFAQ 1.1.beFAQ 12.3.bhFAQ 12.2.biFAQ 12.1.bjFAQ 11.3.bkFAQ 11.2.blFAQ 11.1.bmFAQ 10.2.bnFAQ 10.1.boFAQ 9.3.bpFAQ 9.2.bqFAQ 9.1.brFAQ 8.3.bsFAQ 8.2.btFAQ 8.1.buFAQ 7.3.bvFAQ 7.2.bwFAQ 7.1.bxFAQ 6.2.byFAQ 6.1.bzFAQ 5.4.caFAQ 5.3.cbFAQ 5.2.ccFAQ 5.1.cdFAQ 4.3.ceFAQ 4.2.cfFAQ 4.1.cgFAQ 3.3.chFAQ 3.2.ciFAQ 3.1.cjFAQ 2.2.ckFAQ 2.1.clFAQ 1.3.cmFAQ 1.2.cnFAQ 1.1.co1887 stations (1861–1990)

FAQ 1.1.awFAQ 1.1.bfFAQ 12.3.biFAQ 12.2.bjFAQ 12.1.bkFAQ 11.3.blFAQ 11.2.bmFAQ 11.1.bnFAQ 10.2.boFAQ 10.1.bpFAQ 9.3.bqFAQ 9.2.brFAQ 9.1.bsFAQ 8.3.btFAQ 8.2.buFAQ 8.1.bvFAQ 7.3.bwFAQ 7.2.bxFAQ 7.1.byFAQ 6.2.bzFAQ 6.1.caFAQ 5.4.cbFAQ 5.3.ccFAQ 5.2.cdFAQ 5.1.ceFAQ 4.3.cfFAQ 4.2.cgFAQ 4.1.chFAQ 3.3.ciFAQ 3.2.cjFAQ 3.1.ckFAQ 2.2.clFAQ 2.1.cmFAQ 1.3.cnFAQ 1.2.coFAQ 1.1.cpSuspected

FAQ 1.1.axFAQ 1.1.bgFAQ 12.3.bjFAQ 12.2.bkFAQ 12.1.blFAQ 11.3.bmFAQ 11.2.bnFAQ 11.1.boFAQ 10.2.bpFAQ 10.1.bqFAQ 9.3.brFAQ 9.2.bsFAQ 9.1.btFAQ 8.3.buFAQ 8.2.bvFAQ 8.1.bwFAQ 7.3.bxFAQ 7.2.byFAQ 7.1.bzFAQ 6.2.caFAQ 6.1.cbFAQ 5.4.ccFAQ 5.3.cdFAQ 5.2.ceFAQ 5.1.cfFAQ 4.3.cgFAQ 4.2.chFAQ 4.1.ciFAQ 3.3.cjFAQ 3.2.ckFAQ 3.1.clFAQ 2.2.cmFAQ 2.1.cnFAQ 1.3.coFAQ 1.2.cpFAQ 1.1.cqFAQ 1.1: Do we understand climate change better than when the IPCC started?

FAQ 1.1.ayFAQ 1.1.bhFAQ 12.3.bkFAQ 12.2.blFAQ 12.1.bmFAQ 11.3.bnFAQ 11.2.boFAQ 11.1.bpFAQ 10.2.bqFAQ 10.1.brFAQ 9.3.bsFAQ 9.2.btFAQ 9.1.buFAQ 8.3.bvFAQ 8.2.bwFAQ 8.1.bxFAQ 7.3.byFAQ 7.2.bzFAQ 7.1.caFAQ 6.2.cbFAQ 6.1.ccFAQ 5.4.cdFAQ 5.3.ceFAQ 5.2.cfFAQ 5.1.cgFAQ 4.3.chFAQ 4.2.ciFAQ 4.1.cjFAQ 3.3.ckFAQ 3.2.clFAQ 3.1.cmFAQ 2.2.cnFAQ 2.1.coFAQ 1.3.cpFAQ 1.2.cqFAQ 1.1.crFAQ 1.1, Figure 1 | Sample elements of climate understanding, observations and models as assessed in the IPCC First Assessment Report (1990) and Sixth Assessment Report (2021). Many other advances since 1990, such as key aspects of theoretical understanding, geological records and attribution of change to human influence, are not included in this figure because they are not readily represented in this simple format. Fuller explanations of the history of climate knowledge are available in the introductory chapters of the IPCC Fourth and Sixth assessment reports.

FAQ 1.1.azFAQ 1.1.biFAQ 12.3.blFAQ 12.2.bmFAQ 12.1.bnFAQ 11.3.boFAQ 11.2.bpFAQ 11.1.bqFAQ 10.2.brFAQ 10.1.bsFAQ 9.3.btFAQ 9.2.buFAQ 9.1.bvFAQ 8.3.bwFAQ 8.2.bxFAQ 8.1.byFAQ 7.3.bzFAQ 7.2.caFAQ 7.1.cbFAQ 6.2.ccFAQ 6.1.cdFAQ 5.4.ceFAQ 5.3.cfFAQ 5.2.cgFAQ 5.1.chFAQ 4.3.ciFAQ 4.2.cjFAQ 4.1.ckFAQ 3.3.clFAQ 3.2.cmFAQ 3.1.cnFAQ 2.2.coFAQ 2.1.cpFAQ 1.3.cqFAQ 1.2.crFAQ 1.1.csFAQ

FAQ 1.1.baFAQ 1.1.bjFAQ 12.3.bmFAQ 12.2.bnFAQ 12.1.boFAQ 11.3.bpFAQ 11.2.bqFAQ 11.1.brFAQ 10.2.bsFAQ 10.1.btFAQ 9.3.buFAQ 9.2.bvFAQ 9.1.bwFAQ 8.3.bxFAQ 8.2.byFAQ 8.1.bzFAQ 7.3.caFAQ 7.2.cbFAQ 7.1.ccFAQ 6.2.cdFAQ 6.1.ceFAQ 5.4.cfFAQ 5.3.cgFAQ 5.2.chFAQ 5.1.ciFAQ 4.3.cjFAQ 4.2.ckFAQ 4.1.clFAQ 3.3.cmFAQ 3.2.cnFAQ 3.1.coFAQ 2.2.cpFAQ 2.1.cqFAQ 1.3.crFAQ 1.2.csFAQ 1.1.ctFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 1.1.bbFAQ 1.1.bkFAQ 12.3.bnFAQ 12.2.boFAQ 12.1.bpFAQ 11.3.bqFAQ 11.2.brFAQ 11.1.bsFAQ 10.2.btFAQ 10.1.buFAQ 9.3.bvFAQ 9.2.bwFAQ 9.1.bxFAQ 8.3.byFAQ 8.2.bzFAQ 8.1.caFAQ 7.3.cbFAQ 7.2.ccFAQ 7.1.cdFAQ 6.2.ceFAQ 6.1.cfFAQ 5.4.cgFAQ 5.3.chFAQ 5.2.ciFAQ 5.1.cjFAQ 4.3.ckFAQ 4.2.clFAQ 4.1.cmFAQ 3.3.cnFAQ 3.2.coFAQ 3.1.cpFAQ 2.2.cqFAQ 2.1.crFAQ 1.3.csFAQ 1.2.ctFAQ 1.1.cuFAQ 1.2 | Where Is Climate Change Most Apparent?

FAQ 1.2.aFAQ 1.1.bcFAQ 1.1.blFAQ 12.3.boFAQ 12.2.bpFAQ 12.1.bqFAQ 11.3.brFAQ 11.2.bsFAQ 11.1.btFAQ 10.2.buFAQ 10.1.bvFAQ 9.3.bwFAQ 9.2.bxFAQ 9.1.byFAQ 8.3.bzFAQ 8.2.caFAQ 8.1.cbFAQ 7.3.ccFAQ 7.2.cdFAQ 7.1.ceFAQ 6.2.cfFAQ 6.1.cgFAQ 5.4.chFAQ 5.3.ciFAQ 5.2.cjFAQ 5.1.ckFAQ 4.3.clFAQ 4.2.cmFAQ 4.1.cnFAQ 3.3.coFAQ 3.2.cpFAQ 3.1.cqFAQ 2.2.crFAQ 2.1.csFAQ 1.3.ctFAQ 1.2.cuFAQ 1.1.cvThe signs of climate change are unequivocal at the global scale and are increasingly apparent on smaller spatial scales. The high northern latitudes show the largest temperature increase, with clear effects on sea ice and glaciers. The warming in the tropical regions is also apparent because the natural year-to-year variations in temperature there are small. Long-term changes in other variables such as rainfall and some weather and climate extremes have also now become apparent in many regions.

FAQ 1.2.bFAQ 1.1.bdFAQ 1.1.bmFAQ 12.3.bpFAQ 12.2.bqFAQ 12.1.brFAQ 11.3.bsFAQ 11.2.btFAQ 11.1.buFAQ 10.2.bvFAQ 10.1.bwFAQ 9.3.bxFAQ 9.2.byFAQ 9.1.bzFAQ 8.3.caFAQ 8.2.cbFAQ 8.1.ccFAQ 7.3.cdFAQ 7.2.ceFAQ 7.1.cfFAQ 6.2.cgFAQ 6.1.chFAQ 5.4.ciFAQ 5.3.cjFAQ 5.2.ckFAQ 5.1.clFAQ 4.3.cmFAQ 4.2.cnFAQ 4.1.coFAQ 3.3.cpFAQ 3.2.cqFAQ 3.1.crFAQ 2.2.csFAQ 2.1.ctFAQ 1.3.cuFAQ 1.2.cvFAQ 1.1.cwIt was first noticed that the planet’s land areas were warming in the 1930s. Although increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations were suggested as part of the explanation, it was not certain at the time whether the observed warming was part of a long-term trend or a natural fluctuation: global warming had not yet become apparent. But the planet continued to warm, and by the 1980s the changes in temperature had become obvious or, in other words, the signal had emerged.

FAQ 1.2.cFAQ 1.1.beFAQ 1.1.bnFAQ 12.3.bqFAQ 12.2.brFAQ 12.1.bsFAQ 11.3.btFAQ 11.2.buFAQ 11.1.bvFAQ 10.2.bwFAQ 10.1.bxFAQ 9.3.byFAQ 9.2.bzFAQ 9.1.caFAQ 8.3.cbFAQ 8.2.ccFAQ 8.1.cdFAQ 7.3.ceFAQ 7.2.cfFAQ 7.1.cgFAQ 6.2.chFAQ 6.1.ciFAQ 5.4.cjFAQ 5.3.ckFAQ 5.2.clFAQ 5.1.cmFAQ 4.3.cnFAQ 4.2.coFAQ 4.1.cpFAQ 3.3.cqFAQ 3.2.crFAQ 3.1.csFAQ 2.2.ctFAQ 2.1.cuFAQ 1.3.cvFAQ 1.2.cwFAQ 1.1.cxImagine you had been monitoring temperatures at the same location for the past 150 years. What would you have experienced? When would the warming have become noticeable in your data? The answers to these questions depend on where on the planet you are.

FAQ 1.2.dFAQ 1.1.bfFAQ 1.1.boFAQ 12.3.brFAQ 12.2.bsFAQ 12.1.btFAQ 11.3.buFAQ 11.2.bvFAQ 11.1.bwFAQ 10.2.bxFAQ 10.1.byFAQ 9.3.bzFAQ 9.2.caFAQ 9.1.cbFAQ 8.3.ccFAQ 8.2.cdFAQ 8.1.ceFAQ 7.3.cfFAQ 7.2.cgFAQ 7.1.chFAQ 6.2.ciFAQ 6.1.cjFAQ 5.4.ckFAQ 5.3.clFAQ 5.2.cmFAQ 5.1.cnFAQ 4.3.coFAQ 4.2.cpFAQ 4.1.cqFAQ 3.3.crFAQ 3.2.csFAQ 3.1.ctFAQ 2.2.cuFAQ 2.1.cvFAQ 1.3.cwFAQ 1.2.cxFAQ 1.1.cyObservations and climate model simulations both demonstrate that the largest long-term warming trends are in the high northern latitudes and the smallest warming trends over land are in tropical regions. However, the year-to-year variations in temperature are smallest in the tropics, meaning that the changes there are also apparent, relative to the range of past experiences (FAQ 1.2, Figure 1).

FAQ 1.2.eFAQ 1.1.bgFAQ 1.1.bpFAQ 12.3.bsFAQ 12.2.btFAQ 12.1.buFAQ 11.3.bvFAQ 11.2.bwFAQ 11.1.bxFAQ 10.2.byFAQ 10.1.bzFAQ 9.3.caFAQ 9.2.cbFAQ 9.1.ccFAQ 8.3.cdFAQ 8.2.ceFAQ 8.1.cfFAQ 7.3.cgFAQ 7.2.chFAQ 7.1.ciFAQ 6.2.cjFAQ 6.1.ckFAQ 5.4.clFAQ 5.3.cmFAQ 5.2.cnFAQ 5.1.coFAQ 4.3.cpFAQ 4.2.cqFAQ 4.1.crFAQ 3.3.csFAQ 3.2.ctFAQ 3.1.cuFAQ 2.2.cvFAQ 2.1.cwFAQ 1.3.cxFAQ 1.2.cyFAQ 1.1.czChanges in temperature also tend to be more apparent over land areas than over the open ocean and are often most apparent in regions which are more vulnerable to climate change. It is expected that future changes will continue to show the largest signals at high northern latitudes, but with the most apparent warming in the tropics. The tropics also stand to benefit the most from climate change mitigation in this context, as limiting global warming will also limit how far the climate shifts relative to past experience.

FAQ 1.2.fFAQ 1.1.bhFAQ 1.1.bqFAQ 12.3.btFAQ 12.2.buFAQ 12.1.bvFAQ 11.3.bwFAQ 11.2.bxFAQ 11.1.byFAQ 10.2.bzFAQ 10.1.caFAQ 9.3.cbFAQ 9.2.ccFAQ 9.1.cdFAQ 8.3.ceFAQ 8.2.cfFAQ 8.1.cgFAQ 7.3.chFAQ 7.2.ciFAQ 7.1.cjFAQ 6.2.ckFAQ 6.1.clFAQ 5.4.cmFAQ 5.3.cnFAQ 5.2.coFAQ 5.1.cpFAQ 4.3.cqFAQ 4.2.crFAQ 4.1.csFAQ 3.3.ctFAQ 3.2.cuFAQ 3.1.cvFAQ 2.2.cwFAQ 2.1.cxFAQ 1.3.cyFAQ 1.2.czFAQ 1.1.daChanges in other climate variables have also become apparent at smaller spatial scales. For example, changes in average rainfall are becoming clear in some regions, but not in others, mainly because natural year-to-year variations in precipitation tend to be large relative to the magnitude of the long-term trends. However, extreme rainfall is becoming more intense in many regions, potentially increasing the impacts from inland flooding (FAQ 8.2). Sea levels are also clearly rising on many coastlines, increasing the impacts of inundation from coastal storm surges, even without any increase in the number of storms reaching land. A decline in the amount of Arctic sea ice is apparent, both in the area covered and in its thickness, with implications for polar ecosystems.

FAQ 1.2.gFAQ 1.1.biFAQ 1.1.brFAQ 12.3.buFAQ 12.2.bvFAQ 12.1.bwFAQ 11.3.bxFAQ 11.2.byFAQ 11.1.bzFAQ 10.2.caFAQ 10.1.cbFAQ 9.3.ccFAQ 9.2.cdFAQ 9.1.ceFAQ 8.3.cfFAQ 8.2.cgFAQ 8.1.chFAQ 7.3.ciFAQ 7.2.cjFAQ 7.1.ckFAQ 6.2.clFAQ 6.1.cmFAQ 5.4.cnFAQ 5.3.coFAQ 5.2.cpFAQ 5.1.cqFAQ 4.3.crFAQ 4.2.csFAQ 4.1.ctFAQ 3.3.cuFAQ 3.2.cvFAQ 3.1.cwFAQ 2.2.cxFAQ 2.1.cyFAQ 1.3.czFAQ 1.2.daFAQ 1.1.dbWhen considering climate-related impacts, it is not necessarily the size of the change that is most important. Instead, it can be the rate of change or it can also be the size of the change relative to the natural variations of the climate to which ecosystems and society are adapted. As the climate is pushed further away from past experiences and enters an unprecedented state, the impacts can become larger, along with the challenge of adapting to them.

FAQ 1.2.hFAQ 1.1.bjFAQ 1.1.bsFAQ 12.3.bvFAQ 12.2.bwFAQ 12.1.bxFAQ 11.3.byFAQ 11.2.bzFAQ 11.1.caFAQ 10.2.cbFAQ 10.1.ccFAQ 9.3.cdFAQ 9.2.ceFAQ 9.1.cfFAQ 8.3.cgFAQ 8.2.chFAQ 8.1.ciFAQ 7.3.cjFAQ 7.2.ckFAQ 7.1.clFAQ 6.2.cmFAQ 6.1.cnFAQ 5.4.coFAQ 5.3.cpFAQ 5.2.cqFAQ 5.1.crFAQ 4.3.csFAQ 4.2.ctFAQ 4.1.cuFAQ 3.3.cvFAQ 3.2.cwFAQ 3.1.cxFAQ 2.2.cyFAQ 2.1.czFAQ 1.3.daFAQ 1.2.dbFAQ 1.1.dcHow and when a long-term trend becomes distinguishable from shorter-term natural variations depends on the aspect of climate being considered (e.g., temperature, rainfall, sea ice or sea level), the region being considered, the rate of change, and the magnitude and timing of natural variations. When assessing the local impacts from climate change, both the size of the change and the amplitude of natural variations matter.

FAQ 1.2.iFAQ 1.1.bkFAQ 1.1.btFAQ 12.3.bwFAQ 12.2.bxFAQ 12.1.byFAQ 11.3.bzFAQ 11.2.caFAQ 11.1.cbFAQ 10.2.ccFAQ 10.1.cdFAQ 9.3.ceFAQ 9.2.cfFAQ 9.1.cgFAQ 8.3.chFAQ 8.2.ciFAQ 8.1.cjFAQ 7.3.ckFAQ 7.2.clFAQ 7.1.cmFAQ 6.2.cnFAQ 6.1.coFAQ 5.4.cpFAQ 5.3.cqFAQ 5.2.crFAQ 5.1.csFAQ 4.3.ctFAQ 4.2.cuFAQ 4.1.cvFAQ 3.3.cwFAQ 3.2.cxFAQ 3.1.cyFAQ 2.2.czFAQ 2.1.daFAQ 1.3.dbFAQ 1.2.dcFAQ 1.1.ddFAQ

FAQ 1.2.jFAQ 1.1.blFAQ 1.1.buFAQ 12.3.bxFAQ 12.2.byFAQ 12.1.bzFAQ 11.3.caFAQ 11.2.cbFAQ 11.1.ccFAQ 10.2.cdFAQ 10.1.ceFAQ 9.3.cfFAQ 9.2.cgFAQ 9.1.chFAQ 8.3.ciFAQ 8.2.cjFAQ 8.1.ckFAQ 7.3.clFAQ 7.2.cmFAQ 7.1.cnFAQ 6.2.coFAQ 6.1.cpFAQ 5.4.cqFAQ 5.3.crFAQ 5.2.csFAQ 5.1.ctFAQ 4.3.cuFAQ 4.2.cvFAQ 4.1.cwFAQ 3.3.cxFAQ 3.2.cyFAQ 3.1.czFAQ 2.2.daFAQ 2.1.dbFAQ 1.3.dcFAQ 1.2.ddFAQ 1.1.deFAQ 1.2 (continued)

FAQ 1.2.aFAQ 1.2.kFAQ 1.1.bmFAQ 1.1.bvFAQ 12.3.byFAQ 12.2.bzFAQ 12.1.caFAQ 11.3.cbFAQ 11.2.ccFAQ 11.1.cdFAQ 10.2.ceFAQ 10.1.cfFAQ 9.3.cgFAQ 9.2.chFAQ 9.1.ciFAQ 8.3.cjFAQ 8.2.ckFAQ 8.1.clFAQ 7.3.cmFAQ 7.2.cnFAQ 7.1.coFAQ 6.2.cpFAQ 6.1.cqFAQ 5.4.crFAQ 5.3.csFAQ 5.2.ctFAQ 5.1.cuFAQ 4.3.cvFAQ 4.2.cwFAQ 4.1.cxFAQ 3.3.cyFAQ 3.2.czFAQ 3.1.daFAQ 2.2.dbFAQ 2.1.dcFAQ 1.3.ddFAQ 1.2.deFAQ 1.1.dfFAQ 1.2: Where is climate change most apparent?Temperature changes are most apparent in regions with smaller natural variations.

FAQ 1.2.bFAQ 1.2.lFAQ 1.1.bnFAQ 1.1.bwFAQ 12.3.bzFAQ 12.2.caFAQ 12.1.cbFAQ 11.3.ccFAQ 11.2.cdFAQ 11.1.ceFAQ 10.2.cfFAQ 10.1.cgFAQ 9.3.chFAQ 9.2.ciFAQ 9.1.cjFAQ 8.3.ckFAQ 8.2.clFAQ 8.1.cmFAQ 7.3.cnFAQ 7.2.coFAQ 7.1.cpFAQ 6.2.cqFAQ 6.1.crFAQ 5.4.csFAQ 5.3.ctFAQ 5.2.cuFAQ 5.1.cvFAQ 4.3.cwFAQ 4.2.cxFAQ 4.1.cyFAQ 3.3.czFAQ 3.2.daFAQ 3.1.dbFAQ 2.2.dcFAQ 2.1.ddFAQ 1.3.deFAQ 1.2.dfFAQ 1.1.dgEstimation of:

FAQ 1.2.cFAQ 1.2.mFAQ 1.1.boFAQ 1.1.bxFAQ 12.3.caFAQ 12.2.cbFAQ 12.1.ccFAQ 11.3.cdFAQ 11.2.ceFAQ 11.1.cfFAQ 10.2.cgFAQ 10.1.chFAQ 9.3.ciFAQ 9.2.cjFAQ 9.1.ckFAQ 8.3.clFAQ 8.2.cmFAQ 8.1.cnFAQ 7.3.coFAQ 7.2.cpFAQ 7.1.cqFAQ 6.2.crFAQ 6.1.csFAQ 5.4.ctFAQ 5.3.cuFAQ 5.2.cvFAQ 5.1.cwFAQ 4.3.cxFAQ 4.2.cyFAQ 4.1.czFAQ 3.3.daFAQ 3.2.dbFAQ 3.1.dcFAQ 2.2.ddFAQ 2.1.deFAQ 1.3.dfFAQ 1.2.dgFAQ 1.1.dh2 standard deviations of natural year-to-year variations

FAQ 1.2.dFAQ 1.2.nFAQ 1.1.bpFAQ 1.1.byFAQ 12.3.cbFAQ 12.2.ccFAQ 12.1.cdFAQ 11.3.ceFAQ 11.2.cfFAQ 11.1.cgFAQ 10.2.chFAQ 10.1.ciFAQ 9.3.cjFAQ 9.2.ckFAQ 9.1.clFAQ 8.3.cmFAQ 8.2.cnFAQ 8.1.coFAQ 7.3.cpFAQ 7.2.cqFAQ 7.1.crFAQ 6.2.csFAQ 6.1.ctFAQ 5.4.cuFAQ 5.3.cvFAQ 5.2.cwFAQ 5.1.cxFAQ 4.3.cyFAQ 4.2.czFAQ 4.1.daFAQ 3.3.dbFAQ 3.2.dcFAQ 3.1.ddFAQ 2.2.deFAQ 2.1.dfFAQ 1.3.dgFAQ 1.2.dhFAQ 1.1.di1 standard deviation of natural year-to-year variations

FAQ 1.2.eFAQ 1.2.oFAQ 1.1.bqFAQ 1.1.bzFAQ 12.3.ccFAQ 12.2.cdFAQ 12.1.ceFAQ 11.3.cfFAQ 11.2.cgFAQ 11.1.chFAQ 10.2.ciFAQ 10.1.cjFAQ 9.3.ckFAQ 9.2.clFAQ 9.1.cmFAQ 8.3.cnFAQ 8.2.coFAQ 8.1.cpFAQ 7.3.cqFAQ 7.2.crFAQ 7.1.csFAQ 6.2.ctFAQ 6.1.cuFAQ 5.4.cvFAQ 5.3.cwFAQ 5.2.cxFAQ 5.1.cyFAQ 4.3.czFAQ 4.2.daFAQ 4.1.dbFAQ 3.3.dcFAQ 3.2.ddFAQ 3.1.deFAQ 2.2.dfFAQ 2.1.dgFAQ 1.3.dhFAQ 1.2.diFAQ 1.1.djLow latitudes (e.g. Tropical South America)High latitudes (e.g. mid-North America)

FAQ 1.2.fFAQ 1.2.pFAQ 1.1.brFAQ 1.1.caFAQ 12.3.cdFAQ 12.2.ceFAQ 12.1.cfFAQ 11.3.cgFAQ 11.2.chFAQ 11.1.ciFAQ 10.2.cjFAQ 10.1.ckFAQ 9.3.clFAQ 9.2.cmFAQ 9.1.cnFAQ 8.3.coFAQ 8.2.cpFAQ 8.1.cqFAQ 7.3.crFAQ 7.2.csFAQ 7.1.ctFAQ 6.2.cuFAQ 6.1.cvFAQ 5.4.cwFAQ 5.3.cxFAQ 5.2.cyFAQ 5.1.czFAQ 4.3.daFAQ 4.2.dbFAQ 4.1.dcFAQ 3.3.ddFAQ 3.2.deFAQ 3.1.dfFAQ 2.2.dgFAQ 2.1.dhFAQ 1.3.diFAQ 1.2.djFAQ 1.1.dkFAQ

FAQ 1.2.gFAQ 1.2.qFAQ 1.1.bsFAQ 1.1.cbFAQ 12.3.ceFAQ 12.2.cfFAQ 12.1.cgFAQ 11.3.chFAQ 11.2.ciFAQ 11.1.cjFAQ 10.2.ckFAQ 10.1.clFAQ 9.3.cmFAQ 9.2.cnFAQ 9.1.coFAQ 8.3.cpFAQ 8.2.cqFAQ 8.1.crFAQ 7.3.csFAQ 7.2.ctFAQ 7.1.cuFAQ 6.2.cvFAQ 6.1.cwFAQ 5.4.cxFAQ 5.3.cyFAQ 5.2.czFAQ 5.1.daFAQ 4.3.dbFAQ 4.2.dcFAQ 4.1.ddFAQ 3.3.deFAQ 3.2.dfFAQ 3.1.dgFAQ 2.2.dhFAQ 2.1.diFAQ 1.3.djFAQ 1.2.dkFAQ 1.1.dlFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 1.2.hFAQ 1.2.rFAQ 1.1.btFAQ 1.1.ccFAQ 12.3.cfFAQ 12.2.cgFAQ 12.1.chFAQ 11.3.ciFAQ 11.2.cjFAQ 11.1.ckFAQ 10.2.clFAQ 10.1.cmFAQ 9.3.cnFAQ 9.2.coFAQ 9.1.cpFAQ 8.3.cqFAQ 8.2.crFAQ 8.1.csFAQ 7.3.ctFAQ 7.2.cuFAQ 7.1.cvFAQ 6.2.cwFAQ 6.1.cxFAQ 5.4.cyFAQ 5.3.czFAQ 5.2.daFAQ 5.1.dbFAQ 4.3.dcFAQ 4.2.ddFAQ 4.1.deFAQ 3.3.dfFAQ 3.2.dgFAQ 3.1.dhFAQ 2.2.diFAQ 2.1.djFAQ 1.3.dkFAQ 1.2.dlFAQ 1.1.dmFAQ 1.3 | What Can Past Climate Teach Us About the Future?

FAQ 1.3.aFAQ 1.2.iFAQ 1.2.sFAQ 1.1.buFAQ 1.1.cdFAQ 12.3.cgFAQ 12.2.chFAQ 12.1.ciFAQ 11.3.cjFAQ 11.2.ckFAQ 11.1.clFAQ 10.2.cmFAQ 10.1.cnFAQ 9.3.coFAQ 9.2.cpFAQ 9.1.cqFAQ 8.3.crFAQ 8.2.csFAQ 8.1.ctFAQ 7.3.cuFAQ 7.2.cvFAQ 7.1.cwFAQ 6.2.cxFAQ 6.1.cyFAQ 5.4.czFAQ 5.3.daFAQ 5.2.dbFAQ 5.1.dcFAQ 4.3.ddFAQ 4.2.deFAQ 4.1.dfFAQ 3.3.dgFAQ 3.2.dhFAQ 3.1.diFAQ 2.2.djFAQ 2.1.dkFAQ 1.3.dlFAQ 1.2.dmFAQ 1.1.dnIn the past, the Earth has experienced prolonged periods of elevated greenhouse gas concentrations that caused global temperatures and sea levels to rise. Studying these past warm periods informs us about the potential long- term consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

FAQ 1.3.bFAQ 1.2.jFAQ 1.2.tFAQ 1.1.bvFAQ 1.1.ceFAQ 12.3.chFAQ 12.2.ciFAQ 12.1.cjFAQ 11.3.ckFAQ 11.2.clFAQ 11.1.cmFAQ 10.2.cnFAQ 10.1.coFAQ 9.3.cpFAQ 9.2.cqFAQ 9.1.crFAQ 8.3.csFAQ 8.2.ctFAQ 8.1.cuFAQ 7.3.cvFAQ 7.2.cwFAQ 7.1.cxFAQ 6.2.cyFAQ 6.1.czFAQ 5.4.daFAQ 5.3.dbFAQ 5.2.dcFAQ 5.1.ddFAQ 4.3.deFAQ 4.2.dfFAQ 4.1.dgFAQ 3.3.dhFAQ 3.2.diFAQ 3.1.djFAQ 2.2.dkFAQ 2.1.dlFAQ 1.3.dmFAQ 1.2.dnFAQ 1.1.doRising greenhouse gas concentrations are driving profound changes to the Earth system, including global warming, sea level rise, increases in climate and weather extremes, ocean acidification, and ecological shifts (FAQ 2.2 and FAQ 7.1). The vast majority of instrumental observations of climate began during the 20th century, when greenhouse gas emissions from human activities became the dominant driver of changes in Earth’s climate (FAQ 3.1).

FAQ 1.3.cFAQ 1.2.kFAQ 1.2.uFAQ 1.1.bwFAQ 1.1.cfFAQ 12.3.ciFAQ 12.2.cjFAQ 12.1.ckFAQ 11.3.clFAQ 11.2.cmFAQ 11.1.cnFAQ 10.2.coFAQ 10.1.cpFAQ 9.3.cqFAQ 9.2.crFAQ 9.1.csFAQ 8.3.ctFAQ 8.2.cuFAQ 8.1.cvFAQ 7.3.cwFAQ 7.2.cxFAQ 7.1.cyFAQ 6.2.czFAQ 6.1.daFAQ 5.4.dbFAQ 5.3.dcFAQ 5.2.ddFAQ 5.1.deFAQ 4.3.dfFAQ 4.2.dgFAQ 4.1.dhFAQ 3.3.diFAQ 3.2.djFAQ 3.1.dkFAQ 2.2.dlFAQ 2.1.dmFAQ 1.3.dnFAQ 1.2.doFAQ 1.1.dpAs scientists seek to refine our understanding of Earth’s climate system and how it may evolve in coming decades to centuries, past climate states provide a wealth of insights. Data about these past states help to establish the relationship between natural climate drivers and the history of changes in global temperature, global sea levels, the carbon cycle, ocean circulation, and regional climate patterns, including climate extremes. Guided by such data, scientists use Earth system models to identify the chain of events underlying the transitions between past climatic states (FAQ 3.3). This is important because during present-day climate change, just as in past climate changes, some aspects of the Earth system (e.g., surface temperature) respond to changes in greenhouse gases on a time scale of decades to centuries, while others (e.g., sea level and the carbon cycle) respond over centuries to millennia (FAQ 5.3). In this way, past climate states serve as critical benchmarks for climate model simulations, improving our understanding of the sequences, rates, and magnitude of future climate change over the next decades to millennia.

FAQ 1.3.dFAQ 1.2.lFAQ 1.2.vFAQ 1.1.bxFAQ 1.1.cgFAQ 12.3.cjFAQ 12.2.ckFAQ 12.1.clFAQ 11.3.cmFAQ 11.2.cnFAQ 11.1.coFAQ 10.2.cpFAQ 10.1.cqFAQ 9.3.crFAQ 9.2.csFAQ 9.1.ctFAQ 8.3.cuFAQ 8.2.cvFAQ 8.1.cwFAQ 7.3.cxFAQ 7.2.cyFAQ 7.1.czFAQ 6.2.daFAQ 6.1.dbFAQ 5.4.dcFAQ 5.3.ddFAQ 5.2.deFAQ 5.1.dfFAQ 4.3.dgFAQ 4.2.dhFAQ 4.1.diFAQ 3.3.djFAQ 3.2.dkFAQ 3.1.dlFAQ 2.2.dmFAQ 2.1.dnFAQ 1.3.doFAQ 1.2.dpFAQ 1.1.dqAnalyzing previous warm periods caused by natural factors can help us understand how key aspects of the climate system evolve in response to warming. For example, one previous warm-climate state occurred roughly 125,000 years ago, during the Last Interglacial period, when slight variations in the Earth’s orbit triggered a sequence of changes that caused about 1°C–2°C of global warming and about 2–8 m of sea level rise relative to the 1850–1900, even though atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations were similar to 1850–1900 values (FAQ 1.3, Figure 1). Modelling studies highlight that increased summer heating in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during this time caused widespread melting of snow and ice, reducing the reflectivity of the planet and increasing the absorption of solar energy by the Earth’s surface. This gave rise to global-scale warming, which led in turn to further ice loss and sea level rise. These self-reinforcing positive feedback cycles are a pervasive feature of Earth’s climate system, with clear implications for future climate change under continued greenhouse gas emissions. In the case of sea level rise, these cycles evolved over several centuries to millennia, reminding us that the rates and magnitude of sea level rise in the 21st century are just a fraction of the sea level rise that will ultimately occur after the Earth system fully adjusts to current levels of global warming.

FAQ 1.3.eFAQ 1.2.mFAQ 1.2.wFAQ 1.1.byFAQ 1.1.chFAQ 12.3.ckFAQ 12.2.clFAQ 12.1.cmFAQ 11.3.cnFAQ 11.2.coFAQ 11.1.cpFAQ 10.2.cqFAQ 10.1.crFAQ 9.3.csFAQ 9.2.ctFAQ 9.1.cuFAQ 8.3.cvFAQ 8.2.cwFAQ 8.1.cxFAQ 7.3.cyFAQ 7.2.czFAQ 7.1.daFAQ 6.2.dbFAQ 6.1.dcFAQ 5.4.ddFAQ 5.3.deFAQ 5.2.dfFAQ 5.1.dgFAQ 4.3.dhFAQ 4.2.diFAQ 4.1.djFAQ 3.3.dkFAQ 3.2.dlFAQ 3.1.dmFAQ 2.2.dnFAQ 2.1.doFAQ 1.3.dpFAQ 1.2.dqFAQ 1.1.drRoughly 3 million years ago, during the Pliocene Epoch, the Earth witnessed a prolonged period of elevated temperatures (2.5°C–4°C higher than 1850–1900) and higher sea levels (5–25 m higher than 1850–1900), in combination with atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations similar to those of the present day. The fact that Pliocene atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations were similar to the present, while global temperatures and sea levels were significantly higher, reflects the difference between an Earth system that has fully adjusted to changes in natural drivers (the Pliocene) and one where greenhouse gases concentrations, temperature, and sea level rise are still increasing (present day). Much about the transition into the Pliocene climate state – in terms of key causes, the role of cycles that hastened or slowed the transition, and the rate of change in climate indicators such as sea level – remain topics of intense study by climate researchers, using a combination of paleoclimate observations and Earth system models. Insights from such studies may help to reduce the large uncertainties around estimates of global sea level rise by 2300, which range from 0.3 m to 3 m above 1850–1900 (in a low-emissions scenario) to as much as 16 m higher than 1850–1900 (in a very high-emissions scenario that includes accelerating structural disintegration of the polar ice sheets).

FAQ 1.3.fFAQ 1.2.nFAQ 1.2.xFAQ 1.1.bzFAQ 1.1.ciFAQ 12.3.clFAQ 12.2.cmFAQ 12.1.cnFAQ 11.3.coFAQ 11.2.cpFAQ 11.1.cqFAQ 10.2.crFAQ 10.1.csFAQ 9.3.ctFAQ 9.2.cuFAQ 9.1.cvFAQ 8.3.cwFAQ 8.2.cxFAQ 8.1.cyFAQ 7.3.czFAQ 7.2.daFAQ 7.1.dbFAQ 6.2.dcFAQ 6.1.ddFAQ 5.4.deFAQ 5.3.dfFAQ 5.2.dgFAQ 5.1.dhFAQ 4.3.diFAQ 4.2.djFAQ 4.1.dkFAQ 3.3.dlFAQ 3.2.dmFAQ 3.1.dnFAQ 2.2.doFAQ 2.1.dpFAQ 1.3.dqFAQ 1.2.drFAQ 1.1.dsWhile present-day warming is unusual in the context of the recent geologic past in several different ways (FAQ 2.1), past warm climate states present a stark reminder that the long-term adjustment to present-day atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations has only just begun. That adjustment will continue over the coming centuries to millennia.

FAQ 1.3.gFAQ 1.2.oFAQ 1.2.yFAQ 1.1.caFAQ 1.1.cjFAQ 12.3.cmFAQ 12.2.cnFAQ 12.1.coFAQ 11.3.cpFAQ 11.2.cqFAQ 11.1.crFAQ 10.2.csFAQ 10.1.ctFAQ 9.3.cuFAQ 9.2.cvFAQ 9.1.cwFAQ 8.3.cxFAQ 8.2.cyFAQ 8.1.czFAQ 7.3.daFAQ 7.2.dbFAQ 7.1.dcFAQ 6.2.ddFAQ 6.1.deFAQ 5.4.dfFAQ 5.3.dgFAQ 5.2.dhFAQ 5.1.diFAQ 4.3.djFAQ 4.2.dkFAQ 4.1.dlFAQ 3.3.dmFAQ 3.2.dnFAQ 3.1.doFAQ 2.2.dpFAQ 2.1.dqFAQ 1.3.drFAQ 1.2.dsFAQ 1.1.dtFAQ

FAQ 1.3.hFAQ 1.2.pFAQ 1.2.zFAQ 1.1.cbFAQ 1.1.ckFAQ 12.3.cnFAQ 12.2.coFAQ 12.1.cpFAQ 11.3.cqFAQ 11.2.crFAQ 11.1.csFAQ 10.2.ctFAQ 10.1.cuFAQ 9.3.cvFAQ 9.2.cwFAQ 9.1.cxFAQ 8.3.cyFAQ 8.2.czFAQ 8.1.daFAQ 7.3.dbFAQ 7.2.dcFAQ 7.1.ddFAQ 6.2.deFAQ 6.1.dfFAQ 5.4.dgFAQ 5.3.dhFAQ 5.2.diFAQ 5.1.djFAQ 4.3.dkFAQ 4.2.dlFAQ 4.1.dmFAQ 3.3.dnFAQ 3.2.doFAQ 3.1.dpFAQ 2.2.dqFAQ 2.1.drFAQ 1.3.dsFAQ 1.2.dtFAQ 1.1.duFAQ 1.3 (continued)

FAQ 1.3.aFAQ 1.3.iFAQ 1.2.qFAQ 1.2.aaFAQ 1.1.ccFAQ 1.1.clFAQ 12.3.coFAQ 12.2.cpFAQ 12.1.cqFAQ 11.3.crFAQ 11.2.csFAQ 11.1.ctFAQ 10.2.cuFAQ 10.1.cvFAQ 9.3.cwFAQ 9.2.cxFAQ 9.1.cyFAQ 8.3.czFAQ 8.2.daFAQ 8.1.dbFAQ 7.3.dcFAQ 7.2.ddFAQ 7.1.deFAQ 6.2.dfFAQ 6.1.dgFAQ 5.4.dhFAQ 5.3.diFAQ 5.2.djFAQ 5.1.dkFAQ 4.3.dlFAQ 4.2.dmFAQ 4.1.dnFAQ 3.3.doFAQ 3.2.dpFAQ 3.1.dqFAQ 2.2.drFAQ 2.1.dsFAQ 1.3.dtFAQ 1.2.duFAQ 1.1.dv266-282 ppm*

FAQ 1.3.bFAQ 1.3.jFAQ 1.2.rFAQ 1.2.abFAQ 1.1.cdFAQ 1.1.cmFAQ 12.3.cpFAQ 12.2.cqFAQ 12.1.crFAQ 11.3.csFAQ 11.2.ctFAQ 11.1.cuFAQ 10.2.cvFAQ 10.1.cwFAQ 9.3.cxFAQ 9.2.cyFAQ 9.1.czFAQ 8.3.daFAQ 8.2.dbFAQ 8.1.dcFAQ 7.3.ddFAQ 7.2.deFAQ 7.1.dfFAQ 6.2.dgFAQ 6.1.dhFAQ 5.4.diFAQ 5.3.djFAQ 5.2.dkFAQ 5.1.dlFAQ 4.3.dmFAQ 4.2.dnFAQ 4.1.doFAQ 3.3.dpFAQ 3.2.dqFAQ 3.1.drFAQ 2.2.dsFAQ 2.1.dtFAQ 1.3.duFAQ 1.2.dvFAQ 1.1.dw1135 ppm

FAQ 1.3.cFAQ 1.3.kFAQ 1.2.sFAQ 1.2.acFAQ 1.1.ceFAQ 1.1.cnFAQ 12.3.cqFAQ 12.2.crFAQ 12.1.csFAQ 11.3.ctFAQ 11.2.cuFAQ 11.1.cvFAQ 10.2.cwFAQ 10.1.cxFAQ 9.3.cyFAQ 9.2.czFAQ 9.1.daFAQ 8.3.dbFAQ 8.2.dcFAQ 8.1.ddFAQ 7.3.deFAQ 7.2.dfFAQ 7.1.dgFAQ 6.2.dhFAQ 6.1.diFAQ 5.4.djFAQ 5.3.dkFAQ 5.2.dlFAQ 5.1.dmFAQ 4.3.dnFAQ 4.2.doFAQ 4.1.dpFAQ 3.3.dqFAQ 3.2.drFAQ 3.1.dsFAQ 2.2.dtFAQ 2.1.duFAQ 1.3.dvFAQ 1.2.dwFAQ 1.1.dx445 ppm

FAQ 1.3.dFAQ 1.3.lFAQ 1.2.tFAQ 1.2.adFAQ 1.1.cfFAQ 1.1.coFAQ 12.3.crFAQ 12.2.csFAQ 12.1.ctFAQ 11.3.cuFAQ 11.2.cvFAQ 11.1.cwFAQ 10.2.cxFAQ 10.1.cyFAQ 9.3.czFAQ 9.2.daFAQ 9.1.dbFAQ 8.3.dcFAQ 8.2.ddFAQ 8.1.deFAQ 7.3.dfFAQ 7.2.dgFAQ 7.1.dhFAQ 6.2.diFAQ 6.1.djFAQ 5.4.dkFAQ 5.3.dlFAQ 5.2.dmFAQ 5.1.dnFAQ 4.3.doFAQ 4.2.dpFAQ 4.1.dqFAQ 3.3.drFAQ 3.2.dsFAQ 3.1.dtFAQ 2.2.duFAQ 2.1.dvFAQ 1.3.dwFAQ 1.2.dxFAQ 1.1.dyFAQ 1.3: What can the past tell us about the future?Past warm periods inform about the potential consequences of rising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

FAQ 1.3.eFAQ 1.3.mFAQ 1.2.uFAQ 1.2.aeFAQ 1.1.cgFAQ 1.1.cpFAQ 12.3.csFAQ 12.2.ctFAQ 12.1.cuFAQ 11.3.cvFAQ 11.2.cwFAQ 11.1.cxFAQ 10.2.cyFAQ 10.1.czFAQ 9.3.daFAQ 9.2.dbFAQ 9.1.dcFAQ 8.3.ddFAQ 8.2.deFAQ 8.1.dfFAQ 7.3.dgFAQ 7.2.dhFAQ 7.1.diFAQ 6.2.djFAQ 6.1.dkFAQ 5.4.dlFAQ 5.3.dmFAQ 5.2.dnFAQ 5.1.doFAQ 4.3.dpFAQ 4.2.dqFAQ 4.1.drFAQ 3.3.dsFAQ 3.2.dtFAQ 3.1.duFAQ 2.2.dvFAQ 2.1.dwFAQ 1.3.dxFAQ 1.2.dyFAQ 1.1.dzAfter adjustmentOngoing

FAQ 1.3.fFAQ 1.3.nFAQ 1.2.vFAQ 1.2.afFAQ 1.1.chFAQ 1.1.cqFAQ 12.3.ctFAQ 12.2.cuFAQ 12.1.cvFAQ 11.3.cwFAQ 11.2.cxFAQ 11.1.cyFAQ 10.2.czFAQ 10.1.daFAQ 9.3.dbFAQ 9.2.dcFAQ 9.1.ddFAQ 8.3.deFAQ 8.2.dfFAQ 8.1.dgFAQ 7.3.dhFAQ 7.2.diFAQ 7.1.djFAQ 6.2.dkFAQ 6.1.dlFAQ 5.4.dmFAQ 5.3.dnFAQ 5.2.doFAQ 5.1.dpFAQ 4.3.dqFAQ 4.2.drFAQ 4.1.dsFAQ 3.3.dtFAQ 3.2.duFAQ 3.1.dvFAQ 2.2.dwFAQ 2.1.dxFAQ 1.3.dyFAQ 1.2.dzFAQ 1.1.eaDistant past Present

FAQ 1.3.gFAQ 1.3.oFAQ 1.2.wFAQ 1.2.agFAQ 1.1.ciFAQ 1.1.crFAQ 12.3.cuFAQ 12.2.cvFAQ 12.1.cwFAQ 11.3.cxFAQ 11.2.cyFAQ 11.1.czFAQ 10.2.daFAQ 10.1.dbFAQ 9.3.dcFAQ 9.2.ddFAQ 9.1.deFAQ 8.3.dfFAQ 8.2.dgFAQ 8.1.dhFAQ 7.3.diFAQ 7.2.djFAQ 7.1.dkFAQ 6.2.dlFAQ 6.1.dmFAQ 5.4.dnFAQ 5.3.doFAQ 5.2.dpFAQ 5.1.dqFAQ 4.3.drFAQ 4.2.dsFAQ 4.1.dtFAQ 3.3.duFAQ 3.2.dvFAQ 3.1.dwFAQ 2.2.dxFAQ 2.1.dyFAQ 1.3.dzFAQ 1.2.eaFAQ 1.1.eb*Triggered by changes in the Earth’s orbit, which redistributed incoming solar energy between seasons and latitudes

FAQ 1.3.hFAQ 1.3.pFAQ 1.2.xFAQ 1.2.ahFAQ 1.1.cjFAQ 1.1.csFAQ 12.3.cvFAQ 12.2.cwFAQ 12.1.cxFAQ 11.3.cyFAQ 11.2.czFAQ 11.1.daFAQ 10.2.dbFAQ 10.1.dcFAQ 9.3.ddFAQ 9.2.deFAQ 9.1.dfFAQ 8.3.dgFAQ 8.2.dhFAQ 8.1.diFAQ 7.3.djFAQ 7.2.dkFAQ 7.1.dlFAQ 6.2.dmFAQ 6.1.dnFAQ 5.4.doFAQ 5.3.dpFAQ 5.2.dqFAQ 5.1.drFAQ 4.3.dsFAQ 4.2.dtFAQ 4.1.duFAQ 3.3.dvFAQ 3.2.dwFAQ 3.1.dxFAQ 2.2.dyFAQ 2.1.dzFAQ 1.3.eaFAQ 1.2.ebFAQ 1.1.ecFutureemission scenarios

FAQ 1.3.iFAQ 1.3.qFAQ 1.2.yFAQ 1.2.aiFAQ 1.1.ckFAQ 1.1.ctFAQ 12.3.cwFAQ 12.2.cxFAQ 12.1.cyFAQ 11.3.czFAQ 11.2.daFAQ 11.1.dbFAQ 10.2.dcFAQ 10.1.ddFAQ 9.3.deFAQ 9.2.dfFAQ 9.1.dgFAQ 8.3.dhFAQ 8.2.diFAQ 8.1.djFAQ 7.3.dkFAQ 7.2.dlFAQ 7.1.dmFAQ 6.2.dnFAQ 6.1.doFAQ 5.4.dpFAQ 5.3.dqFAQ 5.2.drFAQ 5.1.dsFAQ 4.3.dtFAQ 4.2.duFAQ 4.1.dvFAQ 3.3.dwFAQ 3.2.dxFAQ 3.1.dyFAQ 2.2.dzFAQ 2.1.eaFAQ 1.3.ebFAQ 1.2.ecFAQ 1.1.edLow

FAQ 1.3.jFAQ 1.3.rFAQ 1.2.zFAQ 1.2.ajFAQ 1.1.clFAQ 1.1.cuFAQ 12.3.cxFAQ 12.2.cyFAQ 12.1.czFAQ 11.3.daFAQ 11.2.dbFAQ 11.1.dcFAQ 10.2.ddFAQ 10.1.deFAQ 9.3.dfFAQ 9.2.dgFAQ 9.1.dhFAQ 8.3.diFAQ 8.2.djFAQ 8.1.dkFAQ 7.3.dlFAQ 7.2.dmFAQ 7.1.dnFAQ 6.2.doFAQ 6.1.dpFAQ 5.4.dqFAQ 5.3.drFAQ 5.2.dsFAQ 5.1.dtFAQ 4.3.duFAQ 4.2.dvFAQ 4.1.dwFAQ 3.3.dxFAQ 3.2.dyFAQ 3.1.dzFAQ 2.2.eaFAQ 2.1.ebFAQ 1.3.ecFAQ 1.2.edFAQ 1.1.eeHigh

FAQ 1.3.kFAQ 1.3.sFAQ 1.2.aaFAQ 1.2.akFAQ 1.1.cmFAQ 1.1.cvFAQ 12.3.cyFAQ 12.2.czFAQ 12.1.daFAQ 11.3.dbFAQ 11.2.dcFAQ 11.1.ddFAQ 10.2.deFAQ 10.1.dfFAQ 9.3.dgFAQ 9.2.dhFAQ 9.1.diFAQ 8.3.djFAQ 8.2.dkFAQ 8.1.dlFAQ 7.3.dmFAQ 7.2.dnFAQ 7.1.doFAQ 6.2.dpFAQ 6.1.dqFAQ 5.4.drFAQ 5.3.dsFAQ 5.2.dtFAQ 5.1.duFAQ 4.3.dvFAQ 4.2.dwFAQ 4.1.dxFAQ 3.3.dyFAQ 3.2.dzFAQ 3.1.eaFAQ 2.2.ebFAQ 2.1.ecFAQ 1.3.edFAQ 1.2.eeFAQ 1.1.efAtmospheric CO2

FAQ 1.3.lFAQ 1.3.tFAQ 1.2.abFAQ 1.2.alFAQ 1.1.cnFAQ 1.1.cwFAQ 12.3.czFAQ 12.2.daFAQ 12.1.dbFAQ 11.3.dcFAQ 11.2.ddFAQ 11.1.deFAQ 10.2.dfFAQ 10.1.dgFAQ 9.3.dhFAQ 9.2.diFAQ 9.1.djFAQ 8.3.dkFAQ 8.2.dlFAQ 8.1.dmFAQ 7.3.dnFAQ 7.2.doFAQ 7.1.dpFAQ 6.2.dqFAQ 6.1.drFAQ 5.4.dsFAQ 5.3.dtFAQ 5.2.duFAQ 5.1.dvFAQ 4.3.dwFAQ 4.2.dxFAQ 4.1.dyFAQ 3.3.dzFAQ 3.2.eaFAQ 3.1.ebFAQ 2.2.ecFAQ 2.1.edFAQ 1.3.eeFAQ 1.2.efFAQ 1.1.egFast responseDecades to centuries

FAQ 1.3.mFAQ 1.3.uFAQ 1.2.acFAQ 1.2.amFAQ 1.1.coFAQ 1.1.cxFAQ 12.3.daFAQ 12.2.dbFAQ 12.1.dcFAQ 11.3.ddFAQ 11.2.deFAQ 11.1.dfFAQ 10.2.dgFAQ 10.1.dhFAQ 9.3.diFAQ 9.2.djFAQ 9.1.dkFAQ 8.3.dlFAQ 8.2.dmFAQ 8.1.dnFAQ 7.3.doFAQ 7.2.dpFAQ 7.1.dqFAQ 6.2.drFAQ 6.1.dsFAQ 5.4.dtFAQ 5.3.duFAQ 5.2.dvFAQ 5.1.dwFAQ 4.3.dxFAQ 4.2.dyFAQ 4.1.dzFAQ 3.3.eaFAQ 3.2.ebFAQ 3.1.ecFAQ 2.2.edFAQ 2.1.eeFAQ 1.3.efFAQ 1.2.egFAQ 1.1.ehGlobal temperature relative to 1850–1900

FAQ 1.3.nFAQ 1.3.vFAQ 1.2.adFAQ 1.2.anFAQ 1.1.cpFAQ 1.1.cyFAQ 12.3.dbFAQ 12.2.dcFAQ 12.1.ddFAQ 11.3.deFAQ 11.2.dfFAQ 11.1.dgFAQ 10.2.dhFAQ 10.1.diFAQ 9.3.djFAQ 9.2.dkFAQ 9.1.dlFAQ 8.3.dmFAQ 8.2.dnFAQ 8.1.doFAQ 7.3.dpFAQ 7.2.dqFAQ 7.1.drFAQ 6.2.dsFAQ 6.1.dtFAQ 5.4.duFAQ 5.3.dvFAQ 5.2.dwFAQ 5.1.dxFAQ 4.3.dyFAQ 4.2.dzFAQ 4.1.eaFAQ 3.3.ebFAQ 3.2.ecFAQ 3.1.edFAQ 2.2.eeFAQ 2.1.efFAQ 1.3.egFAQ 1.2.ehFAQ 1.1.eiSlow responseCenturies to millennia

FAQ 1.3.oFAQ 1.3.wFAQ 1.2.aeFAQ 1.2.aoFAQ 1.1.cqFAQ 1.1.czFAQ 12.3.dcFAQ 12.2.ddFAQ 12.1.deFAQ 11.3.dfFAQ 11.2.dgFAQ 11.1.dhFAQ 10.2.diFAQ 10.1.djFAQ 9.3.dkFAQ 9.2.dlFAQ 9.1.dmFAQ 8.3.dnFAQ 8.2.doFAQ 8.1.dpFAQ 7.3.dqFAQ 7.2.drFAQ 7.1.dsFAQ 6.2.dtFAQ 6.1.duFAQ 5.4.dvFAQ 5.3.dwFAQ 5.2.dxFAQ 5.1.dyFAQ 4.3.dzFAQ 4.2.eaFAQ 4.1.ebFAQ 3.3.ecFAQ 3.2.edFAQ 3.1.eeFAQ 2.2.efFAQ 2.1.egFAQ 1.3.ehFAQ 1.2.eiFAQ 1.1.ejGlobal sea levelrelative to 1850–1900

FAQ 1.3.pFAQ 1.3.xFAQ 1.2.afFAQ 1.2.apFAQ 1.1.crFAQ 1.1.daFAQ 12.3.ddFAQ 12.2.deFAQ 12.1.dfFAQ 11.3.dgFAQ 11.2.dhFAQ 11.1.diFAQ 10.2.djFAQ 10.1.dkFAQ 9.3.dlFAQ 9.2.dmFAQ 9.1.dnFAQ 8.3.doFAQ 8.2.dpFAQ 8.1.dqFAQ 7.3.drFAQ 7.2.dsFAQ 7.1.dtFAQ 6.2.duFAQ 6.1.dvFAQ 5.4.dwFAQ 5.3.dxFAQ 5.2.dyFAQ 5.1.dzFAQ 4.3.eaFAQ 4.2.ebFAQ 4.1.ecFAQ 3.3.edFAQ 3.2.eeFAQ 3.1.efFAQ 2.2.egFAQ 2.1.ehFAQ 1.3.eiFAQ 1.2.ejFAQ 1.1.ek+0.5-1.5°C*

FAQ 1.3.qFAQ 1.3.yFAQ 1.2.agFAQ 1.2.aqFAQ 1.1.csFAQ 1.1.dbFAQ 12.3.deFAQ 12.2.dfFAQ 12.1.dgFAQ 11.3.dhFAQ 11.2.diFAQ 11.1.djFAQ 10.2.dkFAQ 10.1.dlFAQ 9.3.dmFAQ 9.2.dnFAQ 9.1.doFAQ 8.3.dpFAQ 8.2.dqFAQ 8.1.drFAQ 7.3.dsFAQ 7.2.dtFAQ 7.1.duFAQ 6.2.dvFAQ 6.1.dwFAQ 5.4.dxFAQ 5.3.dyFAQ 5.2.dzFAQ 5.1.eaFAQ 4.3.ebFAQ 4.2.ecFAQ 4.1.edFAQ 3.3.eeFAQ 3.2.efFAQ 3.1.egFAQ 2.2.ehFAQ 2.1.eiFAQ 1.3.ejFAQ 1.2.ekFAQ 1.1.el360-420 ppm

FAQ 1.3.rFAQ 1.3.zFAQ 1.2.ahFAQ 1.2.arFAQ 1.1.ctFAQ 1.1.dcFAQ 12.3.dfFAQ 12.2.dgFAQ 12.1.dhFAQ 11.3.diFAQ 11.2.djFAQ 11.1.dkFAQ 10.2.dlFAQ 10.1.dmFAQ 9.3.dnFAQ 9.2.doFAQ 9.1.dpFAQ 8.3.dqFAQ 8.2.drFAQ 8.1.dsFAQ 7.3.dtFAQ 7.2.duFAQ 7.1.dvFAQ 6.2.dwFAQ 6.1.dxFAQ 5.4.dyFAQ 5.3.dzFAQ 5.2.eaFAQ 5.1.ebFAQ 4.3.ecFAQ 4.2.edFAQ 4.1.eeFAQ 3.3.efFAQ 3.2.egFAQ 3.1.ehFAQ 2.2.eiFAQ 2.1.ejFAQ 1.3.ekFAQ 1.2.elFAQ 1.1.em291 ppm 397 ppm

FAQ 1.3.sFAQ 1.3.aaFAQ 1.2.aiFAQ 1.2.asFAQ 1.1.cuFAQ 1.1.ddFAQ 12.3.dgFAQ 12.2.dhFAQ 12.1.diFAQ 11.3.djFAQ 11.2.dkFAQ 11.1.dlFAQ 10.2.dmFAQ 10.1.dnFAQ 9.3.doFAQ 9.2.dpFAQ 9.1.dqFAQ 8.3.drFAQ 8.2.dsFAQ 8.1.dtFAQ 7.3.duFAQ 7.2.dvFAQ 7.1.dwFAQ 6.2.dxFAQ 6.1.dyFAQ 5.4.dzFAQ 5.3.eaFAQ 5.2.ebFAQ 5.1.ecFAQ 4.3.edFAQ 4.2.eeFAQ 4.1.efFAQ 3.3.egFAQ 3.2.ehFAQ 3.1.eiFAQ 2.2.ejFAQ 2.1.ekFAQ 1.3.elFAQ 1.2.emFAQ 1.1.en+5-25m

FAQ 1.3.tFAQ 1.3.abFAQ 1.2.ajFAQ 1.2.atFAQ 1.1.cvFAQ 1.1.deFAQ 12.3.dhFAQ 12.2.diFAQ 12.1.djFAQ 11.3.dkFAQ 11.2.dlFAQ 11.1.dmFAQ 10.2.dnFAQ 10.1.doFAQ 9.3.dpFAQ 9.2.dqFAQ 9.1.drFAQ 8.3.dsFAQ 8.2.dtFAQ 8.1.duFAQ 7.3.dvFAQ 7.2.dwFAQ 7.1.dxFAQ 6.2.dyFAQ 6.1.dzFAQ 5.4.eaFAQ 5.3.ebFAQ 5.2.ecFAQ 5.1.edFAQ 4.3.eeFAQ 4.2.efFAQ 4.1.egFAQ 3.3.ehFAQ 3.2.eiFAQ 3.1.ejFAQ 2.2.ekFAQ 2.1.elFAQ 1.3.emFAQ 1.2.enFAQ 1.1.eo+5-10m*

FAQ 1.3.uFAQ 1.3.acFAQ 1.2.akFAQ 1.2.auFAQ 1.1.cwFAQ 1.1.dfFAQ 12.3.diFAQ 12.2.djFAQ 12.1.dkFAQ 11.3.dlFAQ 11.2.dmFAQ 11.1.dnFAQ 10.2.doFAQ 10.1.dpFAQ 9.3.dqFAQ 9.2.drFAQ 9.1.dsFAQ 8.3.dtFAQ 8.2.duFAQ 8.1.dvFAQ 7.3.dwFAQ 7.2.dxFAQ 7.1.dyFAQ 6.2.dzFAQ 6.1.eaFAQ 5.4.ebFAQ 5.3.ecFAQ 5.2.edFAQ 5.1.eeFAQ 4.3.efFAQ 4.2.egFAQ 4.1.ehFAQ 3.3.eiFAQ 3.2.ejFAQ 3.1.ekFAQ 2.2.elFAQ 2.1.emFAQ 1.3.enFAQ 1.2.eoFAQ 1.1.ep0m +0.2m +0.8-1.2m

FAQ 1.3.vFAQ 1.3.adFAQ 1.2.alFAQ 1.2.avFAQ 1.1.cxFAQ 1.1.dgFAQ 12.3.djFAQ 12.2.dkFAQ 12.1.dlFAQ 11.3.dmFAQ 11.2.dnFAQ 11.1.doFAQ 10.2.dpFAQ 10.1.dqFAQ 9.3.drFAQ 9.2.dsFAQ 9.1.dtFAQ 8.3.duFAQ 8.2.dvFAQ 8.1.dwFAQ 7.3.dxFAQ 7.2.dyFAQ 7.1.dzFAQ 6.2.eaFAQ 6.1.ebFAQ 5.4.ecFAQ 5.3.edFAQ 5.2.eeFAQ 5.1.efFAQ 4.3.egFAQ 4.2.ehFAQ 4.1.eiFAQ 3.3.ejFAQ 3.2.ekFAQ 3.1.elFAQ 2.2.emFAQ 2.1.enFAQ 1.3.eoFAQ 1.2.epFAQ 1.1.eqPliocene 3 Million years ago Last interglacial* 125,000 years ago 1850-19002011-20202100

FAQ 1.3.wFAQ 1.3.aeFAQ 1.2.amFAQ 1.2.awFAQ 1.1.cyFAQ 1.1.dhFAQ 12.3.dkFAQ 12.2.dlFAQ 12.1.dmFAQ 11.3.dnFAQ 11.2.doFAQ 11.1.dpFAQ 10.2.dqFAQ 10.1.drFAQ 9.3.dsFAQ 9.2.dtFAQ 9.1.duFAQ 8.3.dvFAQ 8.2.dwFAQ 8.1.dxFAQ 7.3.dyFAQ 7.2.dzFAQ 7.1.eaFAQ 6.2.ebFAQ 6.1.ecFAQ 5.4.edFAQ 5.3.eeFAQ 5.2.efFAQ 5.1.egFAQ 4.3.ehFAQ 4.2.eiFAQ 4.1.ejFAQ 3.3.ekFAQ 3.2.elFAQ 3.1.emFAQ 2.2.enFAQ 2.1.eoFAQ 1.3.epFAQ 1.2.eqFAQ 1.1.er+2.5-4.0°C

FAQ 1.3.xFAQ 1.3.afFAQ 1.2.anFAQ 1.2.axFAQ 1.1.czFAQ 1.1.diFAQ 12.3.dlFAQ 12.2.dmFAQ 12.1.dnFAQ 11.3.doFAQ 11.2.dpFAQ 11.1.dqFAQ 10.2.drFAQ 10.1.dsFAQ 9.3.dtFAQ 9.2.duFAQ 9.1.dvFAQ 8.3.dwFAQ 8.2.dxFAQ 8.1.dyFAQ 7.3.dzFAQ 7.2.eaFAQ 7.1.ebFAQ 6.2.ecFAQ 6.1.edFAQ 5.4.eeFAQ 5.3.efFAQ 5.2.egFAQ 5.1.ehFAQ 4.3.eiFAQ 4.2.ejFAQ 4.1.ekFAQ 3.3.elFAQ 3.2.emFAQ 3.1.enFAQ 2.2.eoFAQ 2.1.epFAQ 1.3.eqFAQ 1.2.erFAQ 1.1.es+1.1°C

FAQ 1.3.yFAQ 1.3.agFAQ 1.2.aoFAQ 1.2.ayFAQ 1.1.daFAQ 1.1.djFAQ 12.3.dmFAQ 12.2.dnFAQ 12.1.doFAQ 11.3.dpFAQ 11.2.dqFAQ 11.1.drFAQ 10.2.dsFAQ 10.1.dtFAQ 9.3.duFAQ 9.2.dvFAQ 9.1.dwFAQ 8.3.dxFAQ 8.2.dyFAQ 8.1.dzFAQ 7.3.eaFAQ 7.2.ebFAQ 7.1.ecFAQ 6.2.edFAQ 6.1.eeFAQ 5.4.efFAQ 5.3.egFAQ 5.2.ehFAQ 5.1.eiFAQ 4.3.ejFAQ 4.2.ekFAQ 4.1.elFAQ 3.3.emFAQ 3.2.enFAQ 3.1.eoFAQ 2.2.epFAQ 2.1.eqFAQ 1.3.erFAQ 1.2.esFAQ 1.1.et0°C

FAQ 1.3.zFAQ 1.3.ahFAQ 1.2.apFAQ 1.2.azFAQ 1.1.dbFAQ 1.1.dkFAQ 12.3.dnFAQ 12.2.doFAQ 12.1.dpFAQ 11.3.dqFAQ 11.2.drFAQ 11.1.dsFAQ 10.2.dtFAQ 10.1.duFAQ 9.3.dvFAQ 9.2.dwFAQ 9.1.dxFAQ 8.3.dyFAQ 8.2.dzFAQ 8.1.eaFAQ 7.3.ebFAQ 7.2.ecFAQ 7.1.edFAQ 6.2.eeFAQ 6.1.efFAQ 5.4.egFAQ 5.3.ehFAQ 5.2.eiFAQ 5.1.ejFAQ 4.3.ekFAQ 4.2.elFAQ 4.1.emFAQ 3.3.enFAQ 3.2.eoFAQ 3.1.epFAQ 2.2.eqFAQ 2.1.erFAQ 1.3.esFAQ 1.2.etFAQ 1.1.eu+3.3-5.7°C

FAQ 1.3.aaFAQ 1.3.aiFAQ 1.2.aqFAQ 1.2.baFAQ 1.1.dcFAQ 1.1.dlFAQ 12.3.doFAQ 12.2.dpFAQ 12.1.dqFAQ 11.3.drFAQ 11.2.dsFAQ 11.1.dtFAQ 10.2.duFAQ 10.1.dvFAQ 9.3.dwFAQ 9.2.dxFAQ 9.1.dyFAQ 8.3.dzFAQ 8.2.eaFAQ 8.1.ebFAQ 7.3.ecFAQ 7.2.edFAQ 7.1.eeFAQ 6.2.efFAQ 6.1.egFAQ 5.4.ehFAQ 5.3.eiFAQ 5.2.ejFAQ 5.1.ekFAQ 4.3.elFAQ 4.2.emFAQ 4.1.enFAQ 3.3.eoFAQ 3.2.epFAQ 3.1.eqFAQ 2.2.erFAQ 2.1.esFAQ 1.3.etFAQ 1.2.euFAQ 1.1.ev+1.3-2.4°C

FAQ 1.3.abFAQ 1.3.ajFAQ 1.2.arFAQ 1.2.bbFAQ 1.1.ddFAQ 1.1.dmFAQ 12.3.dpFAQ 12.2.dqFAQ 12.1.drFAQ 11.3.dsFAQ 11.2.dtFAQ 11.1.duFAQ 10.2.dvFAQ 10.1.dwFAQ 9.3.dxFAQ 9.2.dyFAQ 9.1.dzFAQ 8.3.eaFAQ 8.2.ebFAQ 8.1.ecFAQ 7.3.edFAQ 7.2.eeFAQ 7.1.efFAQ 6.2.egFAQ 6.1.ehFAQ 5.4.eiFAQ 5.3.ejFAQ 5.2.ekFAQ 5.1.elFAQ 4.3.emFAQ 4.2.enFAQ 4.1.eoFAQ 3.3.epFAQ 3.2.eqFAQ 3.1.erFAQ 2.2.esFAQ 2.1.etFAQ 1.3.euFAQ 1.2.evFAQ 1.1.ew+0.5-0.8m

FAQ 1.3.acFAQ 1.3.akFAQ 1.2.asFAQ 1.2.bcFAQ 1.1.deFAQ 1.1.dnFAQ 12.3.dqFAQ 12.2.drFAQ 12.1.dsFAQ 11.3.dtFAQ 11.2.duFAQ 11.1.dvFAQ 10.2.dwFAQ 10.1.dxFAQ 9.3.dyFAQ 9.2.dzFAQ 9.1.eaFAQ 8.3.ebFAQ 8.2.ecFAQ 8.1.edFAQ 7.3.eeFAQ 7.2.efFAQ 7.1.egFAQ 6.2.ehFAQ 6.1.eiFAQ 5.4.ejFAQ 5.3.ekFAQ 5.2.elFAQ 5.1.emFAQ 4.3.enFAQ 4.2.eoFAQ 4.1.epFAQ 3.3.eqFAQ 3.2.erFAQ 3.1.esFAQ 2.2.etFAQ 2.1.euFAQ 1.3.evFAQ 1.2.ewFAQ 1.1.exFAQ 1.3, Figure 1 | Comparison of past, present and future. Schematic of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, global temperature, and global sea level during previous warm periods as compared to 1850–1900, present-day (2011–2020), and future (2100) climate change scenarios corresponding to low-emissions scenarios (SSP1-2.6; lighter colour bars) and very high-emissions scenarios (SSP5-8.5; darker colour bars).

FAQ 1.3.adFAQ 1.3.alFAQ 1.2.atFAQ 1.2.bdFAQ 1.1.dfFAQ 1.1.doFAQ 12.3.drFAQ 12.2.dsFAQ 12.1.dtFAQ 11.3.duFAQ 11.2.dvFAQ 11.1.dwFAQ 10.2.dxFAQ 10.1.dyFAQ 9.3.dzFAQ 9.2.eaFAQ 9.1.ebFAQ 8.3.ecFAQ 8.2.edFAQ 8.1.eeFAQ 7.3.efFAQ 7.2.egFAQ 7.1.ehFAQ 6.2.eiFAQ 6.1.ejFAQ 5.4.ekFAQ 5.3.elFAQ 5.2.emFAQ 5.1.enFAQ 4.3.eoFAQ 4.2.epFAQ 4.1.eqFAQ 3.3.erFAQ 3.2.esFAQ 3.1.etFAQ 2.2.euFAQ 2.1.evFAQ 1.3.ewFAQ 1.2.exFAQ 1.1.eyFAQ

FAQ 1.3.aeFAQ 1.3.amFAQ 1.2.auFAQ 1.2.beFAQ 1.1.dgFAQ 1.1.dpFAQ 12.3.dsFAQ 12.2.dtFAQ 12.1.duFAQ 11.3.dvFAQ 11.2.dwFAQ 11.1.dxFAQ 10.2.dyFAQ 10.1.dzFAQ 9.3.eaFAQ 9.2.ebFAQ 9.1.ecFAQ 8.3.edFAQ 8.2.eeFAQ 8.1.efFAQ 7.3.egFAQ 7.2.ehFAQ 7.1.eiFAQ 6.2.ejFAQ 6.1.ekFAQ 5.4.elFAQ 5.3.emFAQ 5.2.enFAQ 5.1.eoFAQ 4.3.epFAQ 4.2.eqFAQ 4.1.erFAQ 3.3.esFAQ 3.2.etFAQ 3.1.euFAQ 2.2.evFAQ 2.1.ewFAQ 1.3.exFAQ 1.2.eyFAQ 1.1.ezFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 1.3.afFAQ 1.3.anFAQ 1.2.avFAQ 1.2.bfFAQ 1.1.dhFAQ 1.1.dqFAQ 12.3.dtFAQ 12.2.duFAQ 12.1.dvFAQ 11.3.dwFAQ 11.2.dxFAQ 11.1.dyFAQ 10.2.dzFAQ 10.1.eaFAQ 9.3.ebFAQ 9.2.ecFAQ 9.1.edFAQ 8.3.eeFAQ 8.2.efFAQ 8.1.egFAQ 7.3.ehFAQ 7.2.eiFAQ 7.1.ejFAQ 6.2.ekFAQ 6.1.elFAQ 5.4.emFAQ 5.3.enFAQ 5.2.eoFAQ 5.1.epFAQ 4.3.eqFAQ 4.2.erFAQ 4.1.esFAQ 3.3.etFAQ 3.2.euFAQ 3.1.evFAQ 2.2.ewFAQ 2.1.exFAQ 1.3.eyFAQ 1.2.ezFAQ 1.1.faFAQ 2.1 | The Earth’s Temperature Has Varied Before. How Is the Current Warming Any Different?

FAQ 2.1.aFAQ 1.3.agFAQ 1.3.aoFAQ 1.2.awFAQ 1.2.bgFAQ 1.1.diFAQ 1.1.drFAQ 12.3.duFAQ 12.2.dvFAQ 12.1.dwFAQ 11.3.dxFAQ 11.2.dyFAQ 11.1.dzFAQ 10.2.eaFAQ 10.1.ebFAQ 9.3.ecFAQ 9.2.edFAQ 9.1.eeFAQ 8.3.efFAQ 8.2.egFAQ 8.1.ehFAQ 7.3.eiFAQ 7.2.ejFAQ 7.1.ekFAQ 6.2.elFAQ 6.1.emFAQ 5.4.enFAQ 5.3.eoFAQ 5.2.epFAQ 5.1.eqFAQ 4.3.erFAQ 4.2.esFAQ 4.1.etFAQ 3.3.euFAQ 3.2.evFAQ 3.1.ewFAQ 2.2.exFAQ 2.1.eyFAQ 1.3.ezFAQ 1.2.faFAQ 1.1.fbEarth’s climate has always changed naturally, but both the global extent and rate of recent warming are unusual. The recent warming has reversed a slow, long-term cooling trend, and research indicates that global surface temperature is higher now than it has been for millennia.

FAQ 2.1.bFAQ 1.3.ahFAQ 1.3.apFAQ 1.2.axFAQ 1.2.bhFAQ 1.1.djFAQ 1.1.dsFAQ 12.3.dvFAQ 12.2.dwFAQ 12.1.dxFAQ 11.3.dyFAQ 11.2.dzFAQ 11.1.eaFAQ 10.2.ebFAQ 10.1.ecFAQ 9.3.edFAQ 9.2.eeFAQ 9.1.efFAQ 8.3.egFAQ 8.2.ehFAQ 8.1.eiFAQ 7.3.ejFAQ 7.2.ekFAQ 7.1.elFAQ 6.2.emFAQ 6.1.enFAQ 5.4.eoFAQ 5.3.epFAQ 5.2.eqFAQ 5.1.erFAQ 4.3.esFAQ 4.2.etFAQ 4.1.euFAQ 3.3.evFAQ 3.2.ewFAQ 3.1.exFAQ 2.2.eyFAQ 2.1.ezFAQ 1.3.faFAQ 1.2.fbFAQ 1.1.fcWhile climate can be characterized by many variables, temperature is a key indicator of the overall climate state, and global surface temperature is fundamental to characterizing and understanding global climate change, including Earth’s energy budget. A rich variety of geological evidence shows that temperature has changed throughout Earth’s history. A variety of natural archives from around the planet, such as ocean and lake sediments, glacier ice and tree rings, shows that there were times in the past when the planet was cooler, and times when it was warmer. While our confidence in quantifying large-scale temperature changes generally decreases the farther back in time we look, scientists can still identify at least four major differences between the recent warming and those of the past.

FAQ 2.1.cFAQ 1.3.aiFAQ 1.3.aqFAQ 1.2.ayFAQ 1.2.biFAQ 1.1.dkFAQ 1.1.dtFAQ 12.3.dwFAQ 12.2.dxFAQ 12.1.dyFAQ 11.3.dzFAQ 11.2.eaFAQ 11.1.ebFAQ 10.2.ecFAQ 10.1.edFAQ 9.3.eeFAQ 9.2.efFAQ 9.1.egFAQ 8.3.ehFAQ 8.2.eiFAQ 8.1.ejFAQ 7.3.ekFAQ 7.2.elFAQ 7.1.emFAQ 6.2.enFAQ 6.1.eoFAQ 5.4.epFAQ 5.3.eqFAQ 5.2.erFAQ 5.1.esFAQ 4.3.etFAQ 4.2.euFAQ 4.1.evFAQ 3.3.ewFAQ 3.2.exFAQ 3.1.eyFAQ 2.2.ezFAQ 2.1.faFAQ 1.3.fbFAQ 1.2.fcFAQ 1.1.fdIt’s warming almost everywhere. During decades and centuries of the past 2000 years, some regions warmed more than the global average while, at the same time, other regions cooled. For example, between the 10th and 13th centuries, the North Atlantic region warmed more than many other regions. In contrast, the pattern of recent surface warming is globally more uniform than for other decadal to centennial climate fluctuations over at least the past two millennia.

FAQ 2.1.dFAQ 1.3.ajFAQ 1.3.arFAQ 1.2.azFAQ 1.2.bjFAQ 1.1.dlFAQ 1.1.duFAQ 12.3.dxFAQ 12.2.dyFAQ 12.1.dzFAQ 11.3.eaFAQ 11.2.ebFAQ 11.1.ecFAQ 10.2.edFAQ 10.1.eeFAQ 9.3.efFAQ 9.2.egFAQ 9.1.ehFAQ 8.3.eiFAQ 8.2.ejFAQ 8.1.ekFAQ 7.3.elFAQ 7.2.emFAQ 7.1.enFAQ 6.2.eoFAQ 6.1.epFAQ 5.4.eqFAQ 5.3.erFAQ 5.2.esFAQ 5.1.etFAQ 4.3.euFAQ 4.2.evFAQ 4.1.ewFAQ 3.3.exFAQ 3.2.eyFAQ 3.1.ezFAQ 2.2.faFAQ 2.1.fbFAQ 1.3.fcFAQ 1.2.fdFAQ 1.1.feIt’s warming rapidly. Over the past 2 million years, Earth’s climate has fluctuated between relatively warm interglacial periods and cooler glacial periods, when ice sheets grew over vast areas of the northern continents. Intervals of rapid warming coincided with the collapse of major ice sheets, heralding interglacial periods such as the present Holocene Epoch, which began about 12,000 years ago. During the shift from the last glacial period to the current interglacial, the total temperature increase was about 5°C. That change took about 5000 years, with a maximum warming rate of about 1.5°C per thousand years, although the transition was not smooth. In contrast, Earth’s surface has warmed approximately 1.1°C since 1850–1900. However, even the best reconstruction of global surface temperature during the last deglacial period is too coarsely resolved for direct comparison with a period as short as the past 150 years. But for the past 2000 years, we have higher-resolution records that show that the rate of global warming during the last 50 years has exceeded the rate of any other 50-year period.

FAQ 2.1.eFAQ 1.3.akFAQ 1.3.asFAQ 1.2.baFAQ 1.2.bkFAQ 1.1.dmFAQ 1.1.dvFAQ 12.3.dyFAQ 12.2.dzFAQ 12.1.eaFAQ 11.3.ebFAQ 11.2.ecFAQ 11.1.edFAQ 10.2.eeFAQ 10.1.efFAQ 9.3.egFAQ 9.2.ehFAQ 9.1.eiFAQ 8.3.ejFAQ 8.2.ekFAQ 8.1.elFAQ 7.3.emFAQ 7.2.enFAQ 7.1.eoFAQ 6.2.epFAQ 6.1.eqFAQ 5.4.erFAQ 5.3.esFAQ 5.2.etFAQ 5.1.euFAQ 4.3.evFAQ 4.2.ewFAQ 4.1.exFAQ 3.3.eyFAQ 3.2.ezFAQ 3.1.faFAQ 2.2.fbFAQ 2.1.fcFAQ 1.3.fdFAQ 1.2.feFAQ 1.1.ffRecent warming reversed a long-term global cooling trend. Following the last major glacial period, global surface temperature peaked by around 6500 years ago, then slowly cooled. The long-term cooling trend was punctuated by warmer decades and centuries. These fluctuations were minor compared with the persistent and prominent warming that began in the mid-19th century when the millennial-scale cooling trend was reversed.

FAQ 2.1.fFAQ 1.3.alFAQ 1.3.atFAQ 1.2.bbFAQ 1.2.blFAQ 1.1.dnFAQ 1.1.dwFAQ 12.3.dzFAQ 12.2.eaFAQ 12.1.ebFAQ 11.3.ecFAQ 11.2.edFAQ 11.1.eeFAQ 10.2.efFAQ 10.1.egFAQ 9.3.ehFAQ 9.2.eiFAQ 9.1.ejFAQ 8.3.ekFAQ 8.2.elFAQ 8.1.emFAQ 7.3.enFAQ 7.2.eoFAQ 7.1.epFAQ 6.2.eqFAQ 6.1.erFAQ 5.4.esFAQ 5.3.etFAQ 5.2.euFAQ 5.1.evFAQ 4.3.ewFAQ 4.2.exFAQ 4.1.eyFAQ 3.3.ezFAQ 3.2.faFAQ 3.1.fbFAQ 2.2.fcFAQ 2.1.fdFAQ 1.3.feFAQ 1.2.ffFAQ 1.1.fgIt’s been a long time since it’s been this warm. Averaged over the globe, surface temperatures of the past decade were probably warmer than when the long cooling trend began around 6500 years ago. If so, we need to look back to at least the previous interglacial period, around 125,000 years ago, to find evidence for multi-centennial global surface temperatures that were warmer than now.

FAQ 2.1.gFAQ 1.3.amFAQ 1.3.auFAQ 1.2.bcFAQ 1.2.bmFAQ 1.1.doFAQ 1.1.dxFAQ 12.3.eaFAQ 12.2.ebFAQ 12.1.ecFAQ 11.3.edFAQ 11.2.eeFAQ 11.1.efFAQ 10.2.egFAQ 10.1.ehFAQ 9.3.eiFAQ 9.2.ejFAQ 9.1.ekFAQ 8.3.elFAQ 8.2.emFAQ 8.1.enFAQ 7.3.eoFAQ 7.2.epFAQ 7.1.eqFAQ 6.2.erFAQ 6.1.esFAQ 5.4.etFAQ 5.3.euFAQ 5.2.evFAQ 5.1.ewFAQ 4.3.exFAQ 4.2.eyFAQ 4.1.ezFAQ 3.3.faFAQ 3.2.fbFAQ 3.1.fcFAQ 2.2.fdFAQ 2.1.feFAQ 1.3.ffFAQ 1.2.fgFAQ 1.1.fhPrevious temperature fluctuations were caused by large-scale natural processes, while the current warming is largely due to human causes (see, for example, FAQ 1.3, FAQ 3.1). But understanding how and why temperatures have changed in the past is critical for understanding the current warming and how human and natural influences will interact to determine what happens in the future. Studying past climate changes also makes it clear that, unlike previous climate changes, the effects of recent warming are occurring on top of stresses that make humans and nature vulnerable to changes in ways that they have never before experienced (for example, see FAQ 11.2, FAQ12.3).

FAQ 2.1.hFAQ 1.3.anFAQ 1.3.avFAQ 1.2.bdFAQ 1.2.bnFAQ 1.1.dpFAQ 1.1.dyFAQ 12.3.ebFAQ 12.2.ecFAQ 12.1.edFAQ 11.3.eeFAQ 11.2.efFAQ 11.1.egFAQ 10.2.ehFAQ 10.1.eiFAQ 9.3.ejFAQ 9.2.ekFAQ 9.1.elFAQ 8.3.emFAQ 8.2.enFAQ 8.1.eoFAQ 7.3.epFAQ 7.2.eqFAQ 7.1.erFAQ 6.2.esFAQ 6.1.etFAQ 5.4.euFAQ 5.3.evFAQ 5.2.ewFAQ 5.1.exFAQ 4.3.eyFAQ 4.2.ezFAQ 4.1.faFAQ 3.3.fbFAQ 3.2.fcFAQ 3.1.fdFAQ 2.2.feFAQ 2.1.ffFAQ 1.3.fgFAQ 1.2.fhFAQ 1.1.fiFAQ

FAQ 2.1.iFAQ 1.3.aoFAQ 1.3.awFAQ 1.2.beFAQ 1.2.boFAQ 1.1.dqFAQ 1.1.dzFAQ 12.3.ecFAQ 12.2.edFAQ 12.1.eeFAQ 11.3.efFAQ 11.2.egFAQ 11.1.ehFAQ 10.2.eiFAQ 10.1.ejFAQ 9.3.ekFAQ 9.2.elFAQ 9.1.emFAQ 8.3.enFAQ 8.2.eoFAQ 8.1.epFAQ 7.3.eqFAQ 7.2.erFAQ 7.1.esFAQ 6.2.etFAQ 6.1.euFAQ 5.4.evFAQ 5.3.ewFAQ 5.2.exFAQ 5.1.eyFAQ 4.3.ezFAQ 4.2.faFAQ 4.1.fbFAQ 3.3.fcFAQ 3.2.fdFAQ 3.1.feFAQ 2.2.ffFAQ 2.1.fgFAQ 1.3.fhFAQ 1.2.fiFAQ 1.1.fjFAQ 2.1 (continued)

FAQ 2.1.aFAQ 2.1.jFAQ 1.3.apFAQ 1.3.axFAQ 1.2.bfFAQ 1.2.bpFAQ 1.1.drFAQ 1.1.eaFAQ 12.3.edFAQ 12.2.eeFAQ 12.1.efFAQ 11.3.egFAQ 11.2.ehFAQ 11.1.eiFAQ 10.2.ejFAQ 10.1.ekFAQ 9.3.elFAQ 9.2.emFAQ 9.1.enFAQ 8.3.eoFAQ 8.2.epFAQ 8.1.eqFAQ 7.3.erFAQ 7.2.esFAQ 7.1.etFAQ 6.2.euFAQ 6.1.evFAQ 5.4.ewFAQ 5.3.exFAQ 5.2.eyFAQ 5.1.ezFAQ 4.3.faFAQ 4.2.fbFAQ 4.1.fcFAQ 3.3.fdFAQ 3.2.feFAQ 3.1.ffFAQ 2.2.fgFAQ 2.1.fhFAQ 1.3.fiFAQ 1.2.fjFAQ 1.1.fkFAQ 2.1, Figure 1 | Evidence for the unusualness of recent warming.

FAQ 2.1.bFAQ 2.1.kFAQ 1.3.aqFAQ 1.3.ayFAQ 1.2.bgFAQ 1.2.bqFAQ 1.1.dsFAQ 1.1.ebFAQ 12.3.eeFAQ 12.2.efFAQ 12.1.egFAQ 11.3.ehFAQ 11.2.eiFAQ 11.1.ejFAQ 10.2.ekFAQ 10.1.elFAQ 9.3.emFAQ 9.2.enFAQ 9.1.eoFAQ 8.3.epFAQ 8.2.eqFAQ 8.1.erFAQ 7.3.esFAQ 7.2.etFAQ 7.1.euFAQ 6.2.evFAQ 6.1.ewFAQ 5.4.exFAQ 5.3.eyFAQ 5.2.ezFAQ 5.1.faFAQ 4.3.fbFAQ 4.2.fcFAQ 4.1.fdFAQ 3.3.feFAQ 3.2.ffFAQ 3.1.fgFAQ 2.2.fhFAQ 2.1.fiFAQ 1.3.fjFAQ 1.2.fkFAQ 1.1.flFAQ 2.1: How is this global warming different to before?

FAQ 2.1.cFAQ 2.1.lFAQ 1.3.arFAQ 1.3.azFAQ 1.2.bhFAQ 1.2.brFAQ 1.1.dtFAQ 1.1.ecFAQ 12.3.efFAQ 12.2.egFAQ 12.1.ehFAQ 11.3.eiFAQ 11.2.ejFAQ 11.1.ekFAQ 10.2.elFAQ 10.1.emFAQ 9.3.enFAQ 9.2.eoFAQ 9.1.epFAQ 8.3.eqFAQ 8.2.erFAQ 8.1.esFAQ 7.3.etFAQ 7.2.euFAQ 7.1.evFAQ 6.2.ewFAQ 6.1.exFAQ 5.4.eyFAQ 5.3.ezFAQ 5.2.faFAQ 5.1.fbFAQ 4.3.fcFAQ 4.2.fdFAQ 4.1.feFAQ 3.3.ffFAQ 3.2.fgFAQ 3.1.fhFAQ 2.2.fiFAQ 2.1.fjFAQ 1.3.fkFAQ 1.2.flFAQ 1.1.fmClimate has always changed, but warming like that of recent decades has not been seen for millennia or longer.

FAQ 2.1.dFAQ 2.1.mFAQ 1.3.asFAQ 1.3.baFAQ 1.2.biFAQ 1.2.bsFAQ 1.1.duFAQ 1.1.edFAQ 12.3.egFAQ 12.2.ehFAQ 12.1.eiFAQ 11.3.ejFAQ 11.2.ekFAQ 11.1.elFAQ 10.2.emFAQ 10.1.enFAQ 9.3.eoFAQ 9.2.epFAQ 9.1.eqFAQ 8.3.erFAQ 8.2.esFAQ 8.1.etFAQ 7.3.euFAQ 7.2.evFAQ 7.1.ewFAQ 6.2.exFAQ 6.1.eyFAQ 5.4.ezFAQ 5.3.faFAQ 5.2.fbFAQ 5.1.fcFAQ 4.3.fdFAQ 4.2.feFAQ 4.1.ffFAQ 3.3.fgFAQ 3.2.fhFAQ 3.1.fiFAQ 2.2.fjFAQ 2.1.fkFAQ 1.3.flFAQ 1.2.fmFAQ 1.1.fnIt has been a long time since it has been this warm

FAQ 2.1.eFAQ 2.1.nFAQ 1.3.atFAQ 1.3.bbFAQ 1.2.bjFAQ 1.2.btFAQ 1.1.dvFAQ 1.1.eeFAQ 12.3.ehFAQ 12.2.eiFAQ 12.1.ejFAQ 11.3.ekFAQ 11.2.elFAQ 11.1.emFAQ 10.2.enFAQ 10.1.eoFAQ 9.3.epFAQ 9.2.eqFAQ 9.1.erFAQ 8.3.esFAQ 8.2.etFAQ 8.1.euFAQ 7.3.evFAQ 7.2.ewFAQ 7.1.exFAQ 6.2.eyFAQ 6.1.ezFAQ 5.4.faFAQ 5.3.fbFAQ 5.2.fcFAQ 5.1.fdFAQ 4.3.feFAQ 4.2.ffFAQ 4.1.fgFAQ 3.3.fhFAQ 3.2.fiFAQ 3.1.fjFAQ 2.2.fkFAQ 2.1.flFAQ 1.3.fmFAQ 1.2.fnFAQ 1.1.foIt is warming rapidly

FAQ 2.1.fFAQ 2.1.oFAQ 1.3.auFAQ 1.3.bcFAQ 1.2.bkFAQ 1.2.buFAQ 1.1.dwFAQ 1.1.efFAQ 12.3.eiFAQ 12.2.ejFAQ 12.1.ekFAQ 11.3.elFAQ 11.2.emFAQ 11.1.enFAQ 10.2.eoFAQ 10.1.epFAQ 9.3.eqFAQ 9.2.erFAQ 9.1.esFAQ 8.3.etFAQ 8.2.euFAQ 8.1.evFAQ 7.3.ewFAQ 7.2.exFAQ 7.1.eyFAQ 6.2.ezFAQ 6.1.faFAQ 5.4.fbFAQ 5.3.fcFAQ 5.2.fdFAQ 5.1.feFAQ 4.3.ffFAQ 4.2.fgFAQ 4.1.fhFAQ 3.3.fiFAQ 3.2.fjFAQ 3.1.fkFAQ 2.2.flFAQ 2.1.fmFAQ 1.3.fnFAQ 1.2.foFAQ 1.1.fpIt is warming almost everywhere

FAQ 2.1.gFAQ 2.1.pFAQ 1.3.avFAQ 1.3.bdFAQ 1.2.blFAQ 1.2.bvFAQ 1.1.dxFAQ 1.1.egFAQ 12.3.ejFAQ 12.2.ekFAQ 12.1.elFAQ 11.3.emFAQ 11.2.enFAQ 11.1.eoFAQ 10.2.epFAQ 10.1.eqFAQ 9.3.erFAQ 9.2.esFAQ 9.1.etFAQ 8.3.euFAQ 8.2.evFAQ 8.1.ewFAQ 7.3.exFAQ 7.2.eyFAQ 7.1.ezFAQ 6.2.faFAQ 6.1.fbFAQ 5.4.fcFAQ 5.3.fdFAQ 5.2.feFAQ 5.1.ffFAQ 4.3.fgFAQ 4.2.fhFAQ 4.1.fiFAQ 3.3.fjFAQ 3.2.fkFAQ 3.1.flFAQ 2.2.fmFAQ 2.1.fnFAQ 1.3.foFAQ 1.2.fpFAQ 1.1.fqThe warming reversed a long-term cooling

FAQ 2.1.hFAQ 2.1.qFAQ 1.3.awFAQ 1.3.beFAQ 1.2.bmFAQ 1.2.bwFAQ 1.1.dyFAQ 1.1.ehFAQ 12.3.ekFAQ 12.2.elFAQ 12.1.emFAQ 11.3.enFAQ 11.2.eoFAQ 11.1.epFAQ 10.2.eqFAQ 10.1.erFAQ 9.3.esFAQ 9.2.etFAQ 9.1.euFAQ 8.3.evFAQ 8.2.ewFAQ 8.1.exFAQ 7.3.eyFAQ 7.2.ezFAQ 7.1.faFAQ 6.2.fbFAQ 6.1.fcFAQ 5.4.fdFAQ 5.3.feFAQ 5.2.ffFAQ 5.1.fgFAQ 4.3.fhFAQ 4.2.fiFAQ 4.1.fjFAQ 3.3.fkFAQ 3.2.flFAQ 3.1.fmFAQ 2.2.fnFAQ 2.1.foFAQ 1.3.fpFAQ 1.2.fqFAQ 1.1.frFAQ

FAQ 2.1.iFAQ 2.1.rFAQ 1.3.axFAQ 1.3.bfFAQ 1.2.bnFAQ 1.2.bxFAQ 1.1.dzFAQ 1.1.eiFAQ 12.3.elFAQ 12.2.emFAQ 12.1.enFAQ 11.3.eoFAQ 11.2.epFAQ 11.1.eqFAQ 10.2.erFAQ 10.1.esFAQ 9.3.etFAQ 9.2.euFAQ 9.1.evFAQ 8.3.ewFAQ 8.2.exFAQ 8.1.eyFAQ 7.3.ezFAQ 7.2.faFAQ 7.1.fbFAQ 6.2.fcFAQ 6.1.fdFAQ 5.4.feFAQ 5.3.ffFAQ 5.2.fgFAQ 5.1.fhFAQ 4.3.fiFAQ 4.2.fjFAQ 4.1.fkFAQ 3.3.flFAQ 3.2.fmFAQ 3.1.fnFAQ 2.2.foFAQ 2.1.fpFAQ 1.3.fqFAQ 1.2.frFAQ 1.1.fsFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 2.1.jFAQ 2.1.sFAQ 1.3.ayFAQ 1.3.bgFAQ 1.2.boFAQ 1.2.byFAQ 1.1.eaFAQ 1.1.ejFAQ 12.3.emFAQ 12.2.enFAQ 12.1.eoFAQ 11.3.epFAQ 11.2.eqFAQ 11.1.erFAQ 10.2.esFAQ 10.1.etFAQ 9.3.euFAQ 9.2.evFAQ 9.1.ewFAQ 8.3.exFAQ 8.2.eyFAQ 8.1.ezFAQ 7.3.faFAQ 7.2.fbFAQ 7.1.fcFAQ 6.2.fdFAQ 6.1.feFAQ 5.4.ffFAQ 5.3.fgFAQ 5.2.fhFAQ 5.1.fiFAQ 4.3.fjFAQ 4.2.fkFAQ 4.1.flFAQ 3.3.fmFAQ 3.2.fnFAQ 3.1.foFAQ 2.2.fpFAQ 2.1.fqFAQ 1.3.frFAQ 1.2.fsFAQ 1.1.ftFAQ 2.2 | What Is the Evidence for Climate Change?

FAQ 2.2.aFAQ 2.1.kFAQ 2.1.tFAQ 1.3.azFAQ 1.3.bhFAQ 1.2.bpFAQ 1.2.bzFAQ 1.1.ebFAQ 1.1.ekFAQ 12.3.enFAQ 12.2.eoFAQ 12.1.epFAQ 11.3.eqFAQ 11.2.erFAQ 11.1.esFAQ 10.2.etFAQ 10.1.euFAQ 9.3.evFAQ 9.2.ewFAQ 9.1.exFAQ 8.3.eyFAQ 8.2.ezFAQ 8.1.faFAQ 7.3.fbFAQ 7.2.fcFAQ 7.1.fdFAQ 6.2.feFAQ 6.1.ffFAQ 5.4.fgFAQ 5.3.fhFAQ 5.2.fiFAQ 5.1.fjFAQ 4.3.fkFAQ 4.2.flFAQ 4.1.fmFAQ 3.3.fnFAQ 3.2.foFAQ 3.1.fpFAQ 2.2.fqFAQ 2.1.frFAQ 1.3.fsFAQ 1.2.ftFAQ 1.1.fuThe evidence for climate change rests on more than just increasing surface temperatures. A broad range of indicators collectively leads to the inescapable conclusion that we are witnessing rapid changes to many aspects of our global climate. We are seeing changes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and biosphere. Our scientific understanding depicts a coherent picture of a warming world.

FAQ 2.2.bFAQ 2.1.lFAQ 2.1.uFAQ 1.3.baFAQ 1.3.biFAQ 1.2.bqFAQ 1.2.caFAQ 1.1.ecFAQ 1.1.elFAQ 12.3.eoFAQ 12.2.epFAQ 12.1.eqFAQ 11.3.erFAQ 11.2.esFAQ 11.1.etFAQ 10.2.euFAQ 10.1.evFAQ 9.3.ewFAQ 9.2.exFAQ 9.1.eyFAQ 8.3.ezFAQ 8.2.faFAQ 8.1.fbFAQ 7.3.fcFAQ 7.2.fdFAQ 7.1.feFAQ 6.2.ffFAQ 6.1.fgFAQ 5.4.fhFAQ 5.3.fiFAQ 5.2.fjFAQ 5.1.fkFAQ 4.3.flFAQ 4.2.fmFAQ 4.1.fnFAQ 3.3.foFAQ 3.2.fpFAQ 3.1.fqFAQ 2.2.frFAQ 2.1.fsFAQ 1.3.ftFAQ 1.2.fuFAQ 1.1.fvWe have long observed our changing climate. From the earliest scientists taking meteorological observations in the 16th and 17th centuries to the present, we have seen a revolution in our ability to observe and diagnose our changing climate. Today we can observe diverse aspects of our climate system from space, from aircraft and weather balloons, using a range of ground-based observing technologies, and using instruments that can measure to great depths in the ocean.

FAQ 2.2.cFAQ 2.1.mFAQ 2.1.vFAQ 1.3.bbFAQ 1.3.bjFAQ 1.2.brFAQ 1.2.cbFAQ 1.1.edFAQ 1.1.emFAQ 12.3.epFAQ 12.2.eqFAQ 12.1.erFAQ 11.3.esFAQ 11.2.etFAQ 11.1.euFAQ 10.2.evFAQ 10.1.ewFAQ 9.3.exFAQ 9.2.eyFAQ 9.1.ezFAQ 8.3.faFAQ 8.2.fbFAQ 8.1.fcFAQ 7.3.fdFAQ 7.2.feFAQ 7.1.ffFAQ 6.2.fgFAQ 6.1.fhFAQ 5.4.fiFAQ 5.3.fjFAQ 5.2.fkFAQ 5.1.flFAQ 4.3.fmFAQ 4.2.fnFAQ 4.1.foFAQ 3.3.fpFAQ 3.2.fqFAQ 3.1.frFAQ 2.2.fsFAQ 2.1.ftFAQ 1.3.fuFAQ 1.2.fvFAQ 1.1.fwObserved changes in key indicators point to warming over land areas. Global surface temperature over land has increased since the late 19th century, and changes are apparent in a variety of societally relevant temperature extremes. Since the mid-1950s the troposphere (i.e., the lowest few km of the atmosphere) has warmed, and precipitation over land has increased. Near-surface specific humidity (i.e., water vapour) over land has increased since at least the 1970s. Aspects of atmospheric circulation have also evolved since the mid-20th century, including a poleward shift of mid-latitude storm tracks.

FAQ 2.2.dFAQ 2.1.nFAQ 2.1.wFAQ 1.3.bcFAQ 1.3.bkFAQ 1.2.bsFAQ 1.2.ccFAQ 1.1.eeFAQ 1.1.enFAQ 12.3.eqFAQ 12.2.erFAQ 12.1.esFAQ 11.3.etFAQ 11.2.euFAQ 11.1.evFAQ 10.2.ewFAQ 10.1.exFAQ 9.3.eyFAQ 9.2.ezFAQ 9.1.faFAQ 8.3.fbFAQ 8.2.fcFAQ 8.1.fdFAQ 7.3.feFAQ 7.2.ffFAQ 7.1.fgFAQ 6.2.fhFAQ 6.1.fiFAQ 5.4.fjFAQ 5.3.fkFAQ 5.2.flFAQ 5.1.fmFAQ 4.3.fnFAQ 4.2.foFAQ 4.1.fpFAQ 3.3.fqFAQ 3.2.frFAQ 3.1.fsFAQ 2.2.ftFAQ 2.1.fuFAQ 1.3.fvFAQ 1.2.fwFAQ 1.1.fxChanges in the global ocean point to warming as well. Global average sea surface temperature has increased since the late 19th century. The heat content of the global ocean has increased since the 19th century, with more than 90% of the excess energy accumulated in the climate system being stored in the ocean. This ocean warming has caused ocean waters to expand, which has contributed to the increase in global sea level in the past century. The relative acidity of the ocean has also increased since the early 20th century, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and oxygen loss is evident in the upper ocean since the 1970s.

FAQ 2.2.eFAQ 2.1.oFAQ 2.1.xFAQ 1.3.bdFAQ 1.3.blFAQ 1.2.btFAQ 1.2.cdFAQ 1.1.efFAQ 1.1.eoFAQ 12.3.erFAQ 12.2.esFAQ 12.1.etFAQ 11.3.euFAQ 11.2.evFAQ 11.1.ewFAQ 10.2.exFAQ 10.1.eyFAQ 9.3.ezFAQ 9.2.faFAQ 9.1.fbFAQ 8.3.fcFAQ 8.2.fdFAQ 8.1.feFAQ 7.3.ffFAQ 7.2.fgFAQ 7.1.fhFAQ 6.2.fiFAQ 6.1.fjFAQ 5.4.fkFAQ 5.3.flFAQ 5.2.fmFAQ 5.1.fnFAQ 4.3.foFAQ 4.2.fpFAQ 4.1.fqFAQ 3.3.frFAQ 3.2.fsFAQ 3.1.ftFAQ 2.2.fuFAQ 2.1.fvFAQ 1.3.fwFAQ 1.2.fxFAQ 1.1.fySignificant changes are also evident over the cryosphere – the portion of the Earth where water is seasonally or continuously frozen as snow or ice. There have been decreases in Arctic sea ice area and thickness and changes in Antarctic sea ice extent since the mid-1970s. Spring snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased since the late-1970s, along with an observed warming and thawing of permafrost (perennially frozen ground). The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are shrinking, as are the vast majority of glaciers worldwide, contributing strongly to the observed sea level rise.

FAQ 2.2.fFAQ 2.1.pFAQ 2.1.yFAQ 1.3.beFAQ 1.3.bmFAQ 1.2.buFAQ 1.2.ceFAQ 1.1.egFAQ 1.1.epFAQ 12.3.esFAQ 12.2.etFAQ 12.1.euFAQ 11.3.evFAQ 11.2.ewFAQ 11.1.exFAQ 10.2.eyFAQ 10.1.ezFAQ 9.3.faFAQ 9.2.fbFAQ 9.1.fcFAQ 8.3.fdFAQ 8.2.feFAQ 8.1.ffFAQ 7.3.fgFAQ 7.2.fhFAQ 7.1.fiFAQ 6.2.fjFAQ 6.1.fkFAQ 5.4.flFAQ 5.3.fmFAQ 5.2.fnFAQ 5.1.foFAQ 4.3.fpFAQ 4.2.fqFAQ 4.1.frFAQ 3.3.fsFAQ 3.2.ftFAQ 3.1.fuFAQ 2.2.fvFAQ 2.1.fwFAQ 1.3.fxFAQ 1.2.fyFAQ 1.1.fzMany aspects of the biosphere are also changing. Over the last century, long-term ecological surveys show that many land species have generally moved poleward and to higher elevations. There have been increases in green leaf area and/or mass (i.e., global greenness) since the early 1980s, and the length of the growing season has increased over much of the extratropical Northern Hemisphere since at least the mid-20th century. There is also strong evidence that various phenological metrics (such as the timing of fish migrations) for many marine species have changed in the last half century.

FAQ 2.2.gFAQ 2.1.qFAQ 2.1.zFAQ 1.3.bfFAQ 1.3.bnFAQ 1.2.bvFAQ 1.2.cfFAQ 1.1.ehFAQ 1.1.eqFAQ 12.3.etFAQ 12.2.euFAQ 12.1.evFAQ 11.3.ewFAQ 11.2.exFAQ 11.1.eyFAQ 10.2.ezFAQ 10.1.faFAQ 9.3.fbFAQ 9.2.fcFAQ 9.1.fdFAQ 8.3.feFAQ 8.2.ffFAQ 8.1.fgFAQ 7.3.fhFAQ 7.2.fiFAQ 7.1.fjFAQ 6.2.fkFAQ 6.1.flFAQ 5.4.fmFAQ 5.3.fnFAQ 5.2.foFAQ 5.1.fpFAQ 4.3.fqFAQ 4.2.frFAQ 4.1.fsFAQ 3.3.ftFAQ 3.2.fuFAQ 3.1.fvFAQ 2.2.fwFAQ 2.1.fxFAQ 1.3.fyFAQ 1.2.fzFAQ 1.1.gaChange is apparent across many components of the climate system. It has been observed using a very broad range of techniques and analysed independently by numerous groups around the world. The changes are consistent in pointing to a climate system that has undergone rapid warming since the industrial revolution.

FAQ 2.2.hFAQ 2.1.rFAQ 2.1.aaFAQ 1.3.bgFAQ 1.3.boFAQ 1.2.bwFAQ 1.2.cgFAQ 1.1.eiFAQ 1.1.erFAQ 12.3.euFAQ 12.2.evFAQ 12.1.ewFAQ 11.3.exFAQ 11.2.eyFAQ 11.1.ezFAQ 10.2.faFAQ 10.1.fbFAQ 9.3.fcFAQ 9.2.fdFAQ 9.1.feFAQ 8.3.ffFAQ 8.2.fgFAQ 8.1.fhFAQ 7.3.fiFAQ 7.2.fjFAQ 7.1.fkFAQ 6.2.flFAQ 6.1.fmFAQ 5.4.fnFAQ 5.3.foFAQ 5.2.fpFAQ 5.1.fqFAQ 4.3.frFAQ 4.2.fsFAQ 4.1.ftFAQ 3.3.fuFAQ 3.2.fvFAQ 3.1.fwFAQ 2.2.fxFAQ 2.1.fyFAQ 1.3.fzFAQ 1.2.gaFAQ 1.1.gbFAQ

FAQ 2.2.iFAQ 2.1.sFAQ 2.1.abFAQ 1.3.bhFAQ 1.3.bpFAQ 1.2.bxFAQ 1.2.chFAQ 1.1.ejFAQ 1.1.esFAQ 12.3.evFAQ 12.2.ewFAQ 12.1.exFAQ 11.3.eyFAQ 11.2.ezFAQ 11.1.faFAQ 10.2.fbFAQ 10.1.fcFAQ 9.3.fdFAQ 9.2.feFAQ 9.1.ffFAQ 8.3.fgFAQ 8.2.fhFAQ 8.1.fiFAQ 7.3.fjFAQ 7.2.fkFAQ 7.1.flFAQ 6.2.fmFAQ 6.1.fnFAQ 5.4.foFAQ 5.3.fpFAQ 5.2.fqFAQ 5.1.frFAQ 4.3.fsFAQ 4.2.ftFAQ 4.1.fuFAQ 3.3.fvFAQ 3.2.fwFAQ 3.1.fxFAQ 2.2.fyFAQ 2.1.fzFAQ 1.3.gaFAQ 1.2.gbFAQ 1.1.gcFAQ 2.2 (continued)

FAQ 2.2.aFAQ 2.2.jFAQ 2.1.tFAQ 2.1.acFAQ 1.3.biFAQ 1.3.bqFAQ 1.2.byFAQ 1.2.ciFAQ 1.1.ekFAQ 1.1.etFAQ 12.3.ewFAQ 12.2.exFAQ 12.1.eyFAQ 11.3.ezFAQ 11.2.faFAQ 11.1.fbFAQ 10.2.fcFAQ 10.1.fdFAQ 9.3.feFAQ 9.2.ffFAQ 9.1.fgFAQ 8.3.fhFAQ 8.2.fiFAQ 8.1.fjFAQ 7.3.fkFAQ 7.2.flFAQ 7.1.fmFAQ 6.2.fnFAQ 6.1.foFAQ 5.4.fpFAQ 5.3.fqFAQ 5.2.frFAQ 5.1.fsFAQ 4.3.ftFAQ 4.2.fuFAQ 4.1.fvFAQ 3.3.fwFAQ 3.2.fxFAQ 3.1.fyFAQ 2.2.fzFAQ 2.1.gaFAQ 1.3.gbFAQ 1.2.gcFAQ 1.1.gdFAQ 2.2, Figure 1 | Synthesis of significant changes observed in the climate system over the past several decades. Upwards, downwards and circling arrows indicate increases, decreases and changes, respectively. Independent analyses of many components of the climate system that would be expected to change in a warming world exhibit trends consistent with warming. Note that this list is not comprehensive.

FAQ 2.2.bFAQ 2.2.kFAQ 2.1.uFAQ 2.1.adFAQ 1.3.bjFAQ 1.3.brFAQ 1.2.bzFAQ 1.2.cjFAQ 1.1.elFAQ 1.1.euFAQ 12.3.exFAQ 12.2.eyFAQ 12.1.ezFAQ 11.3.faFAQ 11.2.fbFAQ 11.1.fcFAQ 10.2.fdFAQ 10.1.feFAQ 9.3.ffFAQ 9.2.fgFAQ 9.1.fhFAQ 8.3.fiFAQ 8.2.fjFAQ 8.1.fkFAQ 7.3.flFAQ 7.2.fmFAQ 7.1.fnFAQ 6.2.foFAQ 6.1.fpFAQ 5.4.fqFAQ 5.3.frFAQ 5.2.fsFAQ 5.1.ftFAQ 4.3.fuFAQ 4.2.fvFAQ 4.1.fwFAQ 3.3.fxFAQ 3.2.fyFAQ 3.1.fzFAQ 2.2.gaFAQ 2.1.gbFAQ 1.3.gcFAQ 1.2.gdFAQ 1.1.geAir temperature (in the lowest few km)

FAQ 2.2.cFAQ 2.2.lFAQ 2.1.vFAQ 2.1.aeFAQ 1.3.bkFAQ 1.3.bsFAQ 1.2.caFAQ 1.2.ckFAQ 1.1.emFAQ 1.1.evFAQ 12.3.eyFAQ 12.2.ezFAQ 12.1.faFAQ 11.3.fbFAQ 11.2.fcFAQ 11.1.fdFAQ 10.2.feFAQ 10.1.ffFAQ 9.3.fgFAQ 9.2.fhFAQ 9.1.fiFAQ 8.3.fjFAQ 8.2.fkFAQ 8.1.flFAQ 7.3.fmFAQ 7.2.fnFAQ 7.1.foFAQ 6.2.fpFAQ 6.1.fqFAQ 5.4.frFAQ 5.3.fsFAQ 5.2.ftFAQ 5.1.fuFAQ 4.3.fvFAQ 4.2.fwFAQ 4.1.fxFAQ 3.3.fyFAQ 3.2.fzFAQ 3.1.gaFAQ 2.2.gbFAQ 2.1.gcFAQ 1.3.gdFAQ 1.2.geFAQ 1.1.gfAtmospheric circulation

FAQ 2.2.dFAQ 2.2.mFAQ 2.1.wFAQ 2.1.afFAQ 1.3.blFAQ 1.3.btFAQ 1.2.cbFAQ 1.2.clFAQ 1.1.enFAQ 1.1.ewFAQ 12.3.ezFAQ 12.2.faFAQ 12.1.fbFAQ 11.3.fcFAQ 11.2.fdFAQ 11.1.feFAQ 10.2.ffFAQ 10.1.fgFAQ 9.3.fhFAQ 9.2.fiFAQ 9.1.fjFAQ 8.3.fkFAQ 8.2.flFAQ 8.1.fmFAQ 7.3.fnFAQ 7.2.foFAQ 7.1.fpFAQ 6.2.fqFAQ 6.1.frFAQ 5.4.fsFAQ 5.3.ftFAQ 5.2.fuFAQ 5.1.fvFAQ 4.3.fwFAQ 4.2.fxFAQ 4.1.fyFAQ 3.3.fzFAQ 3.2.gaFAQ 3.1.gbFAQ 2.2.gcFAQ 2.1.gdFAQ 1.3.geFAQ 1.2.gfFAQ 1.1.ggWater vapour

FAQ 2.2.eFAQ 2.2.nFAQ 2.1.xFAQ 2.1.agFAQ 1.3.bmFAQ 1.3.buFAQ 1.2.ccFAQ 1.2.cmFAQ 1.1.eoFAQ 1.1.exFAQ 12.3.faFAQ 12.2.fbFAQ 12.1.fcFAQ 11.3.fdFAQ 11.2.feFAQ 11.1.ffFAQ 10.2.fgFAQ 10.1.fhFAQ 9.3.fiFAQ 9.2.fjFAQ 9.1.fkFAQ 8.3.flFAQ 8.2.fmFAQ 8.1.fnFAQ 7.3.foFAQ 7.2.fpFAQ 7.1.fqFAQ 6.2.frFAQ 6.1.fsFAQ 5.4.ftFAQ 5.3.fuFAQ 5.2.fvFAQ 5.1.fwFAQ 4.3.fxFAQ 4.2.fyFAQ 4.1.fzFAQ 3.3.gaFAQ 3.2.gbFAQ 3.1.gcFAQ 2.2.gdFAQ 2.1.geFAQ 1.3.gfFAQ 1.2.ggFAQ 1.1.ghSurface temperature

FAQ 2.2.fFAQ 2.2.oFAQ 2.1.yFAQ 2.1.ahFAQ 1.3.bnFAQ 1.3.bvFAQ 1.2.cdFAQ 1.2.cnFAQ 1.1.epFAQ 1.1.eyFAQ 12.3.fbFAQ 12.2.fcFAQ 12.1.fdFAQ 11.3.feFAQ 11.2.ffFAQ 11.1.fgFAQ 10.2.fhFAQ 10.1.fiFAQ 9.3.fjFAQ 9.2.fkFAQ 9.1.flFAQ 8.3.fmFAQ 8.2.fnFAQ 8.1.foFAQ 7.3.fpFAQ 7.2.fqFAQ 7.1.frFAQ 6.2.fsFAQ 6.1.ftFAQ 5.4.fuFAQ 5.3.fvFAQ 5.2.fwFAQ 5.1.fxFAQ 4.3.fyFAQ 4.2.fzFAQ 4.1.gaFAQ 3.3.gbFAQ 3.2.gcFAQ 3.1.gdFAQ 2.2.geFAQ 2.1.gfFAQ 1.3.ggFAQ 1.2.ghFAQ 1.1.giSpecies range shifts

FAQ 2.2.gFAQ 2.2.pFAQ 2.1.zFAQ 2.1.aiFAQ 1.3.boFAQ 1.3.bwFAQ 1.2.ceFAQ 1.2.coFAQ 1.1.eqFAQ 1.1.ezFAQ 12.3.fcFAQ 12.2.fdFAQ 12.1.feFAQ 11.3.ffFAQ 11.2.fgFAQ 11.1.fhFAQ 10.2.fiFAQ 10.1.fjFAQ 9.3.fkFAQ 9.2.flFAQ 9.1.fmFAQ 8.3.fnFAQ 8.2.foFAQ 8.1.fpFAQ 7.3.fqFAQ 7.2.frFAQ 7.1.fsFAQ 6.2.ftFAQ 6.1.fuFAQ 5.4.fvFAQ 5.3.fwFAQ 5.2.fxFAQ 5.1.fyFAQ 4.3.fzFAQ 4.2.gaFAQ 4.1.gbFAQ 3.3.gcFAQ 3.2.gdFAQ 3.1.geFAQ 2.2.gfFAQ 2.1.ggFAQ 1.3.ghFAQ 1.2.giFAQ 1.1.gjOcean heat content

FAQ 2.2.hFAQ 2.2.qFAQ 2.1.aaFAQ 2.1.ajFAQ 1.3.bpFAQ 1.3.bxFAQ 1.2.cfFAQ 1.2.cpFAQ 1.1.erFAQ 1.1.faFAQ 12.3.fdFAQ 12.2.feFAQ 12.1.ffFAQ 11.3.fgFAQ 11.2.fhFAQ 11.1.fiFAQ 10.2.fjFAQ 10.1.fkFAQ 9.3.flFAQ 9.2.fmFAQ 9.1.fnFAQ 8.3.foFAQ 8.2.fpFAQ 8.1.fqFAQ 7.3.frFAQ 7.2.fsFAQ 7.1.ftFAQ 6.2.fuFAQ 6.1.fvFAQ 5.4.fwFAQ 5.3.fxFAQ 5.2.fyFAQ 5.1.fzFAQ 4.3.gaFAQ 4.2.gbFAQ 4.1.gcFAQ 3.3.gdFAQ 3.2.geFAQ 3.1.gfFAQ 2.2.ggFAQ 2.1.ghFAQ 1.3.giFAQ 1.2.gjFAQ 1.1.gkSea level

FAQ 2.2.iFAQ 2.2.rFAQ 2.1.abFAQ 2.1.akFAQ 1.3.bqFAQ 1.3.byFAQ 1.2.cgFAQ 1.2.cqFAQ 1.1.esFAQ 1.1.fbFAQ 12.3.feFAQ 12.2.ffFAQ 12.1.fgFAQ 11.3.fhFAQ 11.2.fiFAQ 11.1.fjFAQ 10.2.fkFAQ 10.1.flFAQ 9.3.fmFAQ 9.2.fnFAQ 9.1.foFAQ 8.3.fpFAQ 8.2.fqFAQ 8.1.frFAQ 7.3.fsFAQ 7.2.ftFAQ 7.1.fuFAQ 6.2.fvFAQ 6.1.fwFAQ 5.4.fxFAQ 5.3.fyFAQ 5.2.fzFAQ 5.1.gaFAQ 4.3.gbFAQ 4.2.gcFAQ 4.1.gdFAQ 3.3.geFAQ 3.2.gfFAQ 3.1.ggFAQ 2.2.ghFAQ 2.1.giFAQ 1.3.gjFAQ 1.2.gkFAQ 1.1.glSea surface temperatureSpecies ranges shifts

FAQ 2.2.jFAQ 2.2.sFAQ 2.1.acFAQ 2.1.alFAQ 1.3.brFAQ 1.3.bzFAQ 1.2.chFAQ 1.2.crFAQ 1.1.etFAQ 1.1.fcFAQ 12.3.ffFAQ 12.2.fgFAQ 12.1.fhFAQ 11.3.fiFAQ 11.2.fjFAQ 11.1.fkFAQ 10.2.flFAQ 10.1.fmFAQ 9.3.fnFAQ 9.2.foFAQ 9.1.fpFAQ 8.3.fqFAQ 8.2.frFAQ 8.1.fsFAQ 7.3.ftFAQ 7.2.fuFAQ 7.1.fvFAQ 6.2.fwFAQ 6.1.fxFAQ 5.4.fyFAQ 5.3.fzFAQ 5.2.gaFAQ 5.1.gbFAQ 4.3.gcFAQ 4.2.gdFAQ 4.1.geFAQ 3.3.gfFAQ 3.2.ggFAQ 3.1.ghFAQ 2.2.giFAQ 2.1.gjFAQ 1.3.gkFAQ 1.2.glFAQ 1.1.gmOcean acidification

FAQ 2.2.kFAQ 2.2.tFAQ 2.1.adFAQ 2.1.amFAQ 1.3.bsFAQ 1.3.caFAQ 1.2.ciFAQ 1.2.csFAQ 1.1.euFAQ 1.1.fdFAQ 12.3.fgFAQ 12.2.fhFAQ 12.1.fiFAQ 11.3.fjFAQ 11.2.fkFAQ 11.1.flFAQ 10.2.fmFAQ 10.1.fnFAQ 9.3.foFAQ 9.2.fpFAQ 9.1.fqFAQ 8.3.frFAQ 8.2.fsFAQ 8.1.ftFAQ 7.3.fuFAQ 7.2.fvFAQ 7.1.fwFAQ 6.2.fxFAQ 6.1.fyFAQ 5.4.fzFAQ 5.3.gaFAQ 5.2.gbFAQ 5.1.gcFAQ 4.3.gdFAQ 4.2.geFAQ 4.1.gfFAQ 3.3.ggFAQ 3.2.ghFAQ 3.1.giFAQ 2.2.gjFAQ 2.1.gkFAQ 1.3.glFAQ 1.2.gmFAQ 1.1.gnGrowing season length

FAQ 2.2.lFAQ 2.2.uFAQ 2.1.aeFAQ 2.1.anFAQ 1.3.btFAQ 1.3.cbFAQ 1.2.cjFAQ 1.2.ctFAQ 1.1.evFAQ 1.1.feFAQ 12.3.fhFAQ 12.2.fiFAQ 12.1.fjFAQ 11.3.fkFAQ 11.2.flFAQ 11.1.fmFAQ 10.2.fnFAQ 10.1.foFAQ 9.3.fpFAQ 9.2.fqFAQ 9.1.frFAQ 8.3.fsFAQ 8.2.ftFAQ 8.1.fuFAQ 7.3.fvFAQ 7.2.fwFAQ 7.1.fxFAQ 6.2.fyFAQ 6.1.fzFAQ 5.4.gaFAQ 5.3.gbFAQ 5.2.gcFAQ 5.1.gdFAQ 4.3.geFAQ 4.2.gfFAQ 4.1.ggFAQ 3.3.ghFAQ 3.2.giFAQ 3.1.gjFAQ 2.2.gkFAQ 2.1.glFAQ 1.3.gmFAQ 1.2.gnFAQ 1.1.goGlobal greenness

FAQ 2.2.mFAQ 2.2.vFAQ 2.1.afFAQ 2.1.aoFAQ 1.3.buFAQ 1.3.ccFAQ 1.2.ckFAQ 1.2.cuFAQ 1.1.ewFAQ 1.1.ffFAQ 12.3.fiFAQ 12.2.fjFAQ 12.1.fkFAQ 11.3.flFAQ 11.2.fmFAQ 11.1.fnFAQ 10.2.foFAQ 10.1.fpFAQ 9.3.fqFAQ 9.2.frFAQ 9.1.fsFAQ 8.3.ftFAQ 8.2.fuFAQ 8.1.fvFAQ 7.3.fwFAQ 7.2.fxFAQ 7.1.fyFAQ 6.2.fzFAQ 6.1.gaFAQ 5.4.gbFAQ 5.3.gcFAQ 5.2.gdFAQ 5.1.geFAQ 4.3.gfFAQ 4.2.ggFAQ 4.1.ghFAQ 3.3.giFAQ 3.2.gjFAQ 3.1.gkFAQ 2.2.glFAQ 2.1.gmFAQ 1.3.gnFAQ 1.2.goFAQ 1.1.gpPrecipitation

FAQ 2.2.nFAQ 2.2.wFAQ 2.1.agFAQ 2.1.apFAQ 1.3.bvFAQ 1.3.cdFAQ 1.2.clFAQ 1.2.cvFAQ 1.1.exFAQ 1.1.fgFAQ 12.3.fjFAQ 12.2.fkFAQ 12.1.flFAQ 11.3.fmFAQ 11.2.fnFAQ 11.1.foFAQ 10.2.fpFAQ 10.1.fqFAQ 9.3.frFAQ 9.2.fsFAQ 9.1.ftFAQ 8.3.fuFAQ 8.2.fvFAQ 8.1.fwFAQ 7.3.fxFAQ 7.2.fyFAQ 7.1.fzFAQ 6.2.gaFAQ 6.1.gbFAQ 5.4.gcFAQ 5.3.gdFAQ 5.2.geFAQ 5.1.gfFAQ 4.3.ggFAQ 4.2.ghFAQ 4.1.giFAQ 3.3.gjFAQ 3.2.gkFAQ 3.1.glFAQ 2.2.gmFAQ 2.1.gnFAQ 1.3.goFAQ 1.2.gpFAQ 1.1.gqGlaciers

FAQ 2.2.oFAQ 2.2.xFAQ 2.1.ahFAQ 2.1.aqFAQ 1.3.bwFAQ 1.3.ceFAQ 1.2.cmFAQ 1.2.cwFAQ 1.1.eyFAQ 1.1.fhFAQ 12.3.fkFAQ 12.2.flFAQ 12.1.fmFAQ 11.3.fnFAQ 11.2.foFAQ 11.1.fpFAQ 10.2.fqFAQ 10.1.frFAQ 9.3.fsFAQ 9.2.ftFAQ 9.1.fuFAQ 8.3.fvFAQ 8.2.fwFAQ 8.1.fxFAQ 7.3.fyFAQ 7.2.fzFAQ 7.1.gaFAQ 6.2.gbFAQ 6.1.gcFAQ 5.4.gdFAQ 5.3.geFAQ 5.2.gfFAQ 5.1.ggFAQ 4.3.ghFAQ 4.2.giFAQ 4.1.gjFAQ 3.3.gkFAQ 3.2.glFAQ 3.1.gmFAQ 2.2.gnFAQ 2.1.goFAQ 1.3.gpFAQ 1.2.gqFAQ 1.1.grIce sheetsSnow cover

FAQ 2.2.pFAQ 2.2.yFAQ 2.1.aiFAQ 2.1.arFAQ 1.3.bxFAQ 1.3.cfFAQ 1.2.cnFAQ 1.2.cxFAQ 1.1.ezFAQ 1.1.fiFAQ 12.3.flFAQ 12.2.fmFAQ 12.1.fnFAQ 11.3.foFAQ 11.2.fpFAQ 11.1.fqFAQ 10.2.frFAQ 10.1.fsFAQ 9.3.ftFAQ 9.2.fuFAQ 9.1.fvFAQ 8.3.fwFAQ 8.2.fxFAQ 8.1.fyFAQ 7.3.fzFAQ 7.2.gaFAQ 7.1.gbFAQ 6.2.gcFAQ 6.1.gdFAQ 5.4.geFAQ 5.3.gfFAQ 5.2.ggFAQ 5.1.ghFAQ 4.3.giFAQ 4.2.gjFAQ 4.1.gkFAQ 3.3.glFAQ 3.2.gmFAQ 3.1.gnFAQ 2.2.goFAQ 2.1.gpFAQ 1.3.gqFAQ 1.2.grFAQ 1.1.gsPermafrost extent

FAQ 2.2.qFAQ 2.2.zFAQ 2.1.ajFAQ 2.1.asFAQ 1.3.byFAQ 1.3.cgFAQ 1.2.coFAQ 1.2.cyFAQ 1.1.faFAQ 1.1.fjFAQ 12.3.fmFAQ 12.2.fnFAQ 12.1.foFAQ 11.3.fpFAQ 11.2.fqFAQ 11.1.frFAQ 10.2.fsFAQ 10.1.ftFAQ 9.3.fuFAQ 9.2.fvFAQ 9.1.fwFAQ 8.3.fxFAQ 8.2.fyFAQ 8.1.fzFAQ 7.3.gaFAQ 7.2.gbFAQ 7.1.gcFAQ 6.2.gdFAQ 6.1.geFAQ 5.4.gfFAQ 5.3.ggFAQ 5.2.ghFAQ 5.1.giFAQ 4.3.gjFAQ 4.2.gkFAQ 4.1.glFAQ 3.3.gmFAQ 3.2.gnFAQ 3.1.goFAQ 2.2.gpFAQ 2.1.gqFAQ 1.3.grFAQ 1.2.gsFAQ 1.1.gtArctic sea ice

FAQ 2.2.rFAQ 2.2.aaFAQ 2.1.akFAQ 2.1.atFAQ 1.3.bzFAQ 1.3.chFAQ 1.2.cpFAQ 1.2.czFAQ 1.1.fbFAQ 1.1.fkFAQ 12.3.fnFAQ 12.2.foFAQ 12.1.fpFAQ 11.3.fqFAQ 11.2.frFAQ 11.1.fsFAQ 10.2.ftFAQ 10.1.fuFAQ 9.3.fvFAQ 9.2.fwFAQ 9.1.fxFAQ 8.3.fyFAQ 8.2.fzFAQ 8.1.gaFAQ 7.3.gbFAQ 7.2.gcFAQ 7.1.gdFAQ 6.2.geFAQ 6.1.gfFAQ 5.4.ggFAQ 5.3.ghFAQ 5.2.giFAQ 5.1.gjFAQ 4.3.gkFAQ 4.2.glFAQ 4.1.gmFAQ 3.3.gnFAQ 3.2.goFAQ 3.1.gpFAQ 2.2.gqFAQ 2.1.grFAQ 1.3.gsFAQ 1.2.gtFAQ 1.1.guFAQ 2.2: What is the evidence for climate change?Taken together, observed changes in the climate system since the late 19th century reveal an unequivocallywarming world

FAQ 2.2.sFAQ 2.2.abFAQ 2.1.alFAQ 2.1.auFAQ 1.3.caFAQ 1.3.ciFAQ 1.2.cqFAQ 1.2.daFAQ 1.1.fcFAQ 1.1.flFAQ 12.3.foFAQ 12.2.fpFAQ 12.1.fqFAQ 11.3.frFAQ 11.2.fsFAQ 11.1.ftFAQ 10.2.fuFAQ 10.1.fvFAQ 9.3.fwFAQ 9.2.fxFAQ 9.1.fyFAQ 8.3.fzFAQ 8.2.gaFAQ 8.1.gbFAQ 7.3.gcFAQ 7.2.gdFAQ 7.1.geFAQ 6.2.gfFAQ 6.1.ggFAQ 5.4.ghFAQ 5.3.giFAQ 5.2.gjFAQ 5.1.gkFAQ 4.3.glFAQ 4.2.gmFAQ 4.1.gnFAQ 3.3.goFAQ 3.2.gpFAQ 3.1.gqFAQ 2.2.grFAQ 2.1.gsFAQ 1.3.gtFAQ 1.2.guFAQ 1.1.gvAIR

FAQ 2.2.tFAQ 2.2.acFAQ 2.1.amFAQ 2.1.avFAQ 1.3.cbFAQ 1.3.cjFAQ 1.2.crFAQ 1.2.dbFAQ 1.1.fdFAQ 1.1.fmFAQ 12.3.fpFAQ 12.2.fqFAQ 12.1.frFAQ 11.3.fsFAQ 11.2.ftFAQ 11.1.fuFAQ 10.2.fvFAQ 10.1.fwFAQ 9.3.fxFAQ 9.2.fyFAQ 9.1.fzFAQ 8.3.gaFAQ 8.2.gbFAQ 8.1.gcFAQ 7.3.gdFAQ 7.2.geFAQ 7.1.gfFAQ 6.2.ggFAQ 6.1.ghFAQ 5.4.giFAQ 5.3.gjFAQ 5.2.gkFAQ 5.1.glFAQ 4.3.gmFAQ 4.2.gnFAQ 4.1.goFAQ 3.3.gpFAQ 3.2.gqFAQ 3.1.grFAQ 2.2.gsFAQ 2.1.gtFAQ 1.3.guFAQ 1.2.gvFAQ 1.1.gwLAND

FAQ 2.2.uFAQ 2.2.adFAQ 2.1.anFAQ 2.1.awFAQ 1.3.ccFAQ 1.3.ckFAQ 1.2.csFAQ 1.2.dcFAQ 1.1.feFAQ 1.1.fnFAQ 12.3.fqFAQ 12.2.frFAQ 12.1.fsFAQ 11.3.ftFAQ 11.2.fuFAQ 11.1.fvFAQ 10.2.fwFAQ 10.1.fxFAQ 9.3.fyFAQ 9.2.fzFAQ 9.1.gaFAQ 8.3.gbFAQ 8.2.gcFAQ 8.1.gdFAQ 7.3.geFAQ 7.2.gfFAQ 7.1.ggFAQ 6.2.ghFAQ 6.1.giFAQ 5.4.gjFAQ 5.3.gkFAQ 5.2.glFAQ 5.1.gmFAQ 4.3.gnFAQ 4.2.goFAQ 4.1.gpFAQ 3.3.gqFAQ 3.2.grFAQ 3.1.gsFAQ 2.2.gtFAQ 2.1.guFAQ 1.3.gvFAQ 1.2.gwFAQ 1.1.gxOcean ICE

FAQ 2.2.vFAQ 2.2.aeFAQ 2.1.aoFAQ 2.1.axFAQ 1.3.cdFAQ 1.3.clFAQ 1.2.ctFAQ 1.2.ddFAQ 1.1.ffFAQ 1.1.foFAQ 12.3.frFAQ 12.2.fsFAQ 12.1.ftFAQ 11.3.fuFAQ 11.2.fvFAQ 11.1.fwFAQ 10.2.fxFAQ 10.1.fyFAQ 9.3.fzFAQ 9.2.gaFAQ 9.1.gbFAQ 8.3.gcFAQ 8.2.gdFAQ 8.1.geFAQ 7.3.gfFAQ 7.2.ggFAQ 7.1.ghFAQ 6.2.giFAQ 6.1.gjFAQ 5.4.gkFAQ 5.3.glFAQ 5.2.gmFAQ 5.1.gnFAQ 4.3.goFAQ 4.2.gpFAQ 4.1.gqFAQ 3.3.grFAQ 3.2.gsFAQ 3.1.gtFAQ 2.2.guFAQ 2.1.gvFAQ 1.3.gwFAQ 1.2.gxFAQ 1.1.gyFAQ

FAQ 2.2.wFAQ 2.2.afFAQ 2.1.apFAQ 2.1.ayFAQ 1.3.ceFAQ 1.3.cmFAQ 1.2.cuFAQ 1.2.deFAQ 1.1.fgFAQ 1.1.fpFAQ 12.3.fsFAQ 12.2.ftFAQ 12.1.fuFAQ 11.3.fvFAQ 11.2.fwFAQ 11.1.fxFAQ 10.2.fyFAQ 10.1.fzFAQ 9.3.gaFAQ 9.2.gbFAQ 9.1.gcFAQ 8.3.gdFAQ 8.2.geFAQ 8.1.gfFAQ 7.3.ggFAQ 7.2.ghFAQ 7.1.giFAQ 6.2.gjFAQ 6.1.gkFAQ 5.4.glFAQ 5.3.gmFAQ 5.2.gnFAQ 5.1.goFAQ 4.3.gpFAQ 4.2.gqFAQ 4.1.grFAQ 3.3.gsFAQ 3.2.gtFAQ 3.1.guFAQ 2.2.gvFAQ 2.1.gwFAQ 1.3.gxFAQ 1.2.gyFAQ 1.1.gzFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 2.2.xFAQ 2.2.agFAQ 2.1.aqFAQ 2.1.azFAQ 1.3.cfFAQ 1.3.cnFAQ 1.2.cvFAQ 1.2.dfFAQ 1.1.fhFAQ 1.1.fqFAQ 12.3.ftFAQ 12.2.fuFAQ 12.1.fvFAQ 11.3.fwFAQ 11.2.fxFAQ 11.1.fyFAQ 10.2.fzFAQ 10.1.gaFAQ 9.3.gbFAQ 9.2.gcFAQ 9.1.gdFAQ 8.3.geFAQ 8.2.gfFAQ 8.1.ggFAQ 7.3.ghFAQ 7.2.giFAQ 7.1.gjFAQ 6.2.gkFAQ 6.1.glFAQ 5.4.gmFAQ 5.3.gnFAQ 5.2.goFAQ 5.1.gpFAQ 4.3.gqFAQ 4.2.grFAQ 4.1.gsFAQ 3.3.gtFAQ 3.2.guFAQ 3.1.gvFAQ 2.2.gwFAQ 2.1.gxFAQ 1.3.gyFAQ 1.2.gzFAQ 1.1.haFAQ 3.1 | How Do We Know Humans Are Responsible for Climate Change?

FAQ 3.1.aFAQ 2.2.yFAQ 2.2.ahFAQ 2.1.arFAQ 2.1.baFAQ 1.3.cgFAQ 1.3.coFAQ 1.2.cwFAQ 1.2.dgFAQ 1.1.fiFAQ 1.1.frFAQ 12.3.fuFAQ 12.2.fvFAQ 12.1.fwFAQ 11.3.fxFAQ 11.2.fyFAQ 11.1.fzFAQ 10.2.gaFAQ 10.1.gbFAQ 9.3.gcFAQ 9.2.gdFAQ 9.1.geFAQ 8.3.gfFAQ 8.2.ggFAQ 8.1.ghFAQ 7.3.giFAQ 7.2.gjFAQ 7.1.gkFAQ 6.2.glFAQ 6.1.gmFAQ 5.4.gnFAQ 5.3.goFAQ 5.2.gpFAQ 5.1.gqFAQ 4.3.grFAQ 4.2.gsFAQ 4.1.gtFAQ 3.3.guFAQ 3.2.gvFAQ 3.1.gwFAQ 2.2.gxFAQ 2.1.gyFAQ 1.3.gzFAQ 1.2.haFAQ 1.1.hbThe dominant role of humans in driving recent climate change is clear. This conclusion is based on a synthesis of information from multiple lines of evidence, including direct observations of recent changes in Earth’s climate; analyses of tree rings, ice cores, and other long-term records documenting how the climate has changed in the past; and computer simulations based on the fundamental physics that governs the climate system.

FAQ 3.1.bFAQ 2.2.zFAQ 2.2.aiFAQ 2.1.asFAQ 2.1.bbFAQ 1.3.chFAQ 1.3.cpFAQ 1.2.cxFAQ 1.2.dhFAQ 1.1.fjFAQ 1.1.fsFAQ 12.3.fvFAQ 12.2.fwFAQ 12.1.fxFAQ 11.3.fyFAQ 11.2.fzFAQ 11.1.gaFAQ 10.2.gbFAQ 10.1.gcFAQ 9.3.gdFAQ 9.2.geFAQ 9.1.gfFAQ 8.3.ggFAQ 8.2.ghFAQ 8.1.giFAQ 7.3.gjFAQ 7.2.gkFAQ 7.1.glFAQ 6.2.gmFAQ 6.1.gnFAQ 5.4.goFAQ 5.3.gpFAQ 5.2.gqFAQ 5.1.grFAQ 4.3.gsFAQ 4.2.gtFAQ 4.1.guFAQ 3.3.gvFAQ 3.2.gwFAQ 3.1.gxFAQ 2.2.gyFAQ 2.1.gzFAQ 1.3.haFAQ 1.2.hbFAQ 1.1.hcClimate is influenced by a range of factors. There are two main natural drivers of variations in climate on time scales of decades to centuries. The first is variations in the sun’s activity, which alter the amount of incoming energy from the sun. The second is large volcanic eruptions, which increase the number of small particles (aerosols) in the upper atmosphere that reflect sunlight and cool the surface–an effect that can last for several years (see also FAQ 3.2). The main human drivers of climate change are increases in the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and of aerosols from burning fossil fuels, land use and other sources. The greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation near the surface, warming the climate. Aerosols, like those produced naturally by volcanoes, on average cool the climate by increasing the reflection of sunlight. Multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that human drivers are the main cause of recent climate change.

FAQ 3.1.cFAQ 2.2.aaFAQ 2.2.ajFAQ 2.1.atFAQ 2.1.bcFAQ 1.3.ciFAQ 1.3.cqFAQ 1.2.cyFAQ 1.2.diFAQ 1.1.fkFAQ 1.1.ftFAQ 12.3.fwFAQ 12.2.fxFAQ 12.1.fyFAQ 11.3.fzFAQ 11.2.gaFAQ 11.1.gbFAQ 10.2.gcFAQ 10.1.gdFAQ 9.3.geFAQ 9.2.gfFAQ 9.1.ggFAQ 8.3.ghFAQ 8.2.giFAQ 8.1.gjFAQ 7.3.gkFAQ 7.2.glFAQ 7.1.gmFAQ 6.2.gnFAQ 6.1.goFAQ 5.4.gpFAQ 5.3.gqFAQ 5.2.grFAQ 5.1.gsFAQ 4.3.gtFAQ 4.2.guFAQ 4.1.gvFAQ 3.3.gwFAQ 3.2.gxFAQ 3.1.gyFAQ 2.2.gzFAQ 2.1.haFAQ 1.3.hbFAQ 1.2.hcFAQ 1.1.hdThe current rates of increase of the concentration of the major greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) are unprecedented over at least the last 800,000 years. Several lines of evidence clearly show that these increases are the results of human activities. The basic physics underlying the warming effect of greenhouse gases on the climate has been understood for more than a century, and our current understanding has been used to develop the latest generation climate models (see FAQ 3.3). Like weather forecasting models, climate models represent the state of the atmosphere on a grid and simulate its evolution over time based on physical principles. They include a representation of the ocean, sea ice and the main processes important in driving climate and climate change.

FAQ 3.1.dFAQ 2.2.abFAQ 2.2.akFAQ 2.1.auFAQ 2.1.bdFAQ 1.3.cjFAQ 1.3.crFAQ 1.2.czFAQ 1.2.djFAQ 1.1.flFAQ 1.1.fuFAQ 12.3.fxFAQ 12.2.fyFAQ 12.1.fzFAQ 11.3.gaFAQ 11.2.gbFAQ 11.1.gcFAQ 10.2.gdFAQ 10.1.geFAQ 9.3.gfFAQ 9.2.ggFAQ 9.1.ghFAQ 8.3.giFAQ 8.2.gjFAQ 8.1.gkFAQ 7.3.glFAQ 7.2.gmFAQ 7.1.gnFAQ 6.2.goFAQ 6.1.gpFAQ 5.4.gqFAQ 5.3.grFAQ 5.2.gsFAQ 5.1.gtFAQ 4.3.guFAQ 4.2.gvFAQ 4.1.gwFAQ 3.3.gxFAQ 3.2.gyFAQ 3.1.gzFAQ 2.2.haFAQ 2.1.hbFAQ 1.3.hcFAQ 1.2.hdFAQ 1.1.heResults consistently show that such climate models can only reproduce the observed warming (black line in FAQ 3.1, Figure 1) when including the effects of human activities (grey band in FAQ 3.1, Figure 1), in particular the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. These climate models show a dominant warming effect of greenhouse gas increases (red band, which shows the warming effects of greenhouse gases by themselves), which has been partly offset by the cooling effect of increases in atmospheric aerosols (blue band). By contrast, simulations that include only natural processes, including internal variability related to El Niño and other similar variations, as well as variations in the activity of the sun and emissions from large volcanoes (green band in FAQ 3.1, Figure 1), are not able to reproduce the observed warming. The fact that simulations including only natural processes show much smaller temperature increases indicates that natural processes alone cannot explain the strong rate of warming observed. The observed rate can only be reproduced when human influence is added to the simulations.

FAQ 3.1.eFAQ 2.2.acFAQ 2.2.alFAQ 2.1.avFAQ 2.1.beFAQ 1.3.ckFAQ 1.3.csFAQ 1.2.daFAQ 1.2.dkFAQ 1.1.fmFAQ 1.1.fvFAQ 12.3.fyFAQ 12.2.fzFAQ 12.1.gaFAQ 11.3.gbFAQ 11.2.gcFAQ 11.1.gdFAQ 10.2.geFAQ 10.1.gfFAQ 9.3.ggFAQ 9.2.ghFAQ 9.1.giFAQ 8.3.gjFAQ 8.2.gkFAQ 8.1.glFAQ 7.3.gmFAQ 7.2.gnFAQ 7.1.goFAQ 6.2.gpFAQ 6.1.gqFAQ 5.4.grFAQ 5.3.gsFAQ 5.2.gtFAQ 5.1.guFAQ 4.3.gvFAQ 4.2.gwFAQ 4.1.gxFAQ 3.3.gyFAQ 3.2.gzFAQ 3.1.haFAQ 2.2.hbFAQ 2.1.hcFAQ 1.3.hdFAQ 1.2.heFAQ 1.1.hfMoreover, the dominant effect of human activities is apparent not only in the warming of global surface temperature, but also in the pattern of warming in the lower atmosphere and cooling in the stratosphere, warming of the ocean, melting of sea ice, and many other observed changes. An additional line of evidence for the role of humans in driving climate change comes from comparing the rate of warming observed over recent decades with that which occurred prior to human influence on climate. Evidence from tree rings and other paleoclimate records shows that the rate of increase of global surface temperature observed over the past fifty years exceeded that which occurred in any previous 50-year period over the past 2000 years (see FAQ 2.1).

FAQ 3.1.fFAQ 2.2.adFAQ 2.2.amFAQ 2.1.awFAQ 2.1.bfFAQ 1.3.clFAQ 1.3.ctFAQ 1.2.dbFAQ 1.2.dlFAQ 1.1.fnFAQ 1.1.fwFAQ 12.3.fzFAQ 12.2.gaFAQ 12.1.gbFAQ 11.3.gcFAQ 11.2.gdFAQ 11.1.geFAQ 10.2.gfFAQ 10.1.ggFAQ 9.3.ghFAQ 9.2.giFAQ 9.1.gjFAQ 8.3.gkFAQ 8.2.glFAQ 8.1.gmFAQ 7.3.gnFAQ 7.2.goFAQ 7.1.gpFAQ 6.2.gqFAQ 6.1.grFAQ 5.4.gsFAQ 5.3.gtFAQ 5.2.guFAQ 5.1.gvFAQ 4.3.gwFAQ 4.2.gxFAQ 4.1.gyFAQ 3.3.gzFAQ 3.2.haFAQ 3.1.hbFAQ 2.2.hcFAQ 2.1.hdFAQ 1.3.heFAQ 1.2.hfFAQ 1.1.hgTaken together, this evidence shows that humans are the dominant cause of observed global warming over recent decades.

FAQ 3.1.gFAQ 2.2.aeFAQ 2.2.anFAQ 2.1.axFAQ 2.1.bgFAQ 1.3.cmFAQ 1.3.cuFAQ 1.2.dcFAQ 1.2.dmFAQ 1.1.foFAQ 1.1.fxFAQ 12.3.gaFAQ 12.2.gbFAQ 12.1.gcFAQ 11.3.gdFAQ 11.2.geFAQ 11.1.gfFAQ 10.2.ggFAQ 10.1.ghFAQ 9.3.giFAQ 9.2.gjFAQ 9.1.gkFAQ 8.3.glFAQ 8.2.gmFAQ 8.1.gnFAQ 7.3.goFAQ 7.2.gpFAQ 7.1.gqFAQ 6.2.grFAQ 6.1.gsFAQ 5.4.gtFAQ 5.3.guFAQ 5.2.gvFAQ 5.1.gwFAQ 4.3.gxFAQ 4.2.gyFAQ 4.1.gzFAQ 3.3.haFAQ 3.2.hbFAQ 3.1.hcFAQ 2.2.hdFAQ 2.1.heFAQ 1.3.hfFAQ 1.2.hgFAQ 1.1.hhFAQ

FAQ 3.1.hFAQ 2.2.afFAQ 2.2.aoFAQ 2.1.ayFAQ 2.1.bhFAQ 1.3.cnFAQ 1.3.cvFAQ 1.2.ddFAQ 1.2.dnFAQ 1.1.fpFAQ 1.1.fyFAQ 12.3.gbFAQ 12.2.gcFAQ 12.1.gdFAQ 11.3.geFAQ 11.2.gfFAQ 11.1.ggFAQ 10.2.ghFAQ 10.1.giFAQ 9.3.gjFAQ 9.2.gkFAQ 9.1.glFAQ 8.3.gmFAQ 8.2.gnFAQ 8.1.goFAQ 7.3.gpFAQ 7.2.gqFAQ 7.1.grFAQ 6.2.gsFAQ 6.1.gtFAQ 5.4.guFAQ 5.3.gvFAQ 5.2.gwFAQ 5.1.gxFAQ 4.3.gyFAQ 4.2.gzFAQ 4.1.haFAQ 3.3.hbFAQ 3.2.hcFAQ 3.1.hdFAQ 2.2.heFAQ 2.1.hfFAQ 1.3.hgFAQ 1.2.hhFAQ 1.1.hiFAQ 3.1 (continued)

FAQ 3.1.aFAQ 3.1.iFAQ 2.2.agFAQ 2.2.apFAQ 2.1.azFAQ 2.1.biFAQ 1.3.coFAQ 1.3.cwFAQ 1.2.deFAQ 1.2.doFAQ 1.1.fqFAQ 1.1.fzFAQ 12.3.gcFAQ 12.2.gdFAQ 12.1.geFAQ 11.3.gfFAQ 11.2.ggFAQ 11.1.ghFAQ 10.2.giFAQ 10.1.gjFAQ 9.3.gkFAQ 9.2.glFAQ 9.1.gmFAQ 8.3.gnFAQ 8.2.goFAQ 8.1.gpFAQ 7.3.gqFAQ 7.2.grFAQ 7.1.gsFAQ 6.2.gtFAQ 6.1.guFAQ 5.4.gvFAQ 5.3.gwFAQ 5.2.gxFAQ 5.1.gyFAQ 4.3.gzFAQ 4.2.haFAQ 4.1.hbFAQ 3.3.hcFAQ 3.2.hdFAQ 3.1.heFAQ 2.2.hfFAQ 2.1.hgFAQ 1.3.hhFAQ 1.2.hiFAQ 1.1.hjFAQ 3.1: How do we know humans are causing climate change?Observed warming (1850-2019) is only reproduced in simulations including human influence.

FAQ 3.1.bFAQ 3.1.jFAQ 2.2.ahFAQ 2.2.aqFAQ 2.1.baFAQ 2.1.bjFAQ 1.3.cpFAQ 1.3.cxFAQ 1.2.dfFAQ 1.2.dpFAQ 1.1.frFAQ 1.1.gaFAQ 12.3.gdFAQ 12.2.geFAQ 12.1.gfFAQ 11.3.ggFAQ 11.2.ghFAQ 11.1.giFAQ 10.2.gjFAQ 10.1.gkFAQ 9.3.glFAQ 9.2.gmFAQ 9.1.gnFAQ 8.3.goFAQ 8.2.gpFAQ 8.1.gqFAQ 7.3.grFAQ 7.2.gsFAQ 7.1.gtFAQ 6.2.guFAQ 6.1.gvFAQ 5.4.gwFAQ 5.3.gxFAQ 5.2.gyFAQ 5.1.gzFAQ 4.3.haFAQ 4.2.hbFAQ 4.1.hcFAQ 3.3.hdFAQ 3.2.heFAQ 3.1.hfFAQ 2.2.hgFAQ 2.1.hhFAQ 1.3.hiFAQ 1.2.hjFAQ 1.1.hkObservations

FAQ 3.1.cFAQ 3.1.kFAQ 2.2.aiFAQ 2.2.arFAQ 2.1.bbFAQ 2.1.bkFAQ 1.3.cqFAQ 1.3.cyFAQ 1.2.dgFAQ 1.2.dqFAQ 1.1.fsFAQ 1.1.gbFAQ 12.3.geFAQ 12.2.gfFAQ 12.1.ggFAQ 11.3.ghFAQ 11.2.giFAQ 11.1.gjFAQ 10.2.gkFAQ 10.1.glFAQ 9.3.gmFAQ 9.2.gnFAQ 9.1.goFAQ 8.3.gpFAQ 8.2.gqFAQ 8.1.grFAQ 7.3.gsFAQ 7.2.gtFAQ 7.1.guFAQ 6.2.gvFAQ 6.1.gwFAQ 5.4.gxFAQ 5.3.gyFAQ 5.2.gzFAQ 5.1.haFAQ 4.3.hbFAQ 4.2.hcFAQ 4.1.hdFAQ 3.3.heFAQ 3.2.hfFAQ 3.1.hgFAQ 2.2.hhFAQ 2.1.hiFAQ 1.3.hjFAQ 1.2.hkFAQ 1.1.hlFAQ

FAQ 3.1.dFAQ 3.1.lFAQ 2.2.ajFAQ 2.2.asFAQ 2.1.bcFAQ 2.1.blFAQ 1.3.crFAQ 1.3.czFAQ 1.2.dhFAQ 1.2.drFAQ 1.1.ftFAQ 1.1.gcFAQ 12.3.gfFAQ 12.2.ggFAQ 12.1.ghFAQ 11.3.giFAQ 11.2.gjFAQ 11.1.gkFAQ 10.2.glFAQ 10.1.gmFAQ 9.3.gnFAQ 9.2.goFAQ 9.1.gpFAQ 8.3.gqFAQ 8.2.grFAQ 8.1.gsFAQ 7.3.gtFAQ 7.2.guFAQ 7.1.gvFAQ 6.2.gwFAQ 6.1.gxFAQ 5.4.gyFAQ 5.3.gzFAQ 5.2.haFAQ 5.1.hbFAQ 4.3.hcFAQ 4.2.hdFAQ 4.1.heFAQ 3.3.hfFAQ 3.2.hgFAQ 3.1.hhFAQ 2.2.hiFAQ 2.1.hjFAQ 1.3.hkFAQ 1.2.hlFAQ 1.1.hmFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 3.1.eFAQ 3.1.mFAQ 2.2.akFAQ 2.2.atFAQ 2.1.bdFAQ 2.1.bmFAQ 1.3.csFAQ 1.3.daFAQ 1.2.diFAQ 1.2.dsFAQ 1.1.fuFAQ 1.1.gdFAQ 12.3.ggFAQ 12.2.ghFAQ 12.1.giFAQ 11.3.gjFAQ 11.2.gkFAQ 11.1.glFAQ 10.2.gmFAQ 10.1.gnFAQ 9.3.goFAQ 9.2.gpFAQ 9.1.gqFAQ 8.3.grFAQ 8.2.gsFAQ 8.1.gtFAQ 7.3.guFAQ 7.2.gvFAQ 7.1.gwFAQ 6.2.gxFAQ 6.1.gyFAQ 5.4.gzFAQ 5.3.haFAQ 5.2.hbFAQ 5.1.hcFAQ 4.3.hdFAQ 4.2.heFAQ 4.1.hfFAQ 3.3.hgFAQ 3.2.hhFAQ 3.1.hiFAQ 2.2.hjFAQ 2.1.hkFAQ 1.3.hlFAQ 1.2.hmFAQ 1.1.hnFAQ 3.2 | What is Natural Variability and How Has it Influenced Recent Climate Changes?

FAQ 3.2.aFAQ 3.1.fFAQ 3.1.nFAQ 2.2.alFAQ 2.2.auFAQ 2.1.beFAQ 2.1.bnFAQ 1.3.ctFAQ 1.3.dbFAQ 1.2.djFAQ 1.2.dtFAQ 1.1.fvFAQ 1.1.geFAQ 12.3.ghFAQ 12.2.giFAQ 12.1.gjFAQ 11.3.gkFAQ 11.2.glFAQ 11.1.gmFAQ 10.2.gnFAQ 10.1.goFAQ 9.3.gpFAQ 9.2.gqFAQ 9.1.grFAQ 8.3.gsFAQ 8.2.gtFAQ 8.1.guFAQ 7.3.gvFAQ 7.2.gwFAQ 7.1.gxFAQ 6.2.gyFAQ 6.1.gzFAQ 5.4.haFAQ 5.3.hbFAQ 5.2.hcFAQ 5.1.hdFAQ 4.3.heFAQ 4.2.hfFAQ 4.1.hgFAQ 3.3.hhFAQ 3.2.hiFAQ 3.1.hjFAQ 2.2.hkFAQ 2.1.hlFAQ 1.3.hmFAQ 1.2.hnFAQ 1.1.hoNatural variability refers to variations in climate that are caused by processes other than human influence. It includes variability that is internally generated within the climate system and variability that is driven by natural external factors. Natural variability is a major cause of year-to-year changes in global surface climate and can play a prominent role in trends over multiple years or even decades. But the influence of natural variability is typically small when considering trends over periods of multiple decades or longer. When estimated over the entire historical period (1850–2020), the contribution of natural variability to global surface warming of –0.23°C to +0.23°C is small compared to the warming of about 1.1°C observed during the same period, which has been almost entirely attributed to the human influence.

FAQ 3.2.bFAQ 3.1.gFAQ 3.1.oFAQ 2.2.amFAQ 2.2.avFAQ 2.1.bfFAQ 2.1.boFAQ 1.3.cuFAQ 1.3.dcFAQ 1.2.dkFAQ 1.2.duFAQ 1.1.fwFAQ 1.1.gfFAQ 12.3.giFAQ 12.2.gjFAQ 12.1.gkFAQ 11.3.glFAQ 11.2.gmFAQ 11.1.gnFAQ 10.2.goFAQ 10.1.gpFAQ 9.3.gqFAQ 9.2.grFAQ 9.1.gsFAQ 8.3.gtFAQ 8.2.guFAQ 8.1.gvFAQ 7.3.gwFAQ 7.2.gxFAQ 7.1.gyFAQ 6.2.gzFAQ 6.1.haFAQ 5.4.hbFAQ 5.3.hcFAQ 5.2.hdFAQ 5.1.heFAQ 4.3.hfFAQ 4.2.hgFAQ 4.1.hhFAQ 3.3.hiFAQ 3.2.hjFAQ 3.1.hkFAQ 2.2.hlFAQ 2.1.hmFAQ 1.3.hnFAQ 1.2.hoFAQ 1.1.hpPaleoclimatic records (indirect measurements of climate that can extend back many thousands of years) and climate models all show that global surface temperatures have changed significantly over a wide range of time scales in the past. One of these reasons is natural variability, which refers to variations in climate that are either internally generated within the climate system or externally driven by natural changes. Internal natural variability corresponds to a redistribution of energy within the climate system (for example via atmospheric circulation changes similar to those that drive the daily weather) and is most clearly observed as regional, rather than global, fluctuations in surface temperature. External natural variability can result from changes in the Earth’s orbit, small variations in energy received from the sun, or from major volcanic eruptions. Although large orbital changes are related to global climate changes of the past, they operate on very long time scales (i.e., thousands of years). As such, they have displayed very little change over the past century and have had very little influence on temperature changes observed over that period. On the other hand, volcanic eruptions can strongly cool the Earth, but this effect is short-lived and their influence on surface temperatures typically fades within a decade of the eruption.

FAQ 3.2.cFAQ 3.1.hFAQ 3.1.pFAQ 2.2.anFAQ 2.2.awFAQ 2.1.bgFAQ 2.1.bpFAQ 1.3.cvFAQ 1.3.ddFAQ 1.2.dlFAQ 1.2.dvFAQ 1.1.fxFAQ 1.1.ggFAQ 12.3.gjFAQ 12.2.gkFAQ 12.1.glFAQ 11.3.gmFAQ 11.2.gnFAQ 11.1.goFAQ 10.2.gpFAQ 10.1.gqFAQ 9.3.grFAQ 9.2.gsFAQ 9.1.gtFAQ 8.3.guFAQ 8.2.gvFAQ 8.1.gwFAQ 7.3.gxFAQ 7.2.gyFAQ 7.1.gzFAQ 6.2.haFAQ 6.1.hbFAQ 5.4.hcFAQ 5.3.hdFAQ 5.2.heFAQ 5.1.hfFAQ 4.3.hgFAQ 4.2.hhFAQ 4.1.hiFAQ 3.3.hjFAQ 3.2.hkFAQ 3.1.hlFAQ 2.2.hmFAQ 2.1.hnFAQ 1.3.hoFAQ 1.2.hpFAQ 1.1.hqTo understand how much of observed recent climate change has been caused by natural variability (a process referred to as attribution), scientists use climate model simulations. When only natural factors are used to force climate models, the resulting simulations show variations in climate on a wide range of time scales in response to volcanic eruptions, variations in solar activity, and internal natural variability. However, the influence of natural climate variability typically decreases as the time period gets longer, such that it only has mild effects on multi- decadal and longer trends (FAQ 3.2, Figure 1).

FAQ 3.2.dFAQ 3.1.iFAQ 3.1.qFAQ 2.2.aoFAQ 2.2.axFAQ 2.1.bhFAQ 2.1.bqFAQ 1.3.cwFAQ 1.3.deFAQ 1.2.dmFAQ 1.2.dwFAQ 1.1.fyFAQ 1.1.ghFAQ 12.3.gkFAQ 12.2.glFAQ 12.1.gmFAQ 11.3.gnFAQ 11.2.goFAQ 11.1.gpFAQ 10.2.gqFAQ 10.1.grFAQ 9.3.gsFAQ 9.2.gtFAQ 9.1.guFAQ 8.3.gvFAQ 8.2.gwFAQ 8.1.gxFAQ 7.3.gyFAQ 7.2.gzFAQ 7.1.haFAQ 6.2.hbFAQ 6.1.hcFAQ 5.4.hdFAQ 5.3.heFAQ 5.2.hfFAQ 5.1.hgFAQ 4.3.hhFAQ 4.2.hiFAQ 4.1.hjFAQ 3.3.hkFAQ 3.2.hlFAQ 3.1.hmFAQ 2.2.hnFAQ 2.1.hoFAQ 1.3.hpFAQ 1.2.hqFAQ 1.1.hrConsequently, over periods of a couple of decades or less, natural climate variability can dominate the human-induced surface warming trend – leading to periods with stronger or weaker warming, and sometimes even cooling (FAQ 3.2, Figure 1, left and centre). Over longer periods, however, the effect of natural variability is relatively small (FAQ 3.2, Figure 1, right). For instance, over the entire historical period (1850–2019), natural variability is estimated to have caused between –0.23°C and +0.23°C of the observed surface warming of about 1.1°C. This means that the bulk of the warming has been almost entirely attributed to human activities, particularly emissions of greenhouse gases (FAQ 3.1).

FAQ 3.2.eFAQ 3.1.jFAQ 3.1.rFAQ 2.2.apFAQ 2.2.ayFAQ 2.1.biFAQ 2.1.brFAQ 1.3.cxFAQ 1.3.dfFAQ 1.2.dnFAQ 1.2.dxFAQ 1.1.fzFAQ 1.1.giFAQ 12.3.glFAQ 12.2.gmFAQ 12.1.gnFAQ 11.3.goFAQ 11.2.gpFAQ 11.1.gqFAQ 10.2.grFAQ 10.1.gsFAQ 9.3.gtFAQ 9.2.guFAQ 9.1.gvFAQ 8.3.gwFAQ 8.2.gxFAQ 8.1.gyFAQ 7.3.gzFAQ 7.2.haFAQ 7.1.hbFAQ 6.2.hcFAQ 6.1.hdFAQ 5.4.heFAQ 5.3.hfFAQ 5.2.hgFAQ 5.1.hhFAQ 4.3.hiFAQ 4.2.hjFAQ 4.1.hkFAQ 3.3.hlFAQ 3.2.hmFAQ 3.1.hnFAQ 2.2.hoFAQ 2.1.hpFAQ 1.3.hqFAQ 1.2.hrFAQ 1.1.hsAnother way to picture natural variability and human influence is to think of a person walking a dog. The path of the walker represents the human-induced warming, while their dog represents natural variability. Looking at global surface temperature changes over short periods is akin to focusing on the dog. The dog sometimes moves ahead of the owner and other times behind. This is similar to natural variability that can weaken or amplify warming on the short term. In both cases it is difficult to predict where the dog will be or how the climate will evolve in the near future. However, if we pull back and focus on the slow steady steps of the owner, the path of the dog is much clearer and more predictable, as it follows the path of its owner. Similarly, human influence on the climate is much clearer over longer time periods.

FAQ 3.2.fFAQ 3.1.kFAQ 3.1.sFAQ 2.2.aqFAQ 2.2.azFAQ 2.1.bjFAQ 2.1.bsFAQ 1.3.cyFAQ 1.3.dgFAQ 1.2.doFAQ 1.2.dyFAQ 1.1.gaFAQ 1.1.gjFAQ 12.3.gmFAQ 12.2.gnFAQ 12.1.goFAQ 11.3.gpFAQ 11.2.gqFAQ 11.1.grFAQ 10.2.gsFAQ 10.1.gtFAQ 9.3.guFAQ 9.2.gvFAQ 9.1.gwFAQ 8.3.gxFAQ 8.2.gyFAQ 8.1.gzFAQ 7.3.haFAQ 7.2.hbFAQ 7.1.hcFAQ 6.2.hdFAQ 6.1.heFAQ 5.4.hfFAQ 5.3.hgFAQ 5.2.hhFAQ 5.1.hiFAQ 4.3.hjFAQ 4.2.hkFAQ 4.1.hlFAQ 3.3.hmFAQ 3.2.hnFAQ 3.1.hoFAQ 2.2.hpFAQ 2.1.hqFAQ 1.3.hrFAQ 1.2.hsFAQ 1.1.htFAQ

FAQ 3.2.gFAQ 3.1.lFAQ 3.1.tFAQ 2.2.arFAQ 2.2.baFAQ 2.1.bkFAQ 2.1.btFAQ 1.3.czFAQ 1.3.dhFAQ 1.2.dpFAQ 1.2.dzFAQ 1.1.gbFAQ 1.1.gkFAQ 12.3.gnFAQ 12.2.goFAQ 12.1.gpFAQ 11.3.gqFAQ 11.2.grFAQ 11.1.gsFAQ 10.2.gtFAQ 10.1.guFAQ 9.3.gvFAQ 9.2.gwFAQ 9.1.gxFAQ 8.3.gyFAQ 8.2.gzFAQ 8.1.haFAQ 7.3.hbFAQ 7.2.hcFAQ 7.1.hdFAQ 6.2.heFAQ 6.1.hfFAQ 5.4.hgFAQ 5.3.hhFAQ 5.2.hiFAQ 5.1.hjFAQ 4.3.hkFAQ 4.2.hlFAQ 4.1.hmFAQ 3.3.hnFAQ 3.2.hoFAQ 3.1.hpFAQ 2.2.hqFAQ 2.1.hrFAQ 1.3.hsFAQ 1.2.htFAQ 1.1.huFAQ 3.2 (continued)

FAQ 3.2.aFAQ 3.2.hFAQ 3.1.mFAQ 3.1.uFAQ 2.2.asFAQ 2.2.bbFAQ 2.1.blFAQ 2.1.buFAQ 1.3.daFAQ 1.3.diFAQ 1.2.dqFAQ 1.2.eaFAQ 1.1.gcFAQ 1.1.glFAQ 12.3.goFAQ 12.2.gpFAQ 12.1.gqFAQ 11.3.grFAQ 11.2.gsFAQ 11.1.gtFAQ 10.2.guFAQ 10.1.gvFAQ 9.3.gwFAQ 9.2.gxFAQ 9.1.gyFAQ 8.3.gzFAQ 8.2.haFAQ 8.1.hbFAQ 7.3.hcFAQ 7.2.hdFAQ 7.1.heFAQ 6.2.hfFAQ 6.1.hgFAQ 5.4.hhFAQ 5.3.hiFAQ 5.2.hjFAQ 5.1.hkFAQ 4.3.hlFAQ 4.2.hmFAQ 4.1.hnFAQ 3.3.hoFAQ 3.2.hpFAQ 3.1.hqFAQ 2.2.hrFAQ 2.1.hsFAQ 1.3.htFAQ 1.2.huFAQ 1.1.hvFAQ 3.2 What is natural variability and how has it influenced recent climate changes?Natural variability can alter global temperature over short time scales (1 year to ~2 decades) but it has a minimal influence on longer time scales. Since 1850, natural variability( ) has caused between -0.23°C and 0.23°C of global temperature change, compared to the warming of about 1.1°C observed( ) over that period.

FAQ 3.2.aFAQ 3.2.bFAQ 3.2.iFAQ 3.1.nFAQ 3.1.vFAQ 2.2.atFAQ 2.2.bcFAQ 2.1.bmFAQ 2.1.bvFAQ 1.3.dbFAQ 1.3.djFAQ 1.2.drFAQ 1.2.ebFAQ 1.1.gdFAQ 1.1.gmFAQ 12.3.gpFAQ 12.2.gqFAQ 12.1.grFAQ 11.3.gsFAQ 11.2.gtFAQ 11.1.guFAQ 10.2.gvFAQ 10.1.gwFAQ 9.3.gxFAQ 9.2.gyFAQ 9.1.gzFAQ 8.3.haFAQ 8.2.hbFAQ 8.1.hcFAQ 7.3.hdFAQ 7.2.heFAQ 7.1.hfFAQ 6.2.hgFAQ 6.1.hhFAQ 5.4.hiFAQ 5.3.hjFAQ 5.2.hkFAQ 5.1.hlFAQ 4.3.hmFAQ 4.2.hnFAQ 4.1.hoFAQ 3.3.hpFAQ 3.2.hqFAQ 3.1.hrFAQ 2.2.hsFAQ 2.1.htFAQ 1.3.huFAQ 1.2.hvFAQ 1.1.hwAnnual (1 year) variationsDecadal (10 year) variationsMulti-decadal (30 year) variations

FAQ 3.2.bFAQ 3.2.cFAQ 3.2.jFAQ 3.1.oFAQ 3.1.wFAQ 2.2.auFAQ 2.2.bdFAQ 2.1.bnFAQ 2.1.bwFAQ 1.3.dcFAQ 1.3.dkFAQ 1.2.dsFAQ 1.2.ecFAQ 1.1.geFAQ 1.1.gnFAQ 12.3.gqFAQ 12.2.grFAQ 12.1.gsFAQ 11.3.gtFAQ 11.2.guFAQ 11.1.gvFAQ 10.2.gwFAQ 10.1.gxFAQ 9.3.gyFAQ 9.2.gzFAQ 9.1.haFAQ 8.3.hbFAQ 8.2.hcFAQ 8.1.hdFAQ 7.3.heFAQ 7.2.hfFAQ 7.1.hgFAQ 6.2.hhFAQ 6.1.hiFAQ 5.4.hjFAQ 5.3.hkFAQ 5.2.hlFAQ 5.1.hmFAQ 4.3.hnFAQ 4.2.hoFAQ 4.1.hpFAQ 3.3.hqFAQ 3.2.hrFAQ 3.1.hsFAQ 2.2.htFAQ 2.1.huFAQ 1.3.hvFAQ 1.2.hwFAQ 1.1.hx0.8

FAQ 3.2.cFAQ 3.2.dFAQ 3.2.kFAQ 3.1.pFAQ 3.1.xFAQ 2.2.avFAQ 2.2.beFAQ 2.1.boFAQ 2.1.bxFAQ 1.3.ddFAQ 1.3.dlFAQ 1.2.dtFAQ 1.2.edFAQ 1.1.gfFAQ 1.1.goFAQ 12.3.grFAQ 12.2.gsFAQ 12.1.gtFAQ 11.3.guFAQ 11.2.gvFAQ 11.1.gwFAQ 10.2.gxFAQ 10.1.gyFAQ 9.3.gzFAQ 9.2.haFAQ 9.1.hbFAQ 8.3.hcFAQ 8.2.hdFAQ 8.1.heFAQ 7.3.hfFAQ 7.2.hgFAQ 7.1.hhFAQ 6.2.hiFAQ 6.1.hjFAQ 5.4.hkFAQ 5.3.hlFAQ 5.2.hmFAQ 5.1.hnFAQ 4.3.hoFAQ 4.2.hpFAQ 4.1.hqFAQ 3.3.hrFAQ 3.2.hsFAQ 3.1.htFAQ 2.2.huFAQ 2.1.hvFAQ 1.3.hwFAQ 1.2.hxFAQ 1.1.hy0.6

FAQ 3.2.dFAQ 3.2.eFAQ 3.2.lFAQ 3.1.qFAQ 3.1.yFAQ 2.2.awFAQ 2.2.bfFAQ 2.1.bpFAQ 2.1.byFAQ 1.3.deFAQ 1.3.dmFAQ 1.2.duFAQ 1.2.eeFAQ 1.1.ggFAQ 1.1.gpFAQ 12.3.gsFAQ 12.2.gtFAQ 12.1.guFAQ 11.3.gvFAQ 11.2.gwFAQ 11.1.gxFAQ 10.2.gyFAQ 10.1.gzFAQ 9.3.haFAQ 9.2.hbFAQ 9.1.hcFAQ 8.3.hdFAQ 8.2.heFAQ 8.1.hfFAQ 7.3.hgFAQ 7.2.hhFAQ 7.1.hiFAQ 6.2.hjFAQ 6.1.hkFAQ 5.4.hlFAQ 5.3.hmFAQ 5.2.hnFAQ 5.1.hoFAQ 4.3.hpFAQ 4.2.hqFAQ 4.1.hrFAQ 3.3.hsFAQ 3.2.htFAQ 3.1.huFAQ 2.2.hvFAQ 2.1.hwFAQ 1.3.hxFAQ 1.2.hyFAQ 1.1.hz0.4

FAQ 3.2.eFAQ 3.2.fFAQ 3.2.mFAQ 3.1.rFAQ 3.1.zFAQ 2.2.axFAQ 2.2.bgFAQ 2.1.bqFAQ 2.1.bzFAQ 1.3.dfFAQ 1.3.dnFAQ 1.2.dvFAQ 1.2.efFAQ 1.1.ghFAQ 1.1.gqFAQ 12.3.gtFAQ 12.2.guFAQ 12.1.gvFAQ 11.3.gwFAQ 11.2.gxFAQ 11.1.gyFAQ 10.2.gzFAQ 10.1.haFAQ 9.3.hbFAQ 9.2.hcFAQ 9.1.hdFAQ 8.3.heFAQ 8.2.hfFAQ 8.1.hgFAQ 7.3.hhFAQ 7.2.hiFAQ 7.1.hjFAQ 6.2.hkFAQ 6.1.hlFAQ 5.4.hmFAQ 5.3.hnFAQ 5.2.hoFAQ 5.1.hpFAQ 4.3.hqFAQ 4.2.hrFAQ 4.1.hsFAQ 3.3.htFAQ 3.2.huFAQ 3.1.hvFAQ 2.2.hwFAQ 2.1.hxFAQ 1.3.hyFAQ 1.2.hzFAQ 1.1.ia0.2

FAQ 3.2.fFAQ 3.2.gFAQ 3.2.nFAQ 3.1.sFAQ 3.1.aaFAQ 2.2.ayFAQ 2.2.bhFAQ 2.1.brFAQ 2.1.caFAQ 1.3.dgFAQ 1.3.doFAQ 1.2.dwFAQ 1.2.egFAQ 1.1.giFAQ 1.1.grFAQ 12.3.guFAQ 12.2.gvFAQ 12.1.gwFAQ 11.3.gxFAQ 11.2.gyFAQ 11.1.gzFAQ 10.2.haFAQ 10.1.hbFAQ 9.3.hcFAQ 9.2.hdFAQ 9.1.heFAQ 8.3.hfFAQ 8.2.hgFAQ 8.1.hhFAQ 7.3.hiFAQ 7.2.hjFAQ 7.1.hkFAQ 6.2.hlFAQ 6.1.hmFAQ 5.4.hnFAQ 5.3.hoFAQ 5.2.hpFAQ 5.1.hqFAQ 4.3.hrFAQ 4.2.hsFAQ 4.1.htFAQ 3.3.huFAQ 3.2.hvFAQ 3.1.hwFAQ 2.2.hxFAQ 2.1.hyFAQ 1.3.hzFAQ 1.2.iaFAQ 1.1.ib0.0

FAQ 3.2.gFAQ 3.2.hFAQ 3.2.oFAQ 3.1.tFAQ 3.1.abFAQ 2.2.azFAQ 2.2.biFAQ 2.1.bsFAQ 2.1.cbFAQ 1.3.dhFAQ 1.3.dpFAQ 1.2.dxFAQ 1.2.ehFAQ 1.1.gjFAQ 1.1.gsFAQ 12.3.gvFAQ 12.2.gwFAQ 12.1.gxFAQ 11.3.gyFAQ 11.2.gzFAQ 11.1.haFAQ 10.2.hbFAQ 10.1.hcFAQ 9.3.hdFAQ 9.2.heFAQ 9.1.hfFAQ 8.3.hgFAQ 8.2.hhFAQ 8.1.hiFAQ 7.3.hjFAQ 7.2.hkFAQ 7.1.hlFAQ 6.2.hmFAQ 6.1.hnFAQ 5.4.hoFAQ 5.3.hpFAQ 5.2.hqFAQ 5.1.hrFAQ 4.3.hsFAQ 4.2.htFAQ 4.1.huFAQ 3.3.hvFAQ 3.2.hwFAQ 3.1.hxFAQ 2.2.hyFAQ 2.1.hzFAQ 1.3.iaFAQ 1.2.ibFAQ 1.1.ic-0.2

FAQ 3.2.hFAQ 3.2.iFAQ 3.2.pFAQ 3.1.uFAQ 3.1.acFAQ 2.2.baFAQ 2.2.bjFAQ 2.1.btFAQ 2.1.ccFAQ 1.3.diFAQ 1.3.dqFAQ 1.2.dyFAQ 1.2.eiFAQ 1.1.gkFAQ 1.1.gtFAQ 12.3.gwFAQ 12.2.gxFAQ 12.1.gyFAQ 11.3.gzFAQ 11.2.haFAQ 11.1.hbFAQ 10.2.hcFAQ 10.1.hdFAQ 9.3.heFAQ 9.2.hfFAQ 9.1.hgFAQ 8.3.hhFAQ 8.2.hiFAQ 8.1.hjFAQ 7.3.hkFAQ 7.2.hlFAQ 7.1.hmFAQ 6.2.hnFAQ 6.1.hoFAQ 5.4.hpFAQ 5.3.hqFAQ 5.2.hrFAQ 5.1.hsFAQ 4.3.htFAQ 4.2.huFAQ 4.1.hvFAQ 3.3.hwFAQ 3.2.hxFAQ 3.1.hyFAQ 2.2.hzFAQ 2.1.iaFAQ 1.3.ibFAQ 1.2.icFAQ 1.1.id-0.4

FAQ 3.2.iFAQ 3.2.jFAQ 3.2.qFAQ 3.1.vFAQ 3.1.adFAQ 2.2.bbFAQ 2.2.bkFAQ 2.1.buFAQ 2.1.cdFAQ 1.3.djFAQ 1.3.drFAQ 1.2.dzFAQ 1.2.ejFAQ 1.1.glFAQ 1.1.guFAQ 12.3.gxFAQ 12.2.gyFAQ 12.1.gzFAQ 11.3.haFAQ 11.2.hbFAQ 11.1.hcFAQ 10.2.hdFAQ 10.1.heFAQ 9.3.hfFAQ 9.2.hgFAQ 9.1.hhFAQ 8.3.hiFAQ 8.2.hjFAQ 8.1.hkFAQ 7.3.hlFAQ 7.2.hmFAQ 7.1.hnFAQ 6.2.hoFAQ 6.1.hpFAQ 5.4.hqFAQ 5.3.hrFAQ 5.2.hsFAQ 5.1.htFAQ 4.3.huFAQ 4.2.hvFAQ 4.1.hwFAQ 3.3.hxFAQ 3.2.hyFAQ 3.1.hzFAQ 2.2.iaFAQ 2.1.ibFAQ 1.3.icFAQ 1.2.idFAQ 1.1.ie-0.6

FAQ 3.2.jFAQ 3.2.kFAQ 3.2.rFAQ 3.1.wFAQ 3.1.aeFAQ 2.2.bcFAQ 2.2.blFAQ 2.1.bvFAQ 2.1.ceFAQ 1.3.dkFAQ 1.3.dsFAQ 1.2.eaFAQ 1.2.ekFAQ 1.1.gmFAQ 1.1.gvFAQ 12.3.gyFAQ 12.2.gzFAQ 12.1.haFAQ 11.3.hbFAQ 11.2.hcFAQ 11.1.hdFAQ 10.2.heFAQ 10.1.hfFAQ 9.3.hgFAQ 9.2.hhFAQ 9.1.hiFAQ 8.3.hjFAQ 8.2.hkFAQ 8.1.hlFAQ 7.3.hmFAQ 7.2.hnFAQ 7.1.hoFAQ 6.2.hpFAQ 6.1.hqFAQ 5.4.hrFAQ 5.3.hsFAQ 5.2.htFAQ 5.1.huFAQ 4.3.hvFAQ 4.2.hwFAQ 4.1.hxFAQ 3.3.hyFAQ 3.2.hzFAQ 3.1.iaFAQ 2.2.ibFAQ 2.1.icFAQ 1.3.idFAQ 1.2.ieFAQ 1.1.if-0.8

FAQ 3.2.kFAQ 3.2.lFAQ 3.2.sFAQ 3.1.xFAQ 3.1.afFAQ 2.2.bdFAQ 2.2.bmFAQ 2.1.bwFAQ 2.1.cfFAQ 1.3.dlFAQ 1.3.dtFAQ 1.2.ebFAQ 1.2.elFAQ 1.1.gnFAQ 1.1.gwFAQ 12.3.gzFAQ 12.2.haFAQ 12.1.hbFAQ 11.3.hcFAQ 11.2.hdFAQ 11.1.heFAQ 10.2.hfFAQ 10.1.hgFAQ 9.3.hhFAQ 9.2.hiFAQ 9.1.hjFAQ 8.3.hkFAQ 8.2.hlFAQ 8.1.hmFAQ 7.3.hnFAQ 7.2.hoFAQ 7.1.hpFAQ 6.2.hqFAQ 6.1.hrFAQ 5.4.hsFAQ 5.3.htFAQ 5.2.huFAQ 5.1.hvFAQ 4.3.hwFAQ 4.2.hxFAQ 4.1.hyFAQ 3.3.hzFAQ 3.2.iaFAQ 3.1.ibFAQ 2.2.icFAQ 2.1.idFAQ 1.3.ieFAQ 1.2.ifFAQ 1.1.ig0.8

FAQ 3.2.lFAQ 3.2.mFAQ 3.2.tFAQ 3.1.yFAQ 3.1.agFAQ 2.2.beFAQ 2.2.bnFAQ 2.1.bxFAQ 2.1.cgFAQ 1.3.dmFAQ 1.3.duFAQ 1.2.ecFAQ 1.2.emFAQ 1.1.goFAQ 1.1.gxFAQ 12.3.haFAQ 12.2.hbFAQ 12.1.hcFAQ 11.3.hdFAQ 11.2.heFAQ 11.1.hfFAQ 10.2.hgFAQ 10.1.hhFAQ 9.3.hiFAQ 9.2.hjFAQ 9.1.hkFAQ 8.3.hlFAQ 8.2.hmFAQ 8.1.hnFAQ 7.3.hoFAQ 7.2.hpFAQ 7.1.hqFAQ 6.2.hrFAQ 6.1.hsFAQ 5.4.htFAQ 5.3.huFAQ 5.2.hvFAQ 5.1.hwFAQ 4.3.hxFAQ 4.2.hyFAQ 4.1.hzFAQ 3.3.iaFAQ 3.2.ibFAQ 3.1.icFAQ 2.2.idFAQ 2.1.ieFAQ 1.3.ifFAQ 1.2.igFAQ 1.1.ih0.0

FAQ 3.2.mFAQ 3.2.nFAQ 3.2.uFAQ 3.1.zFAQ 3.1.ahFAQ 2.2.bfFAQ 2.2.boFAQ 2.1.byFAQ 2.1.chFAQ 1.3.dnFAQ 1.3.dvFAQ 1.2.edFAQ 1.2.enFAQ 1.1.gpFAQ 1.1.gyFAQ 12.3.hbFAQ 12.2.hcFAQ 12.1.hdFAQ 11.3.heFAQ 11.2.hfFAQ 11.1.hgFAQ 10.2.hhFAQ 10.1.hiFAQ 9.3.hjFAQ 9.2.hkFAQ 9.1.hlFAQ 8.3.hmFAQ 8.2.hnFAQ 8.1.hoFAQ 7.3.hpFAQ 7.2.hqFAQ 7.1.hrFAQ 6.2.hsFAQ 6.1.htFAQ 5.4.huFAQ 5.3.hvFAQ 5.2.hwFAQ 5.1.hxFAQ 4.3.hyFAQ 4.2.hzFAQ 4.1.iaFAQ 3.3.ibFAQ 3.2.icFAQ 3.1.idFAQ 2.2.ieFAQ 2.1.ifFAQ 1.3.igFAQ 1.2.ihFAQ 1.1.ii-0.8

FAQ 3.2.nFAQ 3.2.oFAQ 3.2.vFAQ 3.1.aaFAQ 3.1.aiFAQ 2.2.bgFAQ 2.2.bpFAQ 2.1.bzFAQ 2.1.ciFAQ 1.3.doFAQ 1.3.dwFAQ 1.2.eeFAQ 1.2.eoFAQ 1.1.gqFAQ 1.1.gzFAQ 12.3.hcFAQ 12.2.hdFAQ 12.1.heFAQ 11.3.hfFAQ 11.2.hgFAQ 11.1.hhFAQ 10.2.hiFAQ 10.1.hjFAQ 9.3.hkFAQ 9.2.hlFAQ 9.1.hmFAQ 8.3.hnFAQ 8.2.hoFAQ 8.1.hpFAQ 7.3.hqFAQ 7.2.hrFAQ 7.1.hsFAQ 6.2.htFAQ 6.1.huFAQ 5.4.hvFAQ 5.3.hwFAQ 5.2.hxFAQ 5.1.hyFAQ 4.3.hzFAQ 4.2.iaFAQ 4.1.ibFAQ 3.3.icFAQ 3.2.idFAQ 3.1.ieFAQ 2.2.ifFAQ 2.1.igFAQ 1.3.ihFAQ 1.2.iiFAQ 1.1.ij0.8

FAQ 3.2.oFAQ 3.2.pFAQ 3.2.wFAQ 3.1.abFAQ 3.1.ajFAQ 2.2.bhFAQ 2.2.bqFAQ 2.1.caFAQ 2.1.cjFAQ 1.3.dpFAQ 1.3.dxFAQ 1.2.efFAQ 1.2.epFAQ 1.1.grFAQ 1.1.haFAQ 12.3.hdFAQ 12.2.heFAQ 12.1.hfFAQ 11.3.hgFAQ 11.2.hhFAQ 11.1.hiFAQ 10.2.hjFAQ 10.1.hkFAQ 9.3.hlFAQ 9.2.hmFAQ 9.1.hnFAQ 8.3.hoFAQ 8.2.hpFAQ 8.1.hqFAQ 7.3.hrFAQ 7.2.hsFAQ 7.1.htFAQ 6.2.huFAQ 6.1.hvFAQ 5.4.hwFAQ 5.3.hxFAQ 5.2.hyFAQ 5.1.hzFAQ 4.3.iaFAQ 4.2.ibFAQ 4.1.icFAQ 3.3.idFAQ 3.2.ieFAQ 3.1.ifFAQ 2.2.igFAQ 2.1.ihFAQ 1.3.iiFAQ 1.2.ijFAQ 1.1.ik0.0

FAQ 3.2.pFAQ 3.2.qFAQ 3.2.xFAQ 3.1.acFAQ 3.1.akFAQ 2.2.biFAQ 2.2.brFAQ 2.1.cbFAQ 2.1.ckFAQ 1.3.dqFAQ 1.3.dyFAQ 1.2.egFAQ 1.2.eqFAQ 1.1.gsFAQ 1.1.hbFAQ 12.3.heFAQ 12.2.hfFAQ 12.1.hgFAQ 11.3.hhFAQ 11.2.hiFAQ 11.1.hjFAQ 10.2.hkFAQ 10.1.hlFAQ 9.3.hmFAQ 9.2.hnFAQ 9.1.hoFAQ 8.3.hpFAQ 8.2.hqFAQ 8.1.hrFAQ 7.3.hsFAQ 7.2.htFAQ 7.1.huFAQ 6.2.hvFAQ 6.1.hwFAQ 5.4.hxFAQ 5.3.hyFAQ 5.2.hzFAQ 5.1.iaFAQ 4.3.ibFAQ 4.2.icFAQ 4.1.idFAQ 3.3.ieFAQ 3.2.ifFAQ 3.1.igFAQ 2.2.ihFAQ 2.1.iiFAQ 1.3.ijFAQ 1.2.ikFAQ 1.1.il-0.8

FAQ 3.2.qFAQ 3.2.rFAQ 3.2.yFAQ 3.1.adFAQ 3.1.alFAQ 2.2.bjFAQ 2.2.bsFAQ 2.1.ccFAQ 2.1.clFAQ 1.3.drFAQ 1.3.dzFAQ 1.2.ehFAQ 1.2.erFAQ 1.1.gtFAQ 1.1.hcFAQ 12.3.hfFAQ 12.2.hgFAQ 12.1.hhFAQ 11.3.hiFAQ 11.2.hjFAQ 11.1.hkFAQ 10.2.hlFAQ 10.1.hmFAQ 9.3.hnFAQ 9.2.hoFAQ 9.1.hpFAQ 8.3.hqFAQ 8.2.hrFAQ 8.1.hsFAQ 7.3.htFAQ 7.2.huFAQ 7.1.hvFAQ 6.2.hwFAQ 6.1.hxFAQ 5.4.hyFAQ 5.3.hzFAQ 5.2.iaFAQ 5.1.ibFAQ 4.3.icFAQ 4.2.idFAQ 4.1.ieFAQ 3.3.ifFAQ 3.2.igFAQ 3.1.ihFAQ 2.2.iiFAQ 2.1.ijFAQ 1.3.ikFAQ 1.2.ilFAQ 1.1.imDominated by natural variabilityLess influenced by natural variability, but natural cooling or more intense warming can still occur

FAQ 3.2.rFAQ 3.2.sFAQ 3.2.zFAQ 3.1.aeFAQ 3.1.amFAQ 2.2.bkFAQ 2.2.btFAQ 2.1.cdFAQ 2.1.cmFAQ 1.3.dsFAQ 1.3.eaFAQ 1.2.eiFAQ 1.2.esFAQ 1.1.guFAQ 1.1.hdFAQ 12.3.hgFAQ 12.2.hhFAQ 12.1.hiFAQ 11.3.hjFAQ 11.2.hkFAQ 11.1.hlFAQ 10.2.hmFAQ 10.1.hnFAQ 9.3.hoFAQ 9.2.hpFAQ 9.1.hqFAQ 8.3.hrFAQ 8.2.hsFAQ 8.1.htFAQ 7.3.huFAQ 7.2.hvFAQ 7.1.hwFAQ 6.2.hxFAQ 6.1.hyFAQ 5.4.hzFAQ 5.3.iaFAQ 5.2.ibFAQ 5.1.icFAQ 4.3.idFAQ 4.2.ieFAQ 4.1.ifFAQ 3.3.igFAQ 3.2.ihFAQ 3.1.iiFAQ 2.2.ijFAQ 2.1.ikFAQ 1.3.ilFAQ 1.2.imFAQ 1.1.inDominated by the human influence

FAQ 3.2.sFAQ 3.2.tFAQ 3.2.aaFAQ 3.1.afFAQ 3.1.anFAQ 2.2.blFAQ 2.2.buFAQ 2.1.ceFAQ 2.1.cnFAQ 1.3.dtFAQ 1.3.ebFAQ 1.2.ejFAQ 1.2.etFAQ 1.1.gvFAQ 1.1.heFAQ 12.3.hhFAQ 12.2.hiFAQ 12.1.hjFAQ 11.3.hkFAQ 11.2.hlFAQ 11.1.hmFAQ 10.2.hnFAQ 10.1.hoFAQ 9.3.hpFAQ 9.2.hqFAQ 9.1.hrFAQ 8.3.hsFAQ 8.2.htFAQ 8.1.huFAQ 7.3.hvFAQ 7.2.hwFAQ 7.1.hxFAQ 6.2.hyFAQ 6.1.hzFAQ 5.4.iaFAQ 5.3.ibFAQ 5.2.icFAQ 5.1.idFAQ 4.3.ieFAQ 4.2.ifFAQ 4.1.igFAQ 3.3.ihFAQ 3.2.iiFAQ 3.1.ijFAQ 2.2.ikFAQ 2.1.ilFAQ 1.3.imFAQ 1.2.inFAQ 1.1.ioFAQ

FAQ 3.2.tFAQ 3.2.uFAQ 3.2.abFAQ 3.1.agFAQ 3.1.aoFAQ 2.2.bmFAQ 2.2.bvFAQ 2.1.cfFAQ 2.1.coFAQ 1.3.duFAQ 1.3.ecFAQ 1.2.ekFAQ 1.2.euFAQ 1.1.gwFAQ 1.1.hfFAQ 12.3.hiFAQ 12.2.hjFAQ 12.1.hkFAQ 11.3.hlFAQ 11.2.hmFAQ 11.1.hnFAQ 10.2.hoFAQ 10.1.hpFAQ 9.3.hqFAQ 9.2.hrFAQ 9.1.hsFAQ 8.3.htFAQ 8.2.huFAQ 8.1.hvFAQ 7.3.hwFAQ 7.2.hxFAQ 7.1.hyFAQ 6.2.hzFAQ 6.1.iaFAQ 5.4.ibFAQ 5.3.icFAQ 5.2.idFAQ 5.1.ieFAQ 4.3.ifFAQ 4.2.igFAQ 4.1.ihFAQ 3.3.iiFAQ 3.2.ijFAQ 3.1.ikFAQ 2.2.ilFAQ 2.1.imFAQ 1.3.inFAQ 1.2.ioFAQ 1.1.ipFrequently Asked Questions

FAQ 3.2.uFAQ 3.2.vFAQ 3.2.acFAQ 3.1.ahFAQ 3.1.apFAQ 2.2.bnFAQ 2.2.bwFAQ 2.1.cgFAQ 2.1.cpFAQ 1.3.dvFAQ 1.3.edFAQ 1.2.elFAQ 1.2.evFAQ 1.1.gxFAQ 1.1.hgFAQ 12.3.hjFAQ 12.2.hkFAQ 12.1.hlFAQ 11.3.hmFAQ 11.2.hnFAQ 11.1.hoFAQ 10.2.hpFAQ 10.1.hqFAQ 9.3.hrFAQ 9.2.hsFAQ 9.1.htFAQ 8.3.huFAQ 8.2.hvFAQ 8.1.hwFAQ 7.3.hxFAQ 7.2.hyFAQ 7.1.hzFAQ 6.2.iaFAQ 6.1.ibFAQ 5.4.icFAQ 5.3.idFAQ 5.2.ieFAQ 5.1.ifFAQ 4.3.igFAQ 4.2.ihFAQ 4.1.iiFAQ 3.3.ijFAQ 3.2.ikFAQ 3.1.ilFAQ 2.2.imFAQ 2.1.inFAQ 1.3.ioFAQ 1.2.ipFAQ 1.1.iqFAQ 3.3 | Are Climate Models Improving?

FAQ 3.3.aFAQ 3.2.vFAQ 3.2.wFAQ 3.2.adFAQ 3.1.aiFAQ 3.1.aqFAQ 2.2.boFAQ 2.2.bxFAQ 2.1.chFAQ 2.1.cqFAQ 1.3.dwFAQ 1.3.eeFAQ 1.2.emFAQ 1.2.ewFAQ 1.1.gyFAQ 1.1.hhFAQ 12.3.hkFAQ 12.2.hlFAQ 12.1.hmFAQ 11.3.hnFAQ 11.2.hoFAQ 11.1.hpFAQ 10.2.hqFAQ 10.1.hrFAQ 9.3.hsFAQ 9.2.htFAQ 9.1.huFAQ 8.3.hvFAQ 8.2.hwFAQ 8.1.hxFAQ 7.3.hyFAQ 7.2.hzFAQ 7.1.iaFAQ 6.2.ibFAQ 6.1.icFAQ 5.4.idFAQ 5.3.ieFAQ 5.2.ifFAQ 5.1.igFAQ 4.3.ihFAQ 4.2.iiFAQ 4.1.ijFAQ 3.3.ikFAQ 3.2.ilFAQ 3.1.imFAQ 2.2.inFAQ 2.1.ioFAQ 1.3.ipFAQ 1.2.iqFAQ 1.1.irYes, climate models have improved and continue to do so, becoming better at capturing complex and small-scale processes and at simulating present-day mean climate conditions. This improvement can be measured by comparing climate simulations against historical observations. Both the current and previous generations of models show that increases in greenhouse gases cause global warming. While past warming is well simulated by the new generation models as a group, some individual models simulate past warming that is either below or above what is observed. The information about how well models simulate past warming, as well as other insights from observations and theory, are used to refine this Report’s projections of global warming.

FAQ 3.3.bFAQ 3.2.wFAQ 3.2.xFAQ 3.2.aeFAQ 3.1.ajFAQ 3.1.arFAQ 2.2.bpFAQ 2.2.byFAQ 2.1.ciFAQ 2.1.crFAQ 1.3.dxFAQ 1.3.efFAQ 1.2.enFAQ 1.2.exFAQ 1.1.gzFAQ 1.1.hiFAQ 12.3.hlFAQ 12.2.hmFAQ 12.1.hnFAQ 11.3.hoFAQ 11.2.hpFAQ 11.1.hqFAQ 10.2.hrFAQ 10.1.hsFAQ 9.3.htFAQ 9.2.huFAQ 9.1.hvFAQ 8.3.hwFAQ 8.2.hxFAQ 8.1.hyFAQ 7.3.hzFAQ 7.2.iaFAQ 7.1.ibFAQ 6.2.icFAQ 6.1.idFAQ 5.4.ieFAQ 5.3.ifFAQ 5.2.igFAQ 5.1.ihFAQ 4.3.iiFAQ 4.2.ijFAQ 4.1.ikFAQ 3.3.ilFAQ 3.2.imFAQ 3.1.inFAQ 2.2.ioFAQ 2.1.ipFAQ 1.3.iqFAQ 1.2.irFAQ 1.1.isClimate models are important tools for understanding past, present and future climate change. They are sophisticated computer programs that are based on fundamental laws of physics of the atmosphere, ocean, ice, and land. Climate models perform their calculations on a three-dimensional grid made of small bricks or ‘gridcells’ of about 100 km across. Processes that occur on scales smaller than the model grid cells (such as the transformation of cloud moisture into rain) are treated in a simplified way. This simplification is done differently in different models. Some models include more processes and complexity than others; some represent processes in finer detail (smaller grid cells) than others. Hence the simulated climate and climate change vary between models.

FAQ 3.3.cFAQ 3.2.xFAQ 3.2.yFAQ 3.2.afFAQ 3.1.akFAQ 3.1.asFAQ 2.2.bqFAQ 2.2.bzFAQ 2.1.cjFAQ 2.1.csFAQ 1.3.dyFAQ 1.3.egFAQ 1.2.eoFAQ 1.2.eyFAQ 1.1.haFAQ 1.1.hjFAQ 12.3.hmFAQ 12.2.hnFAQ 12.1.hoFAQ 11.3.hpFAQ 11.2.hqFAQ 11.1.hrFAQ 10.2.hsFAQ 10.1.htFAQ 9.3.huFAQ 9.2.hvFAQ 9.1.hwFAQ 8.3.hxFAQ 8.2.hyFAQ 8.1.hzFAQ 7.3.iaFAQ 7.2.ibFAQ 7.1.icFAQ 6.2.idFAQ 6.1.ieFAQ 5.4.ifFAQ 5.3.igFAQ 5.2.ihFAQ 5.1.iiFAQ 4.3.ijFAQ 4.2.ikFAQ 4.1.ilFAQ 3.3.imFAQ 3.2.inFAQ 3.1.ioFAQ 2.2.ipFAQ 2.1.iqFAQ 1.3.irFAQ 1.2.isFAQ 1.1.itClimate modelling started in the 1950s and, over the years, models have become increasingly sophisticated as computing power, observations and our understanding of the climate system have advanced. The models used in the IPCC First Assessment Report published in 1990 correctly reproduced many aspects of climate (FAQ 1.1). The actual evolution of the climate since then has confirmed these early projections, when accounting for the differences between the simulated scenarios and actual emissions. Models continue to improve and get better and better at simulating the large variety of important processes that affect climate. For example, many models now simulate complex interactions between different aspects of the Earth system, such as the uptake of carbon dioxide by vegetation on land and by the ocean, and the interaction between clouds and air pollutants. While some models are becoming more comprehensive, others are striving to represent processes at higher resolution, for example to better represent the vortices and swirls in currents responsible for much of the transport of heat in the ocean.

FAQ 3.3.dFAQ 3.2.yFAQ 3.2.zFAQ 3.2.agFAQ 3.1.alFAQ 3.1.atFAQ 2.2.brFAQ 2.2.caFAQ 2.1.ckFAQ 2.1.ctFAQ 1.3.dzFAQ 1.3.ehFAQ 1.2.epFAQ 1.2.ezFAQ 1.1.hbFAQ 1.1.hkFAQ 12.3.hnFAQ 12.2.hoFAQ 12.1.hpFAQ 11.3.hqFAQ 11.2.hrFAQ 11.1.hsFAQ 10.2.htFAQ 10.1.huFAQ 9.3.hvFAQ 9.2.hwFAQ 9.1.hxFAQ 8.3.hyFAQ 8.2.hzFAQ 8.1.iaFAQ 7.3.ibFAQ 7.2.icFAQ 7.1.idFAQ 6.2.ieFAQ 6.1.ifFAQ 5.4.igFAQ 5.3.ihFAQ 5.2.iiFAQ 5.1.ijFAQ 4.3.ikFAQ 4.2.ilFAQ 4.1.imFAQ 3.3.inFAQ 3.2.ioFAQ 3.1.ipFAQ 2.2.iqFAQ 2.1.irFAQ 1.3.isFAQ 1.2.itFAQ 1.1.iuScientists evaluate the performance of climate models by comparing historical climate model simulations to observations. This evaluation includes comparison of large-scale averages as well as more detailed regional and seasonal variations. There are two important aspects to consider: (i) how models perform individually and (ii) how they perform as a group. The average of many models often compares better against observations than any individual model, since errors in representing detailed processes tend to cancel each other out in multi-model averages.

FAQ 3.3.eFAQ 3.2.zFAQ 3.2.aaFAQ 3.2.ahFAQ 3.1.amFAQ 3.1.auFAQ 2.2.bsFAQ 2.2.cbFAQ 2.1.clFAQ 2.1.cuFAQ 1.3.eaFAQ 1.3.eiFAQ 1.2.eqFAQ 1.2.faFAQ 1.1.hcFAQ 1.1.hlFAQ 12.3.hoFAQ 12.2.hpFAQ 12.1.hqFAQ 11.3.hrFAQ 11.2.hsFAQ 11.1.htFAQ 10.2.huFAQ 10.1.hvFAQ 9.3.hwFAQ 9.2.hxFAQ 9.1.hyFAQ 8.3.hzFAQ 8.2.iaFAQ 8.1.ibFAQ 7.3.icFAQ 7.2.idFAQ 7.1.ieFAQ 6.2.ifFAQ 6.1.igFAQ 5.4.ihFAQ 5.3.iiFAQ 5.2.ijFAQ 5.1.ikFAQ 4.3.ilFAQ 4.2.imFAQ 4.1.inFAQ 3.3.ioFAQ 3.2.ipFAQ 3.1.iqFAQ 2.2.irFAQ 2.1.isFAQ 1.3.itFAQ 1.2.iuFAQ 1.1.ivAs an example, FAQ 3.3 Figure 1 compares simulations from the three most recent generations of models (available around 2008, 2013 and 2021) with observations of three climate variables. It shows the correlation between simulated and observed patterns, where a value of 1 represents perfect agreement. Many individual models of the new generation perform significantly better, as indicated by values closer to 1. As a group, each generation out-performs the previous generation: the multi-model average (shown by the longer lines) is progressively closer to 1. The vertical extent of the colored bars indicates the range of model performance across each group. The top of the bar moves up with each generation, indicating improved performance of the best performing models from one generation to the next. In the case of precipitation, the performance of the worst performing models is similar in the two most recent model generations, increasing the spread across models.

FAQ 3.3.fFAQ 3.2.aaFAQ 3.2.abFAQ 3.2.aiFAQ 3.1.anFAQ 3.1.avFAQ 2.2.btFAQ 2.2.ccFAQ 2.1.cmFAQ 2.1.cvFAQ 1.3.ebFAQ 1.3.ejFAQ 1.2.erFAQ 1.2.fbFAQ 1.1.hdFAQ 1.1.hmFAQ 12.3.hpFAQ 12.2.hqFAQ 12.1.hrFAQ 11.3.hsFAQ 11.2.htFAQ 11.1.huFAQ 10.2.hvFAQ 10.1.hwFAQ 9.3.hxFAQ 9.2.hyFAQ 9.1.hzFAQ 8.3.iaFAQ 8.2.ibFAQ 8.1.icFAQ 7.3.idFAQ 7.2.ieFAQ 7.1.ifFAQ 6.2.igFAQ 6.1.ihFAQ 5.4.iiFAQ 5.3.ijFAQ 5.2.ikFAQ 5.1.ilFAQ 4.3.imFAQ 4.2.inFAQ 4.1.ioFAQ 3.3.ipFAQ 3.2.iqFAQ 3.1.irFAQ 2.2.isFAQ 2.1.itFAQ 1.3.iuFAQ 1.2.ivFAQ 1.1.@.256Developments in the latest generation of climate models, including new and better representation of physical, chemical and biological processes, as well as higher resolution, have improved the simulation of many aspects of the Earth system. These simulations, along with the evaluation of the ability of the models to simulate past warming as well as the updated assessment of the temperature response to a doubling of CO2 in the atmosphere, are used to estimate the range of future global warming (FAQ 7.3).

FAQ 3.3.gFAQ 3.2.abFAQ 3.2.acFAQ 3.2.ajFAQ 3.1.aoFAQ 3.1.awFAQ 2.2.buFAQ 2.2.cdFAQ 2.1.cnFAQ 2.1.cwFAQ 1.3.ecFAQ 1.3.ekFAQ 1.2.esFAQ 1.2.fcFAQ 1.1.heFAQ 1.1.hnFAQ 12.3.hqFAQ 12.2.hrFAQ 12.1.hsFAQ 11.3.htFAQ 11.2.huFAQ 11.1.hvFAQ 10.2.hwFAQ 10.1.hxFAQ 9.3.hyFAQ 9.2.hzFAQ 9.1.iaFAQ 8.3.ibFAQ 8.2.icFAQ 8.1.idFAQ 7.3.ieFAQ 7.2.ifFAQ 7.1.igFAQ 6.2.ihFAQ 6.1.iiFAQ 5.4.ijFAQ 5.3.ikFAQ 5.2.ilFAQ 5.1.imFAQ 4.3.inFAQ 4.2.ioFAQ 4.1.ipFAQ 3.3.iqFAQ 3.2.irFAQ 3.1.isFAQ 2.2.itFAQ 2.1.iuFAQ 1.3.ivFAQ 1.2.@.256FAQ 1.1.@.257FAQ

FAQ 3.3.hFAQ 3.2.acFAQ 3.2.adFAQ 3.2.akFAQ 3.1.apFAQ 3.1.axFAQ 2.2.bvFAQ 2.2.ceFAQ 2.1.coFAQ 2.1.cxFAQ 1.3.edFAQ 1.3.elFAQ 1.2.etFAQ 1.2.fdFAQ 1.1.hfFAQ 1.1.hoFAQ 12.3.hrFAQ 12.2.hsFAQ 12.1.htFAQ 11.3.huFAQ 11.2.hvFAQ 11.1.hwFAQ 10.2.hxFAQ 10.1.hyFAQ 9.3.hzFAQ 9.2.iaFAQ 9.1.ibFAQ 8.3.icFAQ 8.2.idFAQ 8.1.ieFAQ 7.3.ifFAQ 7.2.igFAQ 7.1.ihFAQ 6.2.iiFAQ 6.1.ijFAQ 5.4.ikFAQ 5.3.ilFAQ 5.2.imFAQ 5.1.inFAQ 4.3.ioFAQ 4.2.ipFAQ 4.1.iqFAQ 3.3.irFAQ 3.2.isFAQ 3.1.itFAQ 2.2.iuFAQ 2.1.ivFAQ 1.3.@.256FAQ 1.2.@.257FAQ 1.1.@.258FAQ 3.3 (continued)

FAQ 3.3.aFAQ 3.3.iFAQ 3.2.adFAQ 3.2.aeFAQ 3.2.alFAQ 3.1.aqFAQ 3.1.ayFAQ 2.2.bwFAQ 2.2.cfFAQ 2.1.cpFAQ 2.1.cyFAQ 1.3.eeFAQ 1.3.emFAQ 1.2.euFAQ 1.2.feFAQ 1.1.hgFAQ 1.1.hpFAQ 12.3.hsFAQ 12.2.htFAQ 12.1.huFAQ 11.3.hvFAQ 11.2.hwFAQ 11.1.hxFAQ 10.2.hyFAQ 10.1.hzFAQ 9.3.iaFAQ 9.2.ibFAQ 9.1.icFAQ 8.3.idFAQ 8.2.ieFAQ 8.1.ifFAQ 7.3.igFAQ 7.2.ihFAQ 7.1.iiFAQ 6.2.ijFAQ 6.1.ikFAQ 5.4.ilFAQ 5.3.imFAQ 5.2.inFAQ 5.1.ioFAQ 4.3.ipFAQ 4.2.iqFAQ 4.1.irFAQ 3.3.isFAQ 3.2.itFAQ 3.1.iuFAQ 2.2.ivFAQ 2.1.@.256FAQ 1.3.@.257FAQ 1.2.@.258FAQ 1.1.@.259CMIP6 CMIP5 CMIP3

FAQ 3.3.bFAQ 3.3.jFAQ 3.2.aeFAQ 3.2.afFAQ 3.2.amFAQ 3.1.arFAQ 3.1.azFAQ 2.2.bxFAQ 2.2.cgFAQ 2.1.cqFAQ 2.1.czFAQ 1.3.efFAQ 1.3.enFAQ 1.2.evFAQ 1.2.ffFAQ 1.1.hhFAQ 1.1.hqFAQ 12.3.htFAQ 12.2.huFAQ 12.1.hvFAQ 11.3.hwFAQ 11.2.hxFAQ 11.1.hyFAQ 10.2.hzFAQ 10.1.iaFAQ 9.3.ibFAQ 9.2.icFAQ 9.1.idFAQ 8.3.ieFAQ 8.2.ifFAQ 8.1.igFAQ 7.3.ihFAQ 7.2.iiFAQ 7.1.ijFAQ 6.2.ikFAQ 6.1.ilFAQ 5.4.imFAQ 5.3.inFAQ 5.2.ioFAQ 5.1.ipFAQ 4.3.iqFAQ 4.2.irFAQ 4.1.isFAQ 3.3.itFAQ 3.2.iuFAQ 3.1.ivFAQ 2.2.@.256FAQ 2.1.@.257FAQ 1.3.@.258FAQ 1.2.@.259FAQ 1.1.@.2601.0

FAQ 3.3.cFAQ 3.3.kFAQ 3.2.afFAQ 3.2.agFAQ 3.2.anFAQ 3.1.asFAQ 3.1.baFAQ 2.2.byFAQ 2.2.chFAQ 2.1.crFAQ 2.1.daFAQ 1.3.egFAQ 1.3.eoFAQ 1.2.ewFAQ 1.2.fgFAQ 1.1.hiFAQ 1.1.hrFAQ 12.3.huFAQ 12.2.hvFAQ 12.1.hwFAQ 11.3.hxFAQ 11.2.hyFAQ 11.1.hzFAQ 10.2.iaFAQ 10.1.ibFAQ 9.3.icFAQ 9.2.idFAQ 9.1.ieFAQ 8.3.ifFAQ 8.2.igFAQ 8.1.ihFAQ 7.3.iiFAQ 7.2.ijFAQ 7.1.ikFAQ 6.2.ilFAQ 6.1.imFAQ 5.4.inFAQ 5.3.ioFAQ 5.2.ipFAQ 5.1.iqFAQ 4.3.irFAQ 4.2.isFAQ 4.1.itFAQ 3.3.iuFAQ 3.2.ivFAQ 3.1.@.256FAQ 2.2.@.257FAQ 2.1.@.258FAQ 1.3.@.259FAQ 1.2.@.260FAQ 1.1.@.2610.9

FAQ 3.3.dFAQ 3.3.lFAQ 3.2.agFAQ 3.2.ahFAQ 3.2.aoFAQ 3.1.atFAQ 3.1.bbFAQ 2.2.bzFAQ 2.2.ciFAQ 2.1.csFAQ 2.1.dbFAQ 1.3.ehFAQ 1.3.epFAQ 1.2.exFAQ 1.2.fhFAQ 1.1.hjFAQ 1.1.hsFAQ 12.3.hvFAQ 12.2.hwFAQ 12.1.hxFAQ 11.3.hyFAQ 11.2.hzFAQ 11.1.iaFAQ 10.2.ibFAQ 10.1.icFAQ 9.3.idFAQ 9.2.ieFAQ 9.1.ifFAQ 8.3.igFAQ 8.2.ihFAQ 8.1.iiFAQ 7.3.ijFAQ 7.2.ikFAQ 7.1.ilFAQ 6.2.imFAQ 6.1.inFAQ 5.4.ioFAQ 5.3.ipFAQ 5.2.iqFAQ 5.1.irFAQ 4.3.isFAQ 4.2.itFAQ 4.1.iuFAQ 3.3.ivFAQ 3.2.@.256FAQ 3.1.@.257FAQ 2.2.@.258FAQ 2.1.@.259FAQ 1.3.@.260FAQ 1.2.@.261FAQ 1.1.@.2620.8

FAQ 3.3.eFAQ 3.3.mFAQ 3.2.ahFAQ 3.2.aiFAQ 3.2.apFAQ 3.1.auFAQ 3.1.bcFAQ 2.2.caFAQ 2.2.cjFAQ 2.1.ctFAQ 2.1.dcFAQ 1.3.eiFAQ 1.3.eqFAQ 1.2.eyFAQ 1.2.fiFAQ 1.1.hkFAQ 1.1.htFAQ 12.3.hwFAQ 12.2.hxFAQ 12.1.hyFAQ 11.3.hzFAQ 11.2.iaFAQ 11.1.ibFAQ 10.2.icFAQ 10.1.idFAQ 9.3.ieFAQ 9.2.ifFAQ 9.1.igFAQ 8.3.ihFAQ 8.2.iiFAQ 8.1.ijFAQ 7.3.ikFAQ 7.2.ilFAQ 7.1.imFAQ 6.2.inFAQ 6.1.ioFAQ 5.4.ipFAQ 5.3.iqFAQ 5.2.irFAQ 5.1.isFAQ 4.3.itFAQ 4.2.iuFAQ 4.1.ivFAQ 3.3.@.256FAQ 3.2.@.257FAQ 3.1.@.258FAQ 2.2.@.259FAQ 2.1.@.260FAQ 1.3.@.261FAQ 1.2.@.262FAQ 1.1.@.2630.7

FAQ 3.3.fFAQ 3.3.nFAQ 3.2.aiFAQ 3.2.ajFAQ 3.2.aqFAQ 3.1.avFAQ 3.1.bdFAQ 2.2.cbFAQ 2.2.ckFAQ 2.1.cuFAQ 2.1.ddFAQ 1.3.ejFAQ 1.3.erFAQ 1.2.ezFAQ 1.2.fjFAQ 1.1.hlFAQ 1.1.huFAQ 12.3.hxFAQ 12.2.hyFAQ 12.1.hzFAQ 11.3.iaFAQ 11.2.ibFAQ 11.1.icFAQ 10.2.idFAQ 10.1.ieFAQ 9.3.ifFAQ 9.2.igFAQ 9.1.ihFAQ 8.3.iiFAQ 8.2.ijFAQ 8.1.ikFAQ 7.3.ilFAQ 7.2.imFAQ 7.1.inFAQ 6.2.ioFAQ 6.1.ipFAQ 5.4.iqFAQ 5.3.irFAQ 5.2.isFAQ 5.1.itFAQ 4.3.iuFAQ 4.2.ivFAQ 4.1.@.256FAQ 3.3.@.257FAQ 3.2.@.258FAQ 3.1.@.259FAQ 2.2.@.260FAQ 2.1.@.261FAQ 1.3.@.262FAQ 1.2.@.263FAQ 1.1.@.2640.6

FAQ 3.3.gFAQ 3.3.oFAQ 3.2.ajFAQ 3.2.akFAQ 3.2.arFAQ 3.1.awFAQ 3.1.beFAQ 2.2.ccFAQ 2.2.clFAQ 2.1.cvFAQ 2.1.deFAQ 1.3.ekFAQ 1.3.esFAQ 1.2.faFAQ 1.2.fkFAQ 1.1.hmFAQ 1.1.hvFAQ 12.3.hyFAQ 12.2.hzFAQ 12.1.iaFAQ 11.3.ibFAQ 11.2.icFAQ 11.1.idFAQ 10.2.ieFAQ 10.1.ifFAQ 9.3.igFAQ 9.2.ihFAQ 9.1.iiFAQ 8.3.ijFAQ 8.2.ikFAQ 8.1.ilFAQ 7.3.imFAQ 7.2.inFAQ 7.1.ioFAQ 6.2.ipFAQ 6.1.iqFAQ 5.4.irFAQ 5.3.isFAQ 5.2.itFAQ 5.1.iuFAQ 4.3.ivFAQ 4.2.@.256FAQ 4.1.@.257FAQ 3.3.@.258FAQ 3.2.@.259FAQ 3.1.@.260FAQ 2.2.@.261FAQ 2.1.@.262FAQ 1.3.@.263FAQ 1.2.@.264FAQ 1.1.@.265FAQ 3.3:Are Climate Models Improving?Yes, climate models have improved with increasing computer power and better understanding of climate processes.

FAQ 3.3.hFAQ 3.3.pFAQ 3.2.akFAQ 3.2.alFAQ 3.2.asFAQ 3.1.axFAQ 3.1.bfFAQ 2.2.cdFAQ 2.2.cmFAQ 2.1.cwFAQ 2.1.dfFAQ 1.3.elFAQ 1.3.etFAQ 1.2.fbFAQ 1.2.flFAQ 1.1.hnFAQ 1.1.hwFAQ 12.3.hzFAQ 12.2.iaFAQ 12.1.ibFAQ 11.3.icFAQ 11.2.idFAQ 11.1.ieFAQ 10.2.ifFAQ 10.1.igFAQ 9.3.ihFAQ 9.2.iiFAQ 9.1.ijFAQ 8.3.ikFAQ 8.2.ilFAQ 8.1.imFAQ 7.3.inFAQ 7.2.ioFAQ 7.1.ipFAQ 6.2.iqFAQ 6.1.irFAQ 5.4.isFAQ 5.3.itFAQ 5.2.iuFAQ 5.1.ivFAQ 4.3.@.256FAQ 4.2.@.257FAQ 4.1.@.258FAQ 3.3.@.259FAQ 3.2.@.260FAQ 3.1.@.261FAQ 2.2.@.262FAQ 2.1.@.263FAQ 1.3.@.264FAQ 1.2.@.265FAQ 1.1.@.266Better model performance

FAQ 3.3.iFAQ 3.3.qFAQ 3.2.alFAQ 3.2.amFAQ 3.2.atFAQ 3.1.ayFAQ 3.1.bgFAQ 2.2.ceFAQ 2.2.cnFAQ 2.1.cxFAQ 2.1.dgFAQ 1.3.emFAQ 1.3.euFAQ 1.2.fcFAQ 1.2.fmFAQ 1.1.hoFAQ 1.1.hxFAQ 12.3.iaFAQ 12.2.ibFAQ 12.1.icFAQ 11.3.idFAQ 11.2.ieFAQ 11.1.ifFAQ 10.2.igFAQ 10.1.ihFAQ 9.3.iiFAQ 9.2.ijFAQ 9.1.ikFAQ 8.3.ilFAQ 8.2.imFAQ 8.1.inFAQ 7.3.ioFAQ 7.2.ipFAQ 7.1.iqFAQ 6.2.irFAQ 6.1.isFAQ 5.4.itFAQ 5.3.iuFAQ 5.2.ivFAQ 5.1.@.256FAQ 4.3.@.257FAQ 4.2.@.258FAQ 4.1.@.259FAQ 3.3.@.260FAQ 3.2.@.261FAQ 3.1.@.262FAQ 2.2.@.263FAQ 2.1.@.264FAQ 1.3.@.265FAQ 1.2.@.266FAQ 1.1.@.267Poorer model performance

FAQ 3.3.jFAQ 3.3.rFAQ 3.2.amFAQ 3.2.anFAQ 3.2.auFAQ 3.1.azFAQ 3.1.bhFAQ 2.2.cfFAQ 2.2.coFAQ 2.1.cyFAQ 2.1.dhFAQ 1.3.enFAQ 1.3.evFAQ 1.2.fdFAQ 1.2.fnFAQ 1.1.hpFAQ 1.1.hyFAQ 12.3.ibFAQ 12.2.icFAQ 12.1.idFAQ 11.3.ieFAQ 11.2.ifFAQ 11.1.igFAQ 10.2.ihFAQ 10.1.iiFAQ 9.3.ijFAQ 9.2.ikFAQ 9.1.ilFAQ 8.3.imFAQ 8.2.inFAQ 8.1.ioFAQ 7.3.ipFAQ 7.2.iqFAQ 7.1.irFAQ 6.2.isFAQ 6.1.itFAQ 5.4.iuFAQ 5.3.ivFAQ 5.2.@.256FAQ 5.1.@.257FAQ 4.3.@.258FAQ 4.2.@.259FAQ 4.1.@.260FAQ 3.3.@.261FAQ 3.2.@.262FAQ 3.1.@.263FAQ 2.2.@.264FAQ 2.1.@.265FAQ 1.3.@.266FAQ 1.2.@.267FAQ 1.1.@.268FAQ

FAQ 3.3.kFAQ 3.3.sFAQ 3.2.anFAQ 3.2.aoFAQ 3.2.avFAQ 3.1.baFAQ 3.1.biFAQ 2.2.cgFAQ 2.2.cpFAQ 2.1.czFAQ 2.1.diFAQ 1.3.eoFAQ 1.3.ewFAQ 1.2.feFAQ 1.2.foFAQ 1.1.hqFAQ 1.1.hzFAQ 12.3.icFAQ 12.2.idFAQ 12.1.ieFAQ 11.3.ifFAQ 11.2.igFAQ 11.1.ihFAQ 10.2.iiFAQ 10.1.ijFAQ 9.3.ikFAQ 9.2.ilFAQ 9.1.imFAQ 8.3.inFAQ 8.2.ioFAQ 8.1.ipFAQ 7.3.iqFAQ 7.2.irFAQ 7.1.isFAQ 6.2.itFAQ 6.1.iuFAQ 5.4.ivFAQ 5.3.@.256FAQ 5.2.@.257FAQ 5.1.@.258FAQ 4.3.@.259FAQ 4.2.@.260FAQ 4.1.@.261FAQ 3.3.@.262FAQ 3.2.@.263FAQ 3.1.@.264FAQ 2.2.@.265FAQ 2.1.@.266FAQ 1.3.@.267FAQ 1.2.@.268FAQ 1.1.@.269Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 3.3.lFAQ 3.3.tFAQ 3.2.aoFAQ 3.2.apFAQ 3.2.awFAQ 3.1.bbFAQ 3.1.bjFAQ 2.2.chFAQ 2.2.cqFAQ 2.1.daFAQ 2.1.djFAQ 1.3.epFAQ 1.3.exFAQ 1.2.ffFAQ 1.2.fpFAQ 1.1.hrFAQ 1.1.iaFAQ 12.3.idFAQ 12.2.ieFAQ 12.1.ifFAQ 11.3.igFAQ 11.2.ihFAQ 11.1.iiFAQ 10.2.ijFAQ 10.1.ikFAQ 9.3.ilFAQ 9.2.imFAQ 9.1.inFAQ 8.3.ioFAQ 8.2.ipFAQ 8.1.iqFAQ 7.3.irFAQ 7.2.isFAQ 7.1.itFAQ 6.2.iuFAQ 6.1.ivFAQ 5.4.@.256FAQ 5.3.@.257FAQ 5.2.@.258FAQ 5.1.@.259FAQ 4.3.@.260FAQ 4.2.@.261FAQ 4.1.@.262FAQ 3.3.@.263FAQ 3.2.@.264FAQ 3.1.@.265FAQ 2.2.@.266FAQ 2.1.@.267FAQ 1.3.@.268FAQ 1.2.@.269FAQ 1.1.@.270FAQ 4.1 | How Will the Climate Change Over the Next Twenty Years?

FAQ 4.1.aFAQ 3.3.mFAQ 3.3.uFAQ 3.2.apFAQ 3.2.aqFAQ 3.2.axFAQ 3.1.bcFAQ 3.1.bkFAQ 2.2.ciFAQ 2.2.crFAQ 2.1.dbFAQ 2.1.dkFAQ 1.3.eqFAQ 1.3.eyFAQ 1.2.fgFAQ 1.2.fqFAQ 1.1.hsFAQ 1.1.ibFAQ 12.3.ieFAQ 12.2.ifFAQ 12.1.igFAQ 11.3.ihFAQ 11.2.iiFAQ 11.1.ijFAQ 10.2.ikFAQ 10.1.ilFAQ 9.3.imFAQ 9.2.inFAQ 9.1.ioFAQ 8.3.ipFAQ 8.2.iqFAQ 8.1.irFAQ 7.3.isFAQ 7.2.itFAQ 7.1.iuFAQ 6.2.ivFAQ 6.1.@.256FAQ 5.4.@.257FAQ 5.3.@.258FAQ 5.2.@.259FAQ 5.1.@.260FAQ 4.3.@.261FAQ 4.2.@.262FAQ 4.1.@.263FAQ 3.3.@.264FAQ 3.2.@.265FAQ 3.1.@.266FAQ 2.2.@.267FAQ 2.1.@.268FAQ 1.3.@.269FAQ 1.2.@.270FAQ 1.1.@.271The parts of the climate system that have shown clear increasing or decreasing trends in recent decades will continue these trends for at least the next twenty years. Examples include changes in global surface temperature, Arctic sea ice cover, and global average sea level. However, over a period as short as twenty years, these trends are substantially influenced by natural climate variability, which can either amplify or attenuate the trend expected from the further increase in greenhouse gas concentrations.

FAQ 4.1.bFAQ 3.3.nFAQ 3.3.vFAQ 3.2.aqFAQ 3.2.arFAQ 3.2.ayFAQ 3.1.bdFAQ 3.1.blFAQ 2.2.cjFAQ 2.2.csFAQ 2.1.dcFAQ 2.1.dlFAQ 1.3.erFAQ 1.3.ezFAQ 1.2.fhFAQ 1.2.frFAQ 1.1.htFAQ 1.1.icFAQ 12.3.ifFAQ 12.2.igFAQ 12.1.ihFAQ 11.3.iiFAQ 11.2.ijFAQ 11.1.ikFAQ 10.2.ilFAQ 10.1.imFAQ 9.3.inFAQ 9.2.ioFAQ 9.1.ipFAQ 8.3.iqFAQ 8.2.irFAQ 8.1.isFAQ 7.3.itFAQ 7.2.iuFAQ 7.1.ivFAQ 6.2.@.256FAQ 6.1.@.257FAQ 5.4.@.258FAQ 5.3.@.259FAQ 5.2.@.260FAQ 5.1.@.261FAQ 4.3.@.262FAQ 4.2.@.263FAQ 4.1.@.264FAQ 3.3.@.265FAQ 3.2.@.266FAQ 3.1.@.267FAQ 2.2.@.268FAQ 2.1.@.269FAQ 1.3.@.270FAQ 1.2.@.271FAQ 1.1.@.272Twenty years are a long time by human standards but a short time from a climate point of view. Emissions of greenhouse gases will continue over the next twenty years, as assumed in all the scenarios considered in this Report, albeit with varying rates. These emissions will further increase concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (see FAQ 4.2), leading to continued trends in global surface warming and other parts of the climate system, including Arctic sea ice and global average sea level (see FAQ 9.2). FAQ 4.1, Figure 1 shows that both global surface temperature rise and the shrinking of sea ice in the Arctic will continue, with little difference between high- and low-emissions scenarios over the next 20 years (that is, between the red and blue lines).

FAQ 4.1.cFAQ 3.3.oFAQ 3.3.wFAQ 3.2.arFAQ 3.2.asFAQ 3.2.azFAQ 3.1.beFAQ 3.1.bmFAQ 2.2.ckFAQ 2.2.ctFAQ 2.1.ddFAQ 2.1.dmFAQ 1.3.esFAQ 1.3.faFAQ 1.2.fiFAQ 1.2.fsFAQ 1.1.huFAQ 1.1.idFAQ 12.3.igFAQ 12.2.ihFAQ 12.1.iiFAQ 11.3.ijFAQ 11.2.ikFAQ 11.1.ilFAQ 10.2.imFAQ 10.1.inFAQ 9.3.ioFAQ 9.2.ipFAQ 9.1.iqFAQ 8.3.irFAQ 8.2.isFAQ 8.1.itFAQ 7.3.iuFAQ 7.2.ivFAQ 7.1.@.256FAQ 6.2.@.257FAQ 6.1.@.258FAQ 5.4.@.259FAQ 5.3.@.260FAQ 5.2.@.261FAQ 5.1.@.262FAQ 4.3.@.263FAQ 4.2.@.264FAQ 4.1.@.265FAQ 3.3.@.266FAQ 3.2.@.267FAQ 3.1.@.268FAQ 2.2.@.269FAQ 2.1.@.270FAQ 1.3.@.271FAQ 1.2.@.272FAQ 1.1.@.273However, these expected trends will be overlain by natural climate variability (see FAQ 3.2). First, a major volcanic eruption might occur, such as the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on the Philippines; such an eruption might cause a global surface cooling of a few tenths of a degree Celsius lasting several years. Second, both atmosphere and ocean show variations that occur spontaneously, without any external influence. These variations range from localized weather systems to continent- and ocean-wide patterns and oscillations that change over months, years, or decades. Over a period of twenty years, natural climate variability strongly influences many climate quantities, when compared to the response to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations from human activities. The effect of natural variability is illustrated by the very different trajectories that individual black, red or blue lines can take in FAQ 4.1, Figure 1. Whether natural variability would amplify or attenuate the human influence cannot generally be predicted out to twenty years into the future. Natural climate variability over the next twenty years thus constitutes an uncertainty that at best can be quantified accurately but that cannot be reduced.

FAQ 4.1.dFAQ 3.3.pFAQ 3.3.xFAQ 3.2.asFAQ 3.2.atFAQ 3.2.baFAQ 3.1.bfFAQ 3.1.bnFAQ 2.2.clFAQ 2.2.cuFAQ 2.1.deFAQ 2.1.dnFAQ 1.3.etFAQ 1.3.fbFAQ 1.2.fjFAQ 1.2.ftFAQ 1.1.hvFAQ 1.1.ieFAQ 12.3.ihFAQ 12.2.iiFAQ 12.1.ijFAQ 11.3.ikFAQ 11.2.ilFAQ 11.1.imFAQ 10.2.inFAQ 10.1.ioFAQ 9.3.ipFAQ 9.2.iqFAQ 9.1.irFAQ 8.3.isFAQ 8.2.itFAQ 8.1.iuFAQ 7.3.ivFAQ 7.2.@.256FAQ 7.1.@.257FAQ 6.2.@.258FAQ 6.1.@.259FAQ 5.4.@.260FAQ 5.3.@.261FAQ 5.2.@.262FAQ 5.1.@.263FAQ 4.3.@.264FAQ 4.2.@.265FAQ 4.1.@.266FAQ 3.3.@.267FAQ 3.2.@.268FAQ 3.1.@.269FAQ 2.2.@.270FAQ 2.1.@.271FAQ 1.3.@.272FAQ 1.2.@.273FAQ 1.1.@.274Locally, the effect of natural variability would be much larger still. Simulations (not shown here) indicate that, locally, a cooling trend over the next twenty years cannot be ruled out, even under the high-emissions scenario – at a small number of locations on Earth, but these might lie anywhere. Globally, though, temperatures would rise under all scenarios.

FAQ 4.1.eFAQ 3.3.qFAQ 3.3.yFAQ 3.2.atFAQ 3.2.auFAQ 3.2.bbFAQ 3.1.bgFAQ 3.1.boFAQ 2.2.cmFAQ 2.2.cvFAQ 2.1.dfFAQ 2.1.doFAQ 1.3.euFAQ 1.3.fcFAQ 1.2.fkFAQ 1.2.fuFAQ 1.1.hwFAQ 1.1.ifFAQ 12.3.iiFAQ 12.2.ijFAQ 12.1.ikFAQ 11.3.ilFAQ 11.2.imFAQ 11.1.inFAQ 10.2.ioFAQ 10.1.ipFAQ 9.3.iqFAQ 9.2.irFAQ 9.1.isFAQ 8.3.itFAQ 8.2.iuFAQ 8.1.ivFAQ 7.3.@.256FAQ 7.2.@.257FAQ 7.1.@.258FAQ 6.2.@.259FAQ 6.1.@.260FAQ 5.4.@.261FAQ 5.3.@.262FAQ 5.2.@.263FAQ 5.1.@.264FAQ 4.3.@.265FAQ 4.2.@.266FAQ 4.1.@.267FAQ 3.3.@.268FAQ 3.2.@.269FAQ 3.1.@.270FAQ 2.2.@.271FAQ 2.1.@.272FAQ 1.3.@.273FAQ 1.2.@.274FAQ 1.1.@.275In summary, while the direction of future change is clear for the two important climate quantities shown here – the global surface temperature and the Arctic sea ice area in September – the magnitude of the change is much less clear because of natural variability.

FAQ 4.1.fFAQ 3.3.rFAQ 3.3.zFAQ 3.2.auFAQ 3.2.avFAQ 3.2.bcFAQ 3.1.bhFAQ 3.1.bpFAQ 2.2.cnFAQ 2.2.cwFAQ 2.1.dgFAQ 2.1.dpFAQ 1.3.evFAQ 1.3.fdFAQ 1.2.flFAQ 1.2.fvFAQ 1.1.hxFAQ 1.1.igFAQ 12.3.ijFAQ 12.2.ikFAQ 12.1.ilFAQ 11.3.imFAQ 11.2.inFAQ 11.1.ioFAQ 10.2.ipFAQ 10.1.iqFAQ 9.3.irFAQ 9.2.isFAQ 9.1.itFAQ 8.3.iuFAQ 8.2.ivFAQ 8.1.@.256FAQ 7.3.@.257FAQ 7.2.@.258FAQ 7.1.@.259FAQ 6.2.@.260FAQ 6.1.@.261FAQ 5.4.@.262FAQ 5.3.@.263FAQ 5.2.@.264FAQ 5.1.@.265FAQ 4.3.@.266FAQ 4.2.@.267FAQ 4.1.@.268FAQ 3.3.@.269FAQ 3.2.@.270FAQ 3.1.@.271FAQ 2.2.@.272FAQ 2.1.@.273FAQ 1.3.@.274FAQ 1.2.@.275FAQ 1.1.@.276FAQ

FAQ 4.1.gFAQ 3.3.sFAQ 3.3.aaFAQ 3.2.avFAQ 3.2.awFAQ 3.2.bdFAQ 3.1.biFAQ 3.1.bqFAQ 2.2.coFAQ 2.2.cxFAQ 2.1.dhFAQ 2.1.dqFAQ 1.3.ewFAQ 1.3.feFAQ 1.2.fmFAQ 1.2.fwFAQ 1.1.hyFAQ 1.1.ihFAQ 12.3.ikFAQ 12.2.ilFAQ 12.1.imFAQ 11.3.inFAQ 11.2.ioFAQ 11.1.ipFAQ 10.2.iqFAQ 10.1.irFAQ 9.3.isFAQ 9.2.itFAQ 9.1.iuFAQ 8.3.ivFAQ 8.2.@.256FAQ 8.1.@.257FAQ 7.3.@.258FAQ 7.2.@.259FAQ 7.1.@.260FAQ 6.2.@.261FAQ 6.1.@.262FAQ 5.4.@.263FAQ 5.3.@.264FAQ 5.2.@.265FAQ 5.1.@.266FAQ 4.3.@.267FAQ 4.2.@.268FAQ 4.1.@.269FAQ 3.3.@.270FAQ 3.2.@.271FAQ 3.1.@.272FAQ 2.2.@.273FAQ 2.1.@.274FAQ 1.3.@.275FAQ 1.2.@.276FAQ 1.1.@.277FAQ 4.1 (continued)

FAQ 4.1.aFAQ 4.1.hFAQ 3.3.tFAQ 3.3.abFAQ 3.2.awFAQ 3.2.axFAQ 3.2.beFAQ 3.1.bjFAQ 3.1.brFAQ 2.2.cpFAQ 2.2.cyFAQ 2.1.diFAQ 2.1.drFAQ 1.3.exFAQ 1.3.ffFAQ 1.2.fnFAQ 1.2.fxFAQ 1.1.hzFAQ 1.1.iiFAQ 12.3.ilFAQ 12.2.imFAQ 12.1.inFAQ 11.3.ioFAQ 11.2.ipFAQ 11.1.iqFAQ 10.2.irFAQ 10.1.isFAQ 9.3.itFAQ 9.2.iuFAQ 9.1.ivFAQ 8.3.@.256FAQ 8.2.@.257FAQ 8.1.@.258FAQ 7.3.@.259FAQ 7.2.@.260FAQ 7.1.@.261FAQ 6.2.@.262FAQ 6.1.@.263FAQ 5.4.@.264FAQ 5.3.@.265FAQ 5.2.@.266FAQ 5.1.@.267FAQ 4.3.@.268FAQ 4.2.@.269FAQ 4.1.@.270FAQ 3.3.@.271FAQ 3.2.@.272FAQ 3.1.@.273FAQ 2.2.@.274FAQ 2.1.@.275FAQ 1.3.@.276FAQ 1.2.@.277FAQ 1.1.@.278Global surface temperature change (ºC)

FAQ 4.1.bFAQ 4.1.iFAQ 3.3.uFAQ 3.3.acFAQ 3.2.axFAQ 3.2.ayFAQ 3.2.bfFAQ 3.1.bkFAQ 3.1.bsFAQ 2.2.cqFAQ 2.2.czFAQ 2.1.djFAQ 2.1.dsFAQ 1.3.eyFAQ 1.3.fgFAQ 1.2.foFAQ 1.2.fyFAQ 1.1.iaFAQ 1.1.ijFAQ 12.3.imFAQ 12.2.inFAQ 12.1.ioFAQ 11.3.ipFAQ 11.2.iqFAQ 11.1.irFAQ 10.2.isFAQ 10.1.itFAQ 9.3.iuFAQ 9.2.ivFAQ 9.1.@.256FAQ 8.3.@.257FAQ 8.2.@.258FAQ 8.1.@.259FAQ 7.3.@.260FAQ 7.2.@.261FAQ 7.1.@.262FAQ 6.2.@.263FAQ 6.1.@.264FAQ 5.4.@.265FAQ 5.3.@.266FAQ 5.2.@.267FAQ 5.1.@.268FAQ 4.3.@.269FAQ 4.2.@.270FAQ 4.1.@.271FAQ 3.3.@.272FAQ 3.2.@.273FAQ 3.1.@.274FAQ 2.2.@.275FAQ 2.1.@.276FAQ 1.3.@.277FAQ 1.2.@.278FAQ 1.1.@.279Sea ice area change (millions of km2)(Arctic – September)

FAQ 4.1.cFAQ 4.1.jFAQ 3.3.vFAQ 3.3.adFAQ 3.2.ayFAQ 3.2.azFAQ 3.2.bgFAQ 3.1.blFAQ 3.1.btFAQ 2.2.crFAQ 2.2.daFAQ 2.1.dkFAQ 2.1.dtFAQ 1.3.ezFAQ 1.3.fhFAQ 1.2.fpFAQ 1.2.fzFAQ 1.1.ibFAQ 1.1.ikFAQ 12.3.inFAQ 12.2.ioFAQ 12.1.ipFAQ 11.3.iqFAQ 11.2.irFAQ 11.1.isFAQ 10.2.itFAQ 10.1.iuFAQ 9.3.ivFAQ 9.2.@.256FAQ 9.1.@.257FAQ 8.3.@.258FAQ 8.2.@.259FAQ 8.1.@.260FAQ 7.3.@.261FAQ 7.2.@.262FAQ 7.1.@.263FAQ 6.2.@.264FAQ 6.1.@.265FAQ 5.4.@.266FAQ 5.3.@.267FAQ 5.2.@.268FAQ 5.1.@.269FAQ 4.3.@.270FAQ 4.2.@.271FAQ 4.1.@.272FAQ 3.3.@.273FAQ 3.2.@.274FAQ 3.1.@.275FAQ 2.2.@.276FAQ 2.1.@.277FAQ 1.3.@.278FAQ 1.2.@.279FAQ 1.1.@.280-0.5

FAQ 4.1.dFAQ 4.1.kFAQ 3.3.wFAQ 3.3.aeFAQ 3.2.azFAQ 3.2.baFAQ 3.2.bhFAQ 3.1.bmFAQ 3.1.buFAQ 2.2.csFAQ 2.2.dbFAQ 2.1.dlFAQ 2.1.duFAQ 1.3.faFAQ 1.3.fiFAQ 1.2.fqFAQ 1.2.gaFAQ 1.1.icFAQ 1.1.ilFAQ 12.3.ioFAQ 12.2.ipFAQ 12.1.iqFAQ 11.3.irFAQ 11.2.isFAQ 11.1.itFAQ 10.2.iuFAQ 10.1.ivFAQ 9.3.@.256FAQ 9.2.@.257FAQ 9.1.@.258FAQ 8.3.@.259FAQ 8.2.@.260FAQ 8.1.@.261FAQ 7.3.@.262FAQ 7.2.@.263FAQ 7.1.@.264FAQ 6.2.@.265FAQ 6.1.@.266FAQ 5.4.@.267FAQ 5.3.@.268FAQ 5.2.@.269FAQ 5.1.@.270FAQ 4.3.@.271FAQ 4.2.@.272FAQ 4.1.@.273FAQ 3.3.@.274FAQ 3.2.@.275FAQ 3.1.@.276FAQ 2.2.@.277FAQ 2.1.@.278FAQ 1.3.@.279FAQ 1.2.@.280FAQ 1.1.@.2810.0

FAQ 4.1.eFAQ 4.1.lFAQ 3.3.xFAQ 3.3.afFAQ 3.2.baFAQ 3.2.bbFAQ 3.2.biFAQ 3.1.bnFAQ 3.1.bvFAQ 2.2.ctFAQ 2.2.dcFAQ 2.1.dmFAQ 2.1.dvFAQ 1.3.fbFAQ 1.3.fjFAQ 1.2.frFAQ 1.2.gbFAQ 1.1.idFAQ 1.1.imFAQ 12.3.ipFAQ 12.2.iqFAQ 12.1.irFAQ 11.3.isFAQ 11.2.itFAQ 11.1.iuFAQ 10.2.ivFAQ 10.1.@.256FAQ 9.3.@.257FAQ 9.2.@.258FAQ 9.1.@.259FAQ 8.3.@.260FAQ 8.2.@.261FAQ 8.1.@.262FAQ 7.3.@.263FAQ 7.2.@.264FAQ 7.1.@.265FAQ 6.2.@.266FAQ 6.1.@.267FAQ 5.4.@.268FAQ 5.3.@.269FAQ 5.2.@.270FAQ 5.1.@.271FAQ 4.3.@.272FAQ 4.2.@.273FAQ 4.1.@.274FAQ 3.3.@.275FAQ 3.2.@.276FAQ 3.1.@.277FAQ 2.2.@.278FAQ 2.1.@.279FAQ 1.3.@.280FAQ 1.2.@.281FAQ 1.1.@.2820.5

FAQ 4.1.fFAQ 4.1.mFAQ 3.3.yFAQ 3.3.agFAQ 3.2.bbFAQ 3.2.bcFAQ 3.2.bjFAQ 3.1.boFAQ 3.1.bwFAQ 2.2.cuFAQ 2.2.ddFAQ 2.1.dnFAQ 2.1.dwFAQ 1.3.fcFAQ 1.3.fkFAQ 1.2.fsFAQ 1.2.gcFAQ 1.1.ieFAQ 1.1.inFAQ 12.3.iqFAQ 12.2.irFAQ 12.1.isFAQ 11.3.itFAQ 11.2.iuFAQ 11.1.ivFAQ 10.2.@.256FAQ 10.1.@.257FAQ 9.3.@.258FAQ 9.2.@.259FAQ 9.1.@.260FAQ 8.3.@.261FAQ 8.2.@.262FAQ 8.1.@.263FAQ 7.3.@.264FAQ 7.2.@.265FAQ 7.1.@.266FAQ 6.2.@.267FAQ 6.1.@.268FAQ 5.4.@.269FAQ 5.3.@.270FAQ 5.2.@.271FAQ 5.1.@.272FAQ 4.3.@.273FAQ 4.2.@.274FAQ 4.1.@.275FAQ 3.3.@.276FAQ 3.2.@.277FAQ 3.1.@.278FAQ 2.2.@.279FAQ 2.1.@.280FAQ 1.3.@.281FAQ 1.2.@.282FAQ 1.1.@.2831.0

FAQ 4.1.gFAQ 4.1.nFAQ 3.3.zFAQ 3.3.ahFAQ 3.2.bcFAQ 3.2.bdFAQ 3.2.bkFAQ 3.1.bpFAQ 3.1.bxFAQ 2.2.cvFAQ 2.2.deFAQ 2.1.doFAQ 2.1.dxFAQ 1.3.fdFAQ 1.3.flFAQ 1.2.ftFAQ 1.2.gdFAQ 1.1.ifFAQ 1.1.ioFAQ 12.3.irFAQ 12.2.isFAQ 12.1.itFAQ 11.3.iuFAQ 11.2.ivFAQ 11.1.@.256FAQ 10.2.@.257FAQ 10.1.@.258FAQ 9.3.@.259FAQ 9.2.@.260FAQ 9.1.@.261FAQ 8.3.@.262FAQ 8.2.@.263FAQ 8.1.@.264FAQ 7.3.@.265FAQ 7.2.@.266FAQ 7.1.@.267FAQ 6.2.@.268FAQ 6.1.@.269FAQ 5.4.@.270FAQ 5.3.@.271FAQ 5.2.@.272FAQ 5.1.@.273FAQ 4.3.@.274FAQ 4.2.@.275FAQ 4.1.@.276FAQ 3.3.@.277FAQ 3.2.@.278FAQ 3.1.@.279FAQ 2.2.@.280FAQ 2.1.@.281FAQ 1.3.@.282FAQ 1.2.@.283FAQ 1.1.@.2841.5

FAQ 4.1.hFAQ 4.1.oFAQ 3.3.aaFAQ 3.3.aiFAQ 3.2.bdFAQ 3.2.beFAQ 3.2.blFAQ 3.1.bqFAQ 3.1.byFAQ 2.2.cwFAQ 2.2.dfFAQ 2.1.dpFAQ 2.1.dyFAQ 1.3.feFAQ 1.3.fmFAQ 1.2.fuFAQ 1.2.geFAQ 1.1.igFAQ 1.1.ipFAQ 12.3.isFAQ 12.2.itFAQ 12.1.iuFAQ 11.3.ivFAQ 11.2.@.256FAQ 11.1.@.257FAQ 10.2.@.258FAQ 10.1.@.259FAQ 9.3.@.260FAQ 9.2.@.261FAQ 9.1.@.262FAQ 8.3.@.263FAQ 8.2.@.264FAQ 8.1.@.265FAQ 7.3.@.266FAQ 7.2.@.267FAQ 7.1.@.268FAQ 6.2.@.269FAQ 6.1.@.270FAQ 5.4.@.271FAQ 5.3.@.272FAQ 5.2.@.273FAQ 5.1.@.274FAQ 4.3.@.275FAQ 4.2.@.276FAQ 4.1.@.277FAQ 3.3.@.278FAQ 3.2.@.279FAQ 3.1.@.280FAQ 2.2.@.281FAQ 2.1.@.282FAQ 1.3.@.283FAQ 1.2.@.284FAQ 1.1.@.2852.0

FAQ 4.1.iFAQ 4.1.pFAQ 3.3.abFAQ 3.3.ajFAQ 3.2.beFAQ 3.2.bfFAQ 3.2.bmFAQ 3.1.brFAQ 3.1.bzFAQ 2.2.cxFAQ 2.2.dgFAQ 2.1.dqFAQ 2.1.dzFAQ 1.3.ffFAQ 1.3.fnFAQ 1.2.fvFAQ 1.2.gfFAQ 1.1.ihFAQ 1.1.iqFAQ 12.3.itFAQ 12.2.iuFAQ 12.1.ivFAQ 11.3.@.256FAQ 11.2.@.257FAQ 11.1.@.258FAQ 10.2.@.259FAQ 10.1.@.260FAQ 9.3.@.261FAQ 9.2.@.262FAQ 9.1.@.263FAQ 8.3.@.264FAQ 8.2.@.265FAQ 8.1.@.266FAQ 7.3.@.267FAQ 7.2.@.268FAQ 7.1.@.269FAQ 6.2.@.270FAQ 6.1.@.271FAQ 5.4.@.272FAQ 5.3.@.273FAQ 5.2.@.274FAQ 5.1.@.275FAQ 4.3.@.276FAQ 4.2.@.277FAQ 4.1.@.278FAQ 3.3.@.279FAQ 3.2.@.280FAQ 3.1.@.281FAQ 2.2.@.282FAQ 2.1.@.283FAQ 1.3.@.284FAQ 1.2.@.285FAQ 1.1.@.286Year

FAQ 4.1.jFAQ 4.1.qFAQ 3.3.acFAQ 3.3.akFAQ 3.2.bfFAQ 3.2.bgFAQ 3.2.bnFAQ 3.1.bsFAQ 3.1.caFAQ 2.2.cyFAQ 2.2.dhFAQ 2.1.drFAQ 2.1.eaFAQ 1.3.fgFAQ 1.3.foFAQ 1.2.fwFAQ 1.2.ggFAQ 1.1.iiFAQ 1.1.irFAQ 12.3.iuFAQ 12.2.ivFAQ 12.1.@.256FAQ 11.3.@.257FAQ 11.2.@.258FAQ 11.1.@.259FAQ 10.2.@.260FAQ 10.1.@.261FAQ 9.3.@.262FAQ 9.2.@.263FAQ 9.1.@.264FAQ 8.3.@.265FAQ 8.2.@.266FAQ 8.1.@.267FAQ 7.3.@.268FAQ 7.2.@.269FAQ 7.1.@.270FAQ 6.2.@.271FAQ 6.1.@.272FAQ 5.4.@.273FAQ 5.3.@.274FAQ 5.2.@.275FAQ 5.1.@.276FAQ 4.3.@.277FAQ 4.2.@.278FAQ 4.1.@.279FAQ 3.3.@.280FAQ 3.2.@.281FAQ 3.1.@.282FAQ 2.2.@.283FAQ 2.1.@.284FAQ 1.3.@.285FAQ 1.2.@.286FAQ 1.1.@.287-6

FAQ 4.1.kFAQ 4.1.rFAQ 3.3.adFAQ 3.3.alFAQ 3.2.bgFAQ 3.2.bhFAQ 3.2.boFAQ 3.1.btFAQ 3.1.cbFAQ 2.2.czFAQ 2.2.diFAQ 2.1.dsFAQ 2.1.ebFAQ 1.3.fhFAQ 1.3.fpFAQ 1.2.fxFAQ 1.2.ghFAQ 1.1.ijFAQ 1.1.isFAQ 12.3.ivFAQ 12.2.@.256FAQ 12.1.@.257FAQ 11.3.@.258FAQ 11.2.@.259FAQ 11.1.@.260FAQ 10.2.@.261FAQ 10.1.@.262FAQ 9.3.@.263FAQ 9.2.@.264FAQ 9.1.@.265FAQ 8.3.@.266FAQ 8.2.@.267FAQ 8.1.@.268FAQ 7.3.@.269FAQ 7.2.@.270FAQ 7.1.@.271FAQ 6.2.@.272FAQ 6.1.@.273FAQ 5.4.@.274FAQ 5.3.@.275FAQ 5.2.@.276FAQ 5.1.@.277FAQ 4.3.@.278FAQ 4.2.@.279FAQ 4.1.@.280FAQ 3.3.@.281FAQ 3.2.@.282FAQ 3.1.@.283FAQ 2.2.@.284FAQ 2.1.@.285FAQ 1.3.@.286FAQ 1.2.@.287FAQ 1.1.@.288-4

FAQ 4.1.lFAQ 4.1.sFAQ 3.3.aeFAQ 3.3.amFAQ 3.2.bhFAQ 3.2.biFAQ 3.2.bpFAQ 3.1.buFAQ 3.1.ccFAQ 2.2.daFAQ 2.2.djFAQ 2.1.dtFAQ 2.1.ecFAQ 1.3.fiFAQ 1.3.fqFAQ 1.2.fyFAQ 1.2.giFAQ 1.1.ikFAQ 1.1.itFAQ 12.3.@.256FAQ 12.2.@.257FAQ 12.1.@.258FAQ 11.3.@.259FAQ 11.2.@.260FAQ 11.1.@.261FAQ 10.2.@.262FAQ 10.1.@.263FAQ 9.3.@.264FAQ 9.2.@.265FAQ 9.1.@.266FAQ 8.3.@.267FAQ 8.2.@.268FAQ 8.1.@.269FAQ 7.3.@.270FAQ 7.2.@.271FAQ 7.1.@.272FAQ 6.2.@.273FAQ 6.1.@.274FAQ 5.4.@.275FAQ 5.3.@.276FAQ 5.2.@.277FAQ 5.1.@.278FAQ 4.3.@.279FAQ 4.2.@.280FAQ 4.1.@.281FAQ 3.3.@.282FAQ 3.2.@.283FAQ 3.1.@.284FAQ 2.2.@.285FAQ 2.1.@.286FAQ 1.3.@.287FAQ 1.2.@.288FAQ 1.1.@.289-2

FAQ 4.1.mFAQ 4.1.tFAQ 3.3.afFAQ 3.3.anFAQ 3.2.biFAQ 3.2.bjFAQ 3.2.bqFAQ 3.1.bvFAQ 3.1.cdFAQ 2.2.dbFAQ 2.2.dkFAQ 2.1.duFAQ 2.1.edFAQ 1.3.fjFAQ 1.3.frFAQ 1.2.fzFAQ 1.2.gjFAQ 1.1.ilFAQ 1.1.iuFAQ 12.3.@.257FAQ 12.2.@.258FAQ 12.1.@.259FAQ 11.3.@.260FAQ 11.2.@.261FAQ 11.1.@.262FAQ 10.2.@.263FAQ 10.1.@.264FAQ 9.3.@.265FAQ 9.2.@.266FAQ 9.1.@.267FAQ 8.3.@.268FAQ 8.2.@.269FAQ 8.1.@.270FAQ 7.3.@.271FAQ 7.2.@.272FAQ 7.1.@.273FAQ 6.2.@.274FAQ 6.1.@.275FAQ 5.4.@.276FAQ 5.3.@.277FAQ 5.2.@.278FAQ 5.1.@.279FAQ 4.3.@.280FAQ 4.2.@.281FAQ 4.1.@.282FAQ 3.3.@.283FAQ 3.2.@.284FAQ 3.1.@.285FAQ 2.2.@.286FAQ 2.1.@.287FAQ 1.3.@.288FAQ 1.2.@.289FAQ 1.1.@.2900

FAQ 4.1.nFAQ 4.1.uFAQ 3.3.agFAQ 3.3.aoFAQ 3.2.bjFAQ 3.2.bkFAQ 3.2.brFAQ 3.1.bwFAQ 3.1.ceFAQ 2.2.dcFAQ 2.2.dlFAQ 2.1.dvFAQ 2.1.eeFAQ 1.3.fkFAQ 1.3.fsFAQ 1.2.gaFAQ 1.2.gkFAQ 1.1.imFAQ 1.1.ivFAQ 12.3.@.258FAQ 12.2.@.259FAQ 12.1.@.260FAQ 11.3.@.261FAQ 11.2.@.262FAQ 11.1.@.263FAQ 10.2.@.264FAQ 10.1.@.265FAQ 9.3.@.266FAQ 9.2.@.267FAQ 9.1.@.268FAQ 8.3.@.269FAQ 8.2.@.270FAQ 8.1.@.271FAQ 7.3.@.272FAQ 7.2.@.273FAQ 7.1.@.274FAQ 6.2.@.275FAQ 6.1.@.276FAQ 5.4.@.277FAQ 5.3.@.278FAQ 5.2.@.279FAQ 5.1.@.280FAQ 4.3.@.281FAQ 4.2.@.282FAQ 4.1.@.283FAQ 3.3.@.284FAQ 3.2.@.285FAQ 3.1.@.286FAQ 2.2.@.287FAQ 2.1.@.288FAQ 1.3.@.289FAQ 1.2.@.290FAQ 1.1.@.2912

FAQ 4.1.oFAQ 4.1.vFAQ 3.3.ahFAQ 3.3.apFAQ 3.2.bkFAQ 3.2.blFAQ 3.2.bsFAQ 3.1.bxFAQ 3.1.cfFAQ 2.2.ddFAQ 2.2.dmFAQ 2.1.dwFAQ 2.1.efFAQ 1.3.flFAQ 1.3.ftFAQ 1.2.gbFAQ 1.2.glFAQ 1.1.inFAQ 1.1.@.256FAQ 12.3.@.259FAQ 12.2.@.260FAQ 12.1.@.261FAQ 11.3.@.262FAQ 11.2.@.263FAQ 11.1.@.264FAQ 10.2.@.265FAQ 10.1.@.266FAQ 9.3.@.267FAQ 9.2.@.268FAQ 9.1.@.269FAQ 8.3.@.270FAQ 8.2.@.271FAQ 8.1.@.272FAQ 7.3.@.273FAQ 7.2.@.274FAQ 7.1.@.275FAQ 6.2.@.276FAQ 6.1.@.277FAQ 5.4.@.278FAQ 5.3.@.279FAQ 5.2.@.280FAQ 5.1.@.281FAQ 4.3.@.282FAQ 4.2.@.283FAQ 4.1.@.284FAQ 3.3.@.285FAQ 3.2.@.286FAQ 3.1.@.287FAQ 2.2.@.288FAQ 2.1.@.289FAQ 1.3.@.290FAQ 1.2.@.291FAQ 1.1.@.292FAQ 4.1: How will climate change over the next 20 years? Current climatic trends will continue in the next 2 decades but their exact magnitude cannot be predicted, because of natural variability.

FAQ 4.1.pFAQ 4.1.wFAQ 3.3.aiFAQ 3.3.aqFAQ 3.2.blFAQ 3.2.bmFAQ 3.2.btFAQ 3.1.byFAQ 3.1.cgFAQ 2.2.deFAQ 2.2.dnFAQ 2.1.dxFAQ 2.1.egFAQ 1.3.fmFAQ 1.3.fuFAQ 1.2.gcFAQ 1.2.gmFAQ 1.1.ioFAQ 1.1.@.257FAQ 12.3.@.260FAQ 12.2.@.261FAQ 12.1.@.262FAQ 11.3.@.263FAQ 11.2.@.264FAQ 11.1.@.265FAQ 10.2.@.266FAQ 10.1.@.267FAQ 9.3.@.268FAQ 9.2.@.269FAQ 9.1.@.270FAQ 8.3.@.271FAQ 8.2.@.272FAQ 8.1.@.273FAQ 7.3.@.274FAQ 7.2.@.275FAQ 7.1.@.276FAQ 6.2.@.277FAQ 6.1.@.278FAQ 5.4.@.279FAQ 5.3.@.280FAQ 5.2.@.281FAQ 5.1.@.282FAQ 4.3.@.283FAQ 4.2.@.284FAQ 4.1.@.285FAQ 3.3.@.286FAQ 3.2.@.287FAQ 3.1.@.288FAQ 2.2.@.289FAQ 2.1.@.290FAQ 1.3.@.291FAQ 1.2.@.292FAQ 1.1.@.293Emission scenario

FAQ 4.1.qFAQ 4.1.xFAQ 3.3.ajFAQ 3.3.arFAQ 3.2.bmFAQ 3.2.bnFAQ 3.2.buFAQ 3.1.bzFAQ 3.1.chFAQ 2.2.dfFAQ 2.2.doFAQ 2.1.dyFAQ 2.1.ehFAQ 1.3.fnFAQ 1.3.fvFAQ 1.2.gdFAQ 1.2.gnFAQ 1.1.ipFAQ 1.1.@.258FAQ 12.3.@.261FAQ 12.2.@.262FAQ 12.1.@.263FAQ 11.3.@.264FAQ 11.2.@.265FAQ 11.1.@.266FAQ 10.2.@.267FAQ 10.1.@.268FAQ 9.3.@.269FAQ 9.2.@.270FAQ 9.1.@.271FAQ 8.3.@.272FAQ 8.2.@.273FAQ 8.1.@.274FAQ 7.3.@.275FAQ 7.2.@.276FAQ 7.1.@.277FAQ 6.2.@.278FAQ 6.1.@.279FAQ 5.4.@.280FAQ 5.3.@.281FAQ 5.2.@.282FAQ 5.1.@.283FAQ 4.3.@.284FAQ 4.2.@.285FAQ 4.1.@.286FAQ 3.3.@.287FAQ 3.2.@.288FAQ 3.1.@.289FAQ 2.2.@.290FAQ 2.1.@.291FAQ 1.3.@.292FAQ 1.2.@.293FAQ 1.1.@.294LowHigh

FAQ 4.1.rFAQ 4.1.yFAQ 3.3.akFAQ 3.3.asFAQ 3.2.bnFAQ 3.2.boFAQ 3.2.bvFAQ 3.1.caFAQ 3.1.ciFAQ 2.2.dgFAQ 2.2.dpFAQ 2.1.dzFAQ 2.1.eiFAQ 1.3.foFAQ 1.3.fwFAQ 1.2.geFAQ 1.2.goFAQ 1.1.iqFAQ 1.1.@.259FAQ 12.3.@.262FAQ 12.2.@.263FAQ 12.1.@.264FAQ 11.3.@.265FAQ 11.2.@.266FAQ 11.1.@.267FAQ 10.2.@.268FAQ 10.1.@.269FAQ 9.3.@.270FAQ 9.2.@.271FAQ 9.1.@.272FAQ 8.3.@.273FAQ 8.2.@.274FAQ 8.1.@.275FAQ 7.3.@.276FAQ 7.2.@.277FAQ 7.1.@.278FAQ 6.2.@.279FAQ 6.1.@.280FAQ 5.4.@.281FAQ 5.3.@.282FAQ 5.2.@.283FAQ 5.1.@.284FAQ 4.3.@.285FAQ 4.2.@.286FAQ 4.1.@.287FAQ 3.3.@.288FAQ 3.2.@.289FAQ 3.1.@.290FAQ 2.2.@.291FAQ 2.1.@.292FAQ 1.3.@.293FAQ 1.2.@.294FAQ 1.1.@.295Historical

FAQ 4.1.sFAQ 4.1.zFAQ 3.3.alFAQ 3.3.atFAQ 3.2.boFAQ 3.2.bpFAQ 3.2.bwFAQ 3.1.cbFAQ 3.1.cjFAQ 2.2.dhFAQ 2.2.dqFAQ 2.1.eaFAQ 2.1.ejFAQ 1.3.fpFAQ 1.3.fxFAQ 1.2.gfFAQ 1.2.gpFAQ 1.1.irFAQ 1.1.@.260FAQ 12.3.@.263FAQ 12.2.@.264FAQ 12.1.@.265FAQ 11.3.@.266FAQ 11.2.@.267FAQ 11.1.@.268FAQ 10.2.@.269FAQ 10.1.@.270FAQ 9.3.@.271FAQ 9.2.@.272FAQ 9.1.@.273FAQ 8.3.@.274FAQ 8.2.@.275FAQ 8.1.@.276FAQ 7.3.@.277FAQ 7.2.@.278FAQ 7.1.@.279FAQ 6.2.@.280FAQ 6.1.@.281FAQ 5.4.@.282FAQ 5.3.@.283FAQ 5.2.@.284FAQ 5.1.@.285FAQ 4.3.@.286FAQ 4.2.@.287FAQ 4.1.@.288FAQ 3.3.@.289FAQ 3.2.@.290FAQ 3.1.@.291FAQ 2.2.@.292FAQ 2.1.@.293FAQ 1.3.@.294FAQ 1.2.@.295FAQ 1.1.@.296Historical

FAQ 4.1.tFAQ 4.1.aaFAQ 3.3.amFAQ 3.3.auFAQ 3.2.bpFAQ 3.2.bqFAQ 3.2.bxFAQ 3.1.ccFAQ 3.1.ckFAQ 2.2.diFAQ 2.2.drFAQ 2.1.ebFAQ 2.1.ekFAQ 1.3.fqFAQ 1.3.fyFAQ 1.2.ggFAQ 1.2.gqFAQ 1.1.isFAQ 1.1.@.261FAQ 12.3.@.264FAQ 12.2.@.265FAQ 12.1.@.266FAQ 11.3.@.267FAQ 11.2.@.268FAQ 11.1.@.269FAQ 10.2.@.270FAQ 10.1.@.271FAQ 9.3.@.272FAQ 9.2.@.273FAQ 9.1.@.274FAQ 8.3.@.275FAQ 8.2.@.276FAQ 8.1.@.277FAQ 7.3.@.278FAQ 7.2.@.279FAQ 7.1.@.280FAQ 6.2.@.281FAQ 6.1.@.282FAQ 5.4.@.283FAQ 5.3.@.284FAQ 5.2.@.285FAQ 5.1.@.286FAQ 4.3.@.287FAQ 4.2.@.288FAQ 4.1.@.289FAQ 3.3.@.290FAQ 3.2.@.291FAQ 3.1.@.292FAQ 2.2.@.293FAQ 2.1.@.294FAQ 1.3.@.295FAQ 1.2.@.296FAQ 1.1.@.29720002010202020302040

FAQ 4.1.uFAQ 4.1.abFAQ 3.3.anFAQ 3.3.avFAQ 3.2.bqFAQ 3.2.brFAQ 3.2.byFAQ 3.1.cdFAQ 3.1.clFAQ 2.2.djFAQ 2.2.dsFAQ 2.1.ecFAQ 2.1.elFAQ 1.3.frFAQ 1.3.fzFAQ 1.2.ghFAQ 1.2.grFAQ 1.1.itFAQ 1.1.@.262FAQ 12.3.@.265FAQ 12.2.@.266FAQ 12.1.@.267FAQ 11.3.@.268FAQ 11.2.@.269FAQ 11.1.@.270FAQ 10.2.@.271FAQ 10.1.@.272FAQ 9.3.@.273FAQ 9.2.@.274FAQ 9.1.@.275FAQ 8.3.@.276FAQ 8.2.@.277FAQ 8.1.@.278FAQ 7.3.@.279FAQ 7.2.@.280FAQ 7.1.@.281FAQ 6.2.@.282FAQ 6.1.@.283FAQ 5.4.@.284FAQ 5.3.@.285FAQ 5.2.@.286FAQ 5.1.@.287FAQ 4.3.@.288FAQ 4.2.@.289FAQ 4.1.@.290FAQ 3.3.@.291FAQ 3.2.@.292FAQ 3.1.@.293FAQ 2.2.@.294FAQ 2.1.@.295FAQ 1.3.@.296FAQ 1.2.@.297FAQ 1.1.@.29820002010202020302040

FAQ 4.1.vFAQ 4.1.acFAQ 3.3.aoFAQ 3.3.awFAQ 3.2.brFAQ 3.2.bsFAQ 3.2.bzFAQ 3.1.ceFAQ 3.1.cmFAQ 2.2.dkFAQ 2.2.dtFAQ 2.1.edFAQ 2.1.emFAQ 1.3.fsFAQ 1.3.gaFAQ 1.2.giFAQ 1.2.gsFAQ 1.1.iuFAQ 1.1.@.263FAQ 12.3.@.266FAQ 12.2.@.267FAQ 12.1.@.268FAQ 11.3.@.269FAQ 11.2.@.270FAQ 11.1.@.271FAQ 10.2.@.272FAQ 10.1.@.273FAQ 9.3.@.274FAQ 9.2.@.275FAQ 9.1.@.276FAQ 8.3.@.277FAQ 8.2.@.278FAQ 8.1.@.279FAQ 7.3.@.280FAQ 7.2.@.281FAQ 7.1.@.282FAQ 6.2.@.283FAQ 6.1.@.284FAQ 5.4.@.285FAQ 5.3.@.286FAQ 5.2.@.287FAQ 5.1.@.288FAQ 4.3.@.289FAQ 4.2.@.290FAQ 4.1.@.291FAQ 3.3.@.292FAQ 3.2.@.293FAQ 3.1.@.294FAQ 2.2.@.295FAQ 2.1.@.296FAQ 1.3.@.297FAQ 1.2.@.298FAQ 1.1.@.299FAQ

FAQ 4.1.wFAQ 4.1.adFAQ 3.3.apFAQ 3.3.axFAQ 3.2.bsFAQ 3.2.btFAQ 3.2.caFAQ 3.1.cfFAQ 3.1.cnFAQ 2.2.dlFAQ 2.2.duFAQ 2.1.eeFAQ 2.1.enFAQ 1.3.ftFAQ 1.3.gbFAQ 1.2.gjFAQ 1.2.gtFAQ 1.1.ivFAQ 1.1.@.264FAQ 12.3.@.267FAQ 12.2.@.268FAQ 12.1.@.269FAQ 11.3.@.270FAQ 11.2.@.271FAQ 11.1.@.272FAQ 10.2.@.273FAQ 10.1.@.274FAQ 9.3.@.275FAQ 9.2.@.276FAQ 9.1.@.277FAQ 8.3.@.278FAQ 8.2.@.279FAQ 8.1.@.280FAQ 7.3.@.281FAQ 7.2.@.282FAQ 7.1.@.283FAQ 6.2.@.284FAQ 6.1.@.285FAQ 5.4.@.286FAQ 5.3.@.287FAQ 5.2.@.288FAQ 5.1.@.289FAQ 4.3.@.290FAQ 4.2.@.291FAQ 4.1.@.292FAQ 3.3.@.293FAQ 3.2.@.294FAQ 3.1.@.295FAQ 2.2.@.296FAQ 2.1.@.297FAQ 1.3.@.298FAQ 1.2.@.299FAQ 1.1.@.300Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 4.1.xFAQ 4.1.aeFAQ 3.3.aqFAQ 3.3.ayFAQ 3.2.btFAQ 3.2.buFAQ 3.2.cbFAQ 3.1.cgFAQ 3.1.coFAQ 2.2.dmFAQ 2.2.dvFAQ 2.1.efFAQ 2.1.eoFAQ 1.3.fuFAQ 1.3.gcFAQ 1.2.gkFAQ 1.2.guFAQ 1.1.@.256FAQ 1.1.@.265FAQ 12.3.@.268FAQ 12.2.@.269FAQ 12.1.@.270FAQ 11.3.@.271FAQ 11.2.@.272FAQ 11.1.@.273FAQ 10.2.@.274FAQ 10.1.@.275FAQ 9.3.@.276FAQ 9.2.@.277FAQ 9.1.@.278FAQ 8.3.@.279FAQ 8.2.@.280FAQ 8.1.@.281FAQ 7.3.@.282FAQ 7.2.@.283FAQ 7.1.@.284FAQ 6.2.@.285FAQ 6.1.@.286FAQ 5.4.@.287FAQ 5.3.@.288FAQ 5.2.@.289FAQ 5.1.@.290FAQ 4.3.@.291FAQ 4.2.@.292FAQ 4.1.@.293FAQ 3.3.@.294FAQ 3.2.@.295FAQ 3.1.@.296FAQ 2.2.@.297FAQ 2.1.@.298FAQ 1.3.@.299FAQ 1.2.@.300FAQ 1.1.@.301FAQ 4.2 | How Quickly Would We See the Effects of Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions?

FAQ 4.2.aFAQ 4.1.yFAQ 4.1.afFAQ 3.3.arFAQ 3.3.azFAQ 3.2.buFAQ 3.2.bvFAQ 3.2.ccFAQ 3.1.chFAQ 3.1.cpFAQ 2.2.dnFAQ 2.2.dwFAQ 2.1.egFAQ 2.1.epFAQ 1.3.fvFAQ 1.3.gdFAQ 1.2.glFAQ 1.2.gvFAQ 1.1.@.257FAQ 1.1.@.266FAQ 12.3.@.269FAQ 12.2.@.270FAQ 12.1.@.271FAQ 11.3.@.272FAQ 11.2.@.273FAQ 11.1.@.274FAQ 10.2.@.275FAQ 10.1.@.276FAQ 9.3.@.277FAQ 9.2.@.278FAQ 9.1.@.279FAQ 8.3.@.280FAQ 8.2.@.281FAQ 8.1.@.282FAQ 7.3.@.283FAQ 7.2.@.284FAQ 7.1.@.285FAQ 6.2.@.286FAQ 6.1.@.287FAQ 5.4.@.288FAQ 5.3.@.289FAQ 5.2.@.290FAQ 5.1.@.291FAQ 4.3.@.292FAQ 4.2.@.293FAQ 4.1.@.294FAQ 3.3.@.295FAQ 3.2.@.296FAQ 3.1.@.297FAQ 2.2.@.298FAQ 2.1.@.299FAQ 1.3.@.300FAQ 1.2.@.301FAQ 1.1.@.302The effects of substantial reductions in carbon dioxide emissions would not be apparent immediately, and the time required to detect the effects would depend on the scale and pace of emissions reductions. Under the lower-emissions scenarios considered in this Report, the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations would slow visibly after about five to ten years, while the slowing down of global surface warming would be detectable after about twenty to thirty years. The effects on regional precipitation trends would only become apparent after several decades.

FAQ 4.2.bFAQ 4.1.zFAQ 4.1.agFAQ 3.3.asFAQ 3.3.baFAQ 3.2.bvFAQ 3.2.bwFAQ 3.2.cdFAQ 3.1.ciFAQ 3.1.cqFAQ 2.2.doFAQ 2.2.dxFAQ 2.1.ehFAQ 2.1.eqFAQ 1.3.fwFAQ 1.3.geFAQ 1.2.gmFAQ 1.2.gwFAQ 1.1.@.258FAQ 1.1.@.267FAQ 12.3.@.270FAQ 12.2.@.271FAQ 12.1.@.272FAQ 11.3.@.273FAQ 11.2.@.274FAQ 11.1.@.275FAQ 10.2.@.276FAQ 10.1.@.277FAQ 9.3.@.278FAQ 9.2.@.279FAQ 9.1.@.280FAQ 8.3.@.281FAQ 8.2.@.282FAQ 8.1.@.283FAQ 7.3.@.284FAQ 7.2.@.285FAQ 7.1.@.286FAQ 6.2.@.287FAQ 6.1.@.288FAQ 5.4.@.289FAQ 5.3.@.290FAQ 5.2.@.291FAQ 5.1.@.292FAQ 4.3.@.293FAQ 4.2.@.294FAQ 4.1.@.295FAQ 3.3.@.296FAQ 3.2.@.297FAQ 3.1.@.298FAQ 2.2.@.299FAQ 2.1.@.300FAQ 1.3.@.301FAQ 1.2.@.302FAQ 1.1.@.303Reducing emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) – the most important greenhouse gas emitted by human activities – would slow down the rate of increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration. However, concentrations would only begin to decrease when net emissions approach zero, that is, when most or all of the CO2 emitted into the atmosphere each year is removed by natural and human processes (see FAQ 5.1 and FAQ 5.3). This delay between a peak in emissions and a decrease in concentration is a manifestation of the very long lifetime of CO2 in the atmosphere; part of the CO2 emitted by humans remains in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia.

FAQ 4.2.cFAQ 4.1.aaFAQ 4.1.ahFAQ 3.3.atFAQ 3.3.bbFAQ 3.2.bwFAQ 3.2.bxFAQ 3.2.ceFAQ 3.1.cjFAQ 3.1.crFAQ 2.2.dpFAQ 2.2.dyFAQ 2.1.eiFAQ 2.1.erFAQ 1.3.fxFAQ 1.3.gfFAQ 1.2.gnFAQ 1.2.gxFAQ 1.1.@.259FAQ 1.1.@.268FAQ 12.3.@.271FAQ 12.2.@.272FAQ 12.1.@.273FAQ 11.3.@.274FAQ 11.2.@.275FAQ 11.1.@.276FAQ 10.2.@.277FAQ 10.1.@.278FAQ 9.3.@.279FAQ 9.2.@.280FAQ 9.1.@.281FAQ 8.3.@.282FAQ 8.2.@.283FAQ 8.1.@.284FAQ 7.3.@.285FAQ 7.2.@.286FAQ 7.1.@.287FAQ 6.2.@.288FAQ 6.1.@.289FAQ 5.4.@.290FAQ 5.3.@.291FAQ 5.2.@.292FAQ 5.1.@.293FAQ 4.3.@.294FAQ 4.2.@.295FAQ 4.1.@.296FAQ 3.3.@.297FAQ 3.2.@.298FAQ 3.1.@.299FAQ 2.2.@.300FAQ 2.1.@.301FAQ 1.3.@.302FAQ 1.2.@.303FAQ 1.1.@.304Reducing the rate of increase in CO2 concentration would slow down global surface warming within a decade. But this reduction in the rate of warming would initially be masked by natural climate variability and might not be detected for a few decades (see FAQ 1.2, FAQ 3.2 and FAQ 4.1). Detecting whether surface warming has indeed slowed down would thus be difficult in the years right after emissions reductions begin.

FAQ 4.2.dFAQ 4.1.abFAQ 4.1.aiFAQ 3.3.auFAQ 3.3.bcFAQ 3.2.bxFAQ 3.2.byFAQ 3.2.cfFAQ 3.1.ckFAQ 3.1.csFAQ 2.2.dqFAQ 2.2.dzFAQ 2.1.ejFAQ 2.1.esFAQ 1.3.fyFAQ 1.3.ggFAQ 1.2.goFAQ 1.2.gyFAQ 1.1.@.260FAQ 1.1.@.269FAQ 12.3.@.272FAQ 12.2.@.273FAQ 12.1.@.274FAQ 11.3.@.275FAQ 11.2.@.276FAQ 11.1.@.277FAQ 10.2.@.278FAQ 10.1.@.279FAQ 9.3.@.280FAQ 9.2.@.281FAQ 9.1.@.282FAQ 8.3.@.283FAQ 8.2.@.284FAQ 8.1.@.285FAQ 7.3.@.286FAQ 7.2.@.287FAQ 7.1.@.288FAQ 6.2.@.289FAQ 6.1.@.290FAQ 5.4.@.291FAQ 5.3.@.292FAQ 5.2.@.293FAQ 5.1.@.294FAQ 4.3.@.295FAQ 4.2.@.296FAQ 4.1.@.297FAQ 3.3.@.298FAQ 3.2.@.299FAQ 3.1.@.300FAQ 2.2.@.301FAQ 2.1.@.302FAQ 1.3.@.303FAQ 1.2.@.304FAQ 1.1.@.305The time needed to detect the effect of emissions reductions is illustrated by comparing low- and high-emissions scenarios (FAQ 4.2, Figure 1). In the low-emissions scenario (SSP1-2.6), CO2 emissions level off after 2015 and begin to fall in 2020, while they keep increasing throughout the 21st century in the high-emissions scenario (SSP3-7.0). The uncertainty arising from natural internal variability in the climate system is represented by simulating each scenario ten times with the same climate model but starting from slightly different initial states back in 1850 (thin lines). For each scenario, the differences between individual simulations are caused entirely by simulated natural internal variability. The average of all simulations represents the climate response expected for a given scenario. The climate history that would actually unfold under each scenario would consist of this expected response combined with the contribution from natural internal variability and the contribution from potential future volcanic eruptions (the latter effect is not represented here).

FAQ 4.2.eFAQ 4.1.acFAQ 4.1.ajFAQ 3.3.avFAQ 3.3.bdFAQ 3.2.byFAQ 3.2.bzFAQ 3.2.cgFAQ 3.1.clFAQ 3.1.ctFAQ 2.2.drFAQ 2.2.eaFAQ 2.1.ekFAQ 2.1.etFAQ 1.3.fzFAQ 1.3.ghFAQ 1.2.gpFAQ 1.2.gzFAQ 1.1.@.261FAQ 1.1.@.270FAQ 12.3.@.273FAQ 12.2.@.274FAQ 12.1.@.275FAQ 11.3.@.276FAQ 11.2.@.277FAQ 11.1.@.278FAQ 10.2.@.279FAQ 10.1.@.280FAQ 9.3.@.281FAQ 9.2.@.282FAQ 9.1.@.283FAQ 8.3.@.284FAQ 8.2.@.285FAQ 8.1.@.286FAQ 7.3.@.287FAQ 7.2.@.288FAQ 7.1.@.289FAQ 6.2.@.290FAQ 6.1.@.291FAQ 5.4.@.292FAQ 5.3.@.293FAQ 5.2.@.294FAQ 5.1.@.295FAQ 4.3.@.296FAQ 4.2.@.297FAQ 4.1.@.298FAQ 3.3.@.299FAQ 3.2.@.300FAQ 3.1.@.301FAQ 2.2.@.302FAQ 2.1.@.303FAQ 1.3.@.304FAQ 1.2.@.305FAQ 1.1.@.306FAQ 4.2, Figure 1 shows that the atmospheric CO2 concentrations differ noticeably between the two scenarios about five to ten years after the emissions have begun to diverge in year 2015. In contrast, the difference in global surface temperatures between the two scenarios does not become apparent until later – about two to three decades after the emissions histories have begun to diverge in this example. This time would be longer if emissions were reduced more slowly than in the low-emissions scenario illustrated here and shorter in the case of stronger reductions. Detection would take longer for regional quantities and for precipitation changes, which vary more strongly from natural causes. For instance, even in the low-emissions scenario, the effect of reduced CO2 emissions would not become visible in regional precipitation until late in the 21st century.

FAQ 4.2.fFAQ 4.1.adFAQ 4.1.akFAQ 3.3.awFAQ 3.3.beFAQ 3.2.bzFAQ 3.2.caFAQ 3.2.chFAQ 3.1.cmFAQ 3.1.cuFAQ 2.2.dsFAQ 2.2.ebFAQ 2.1.elFAQ 2.1.euFAQ 1.3.gaFAQ 1.3.giFAQ 1.2.gqFAQ 1.2.haFAQ 1.1.@.262FAQ 1.1.@.271FAQ 12.3.@.274FAQ 12.2.@.275FAQ 12.1.@.276FAQ 11.3.@.277FAQ 11.2.@.278FAQ 11.1.@.279FAQ 10.2.@.280FAQ 10.1.@.281FAQ 9.3.@.282FAQ 9.2.@.283FAQ 9.1.@.284FAQ 8.3.@.285FAQ 8.2.@.286FAQ 8.1.@.287FAQ 7.3.@.288FAQ 7.2.@.289FAQ 7.1.@.290FAQ 6.2.@.291FAQ 6.1.@.292FAQ 5.4.@.293FAQ 5.3.@.294FAQ 5.2.@.295FAQ 5.1.@.296FAQ 4.3.@.297FAQ 4.2.@.298FAQ 4.1.@.299FAQ 3.3.@.300FAQ 3.2.@.301FAQ 3.1.@.302FAQ 2.2.@.303FAQ 2.1.@.304FAQ 1.3.@.305FAQ 1.2.@.306FAQ 1.1.@.307In summary, it is only after a few decades of reducing CO2 emissions that we would clearly see global temperatures starting to stabilize. By contrast, short-term reductions in CO2 emissions, such as during the COVID-19 pandemic, do not have detectable effects on either CO2 concentration or global temperature. Only sustained emissions reductions over decades would have a widespread effect across the climate system.

FAQ 4.2.gFAQ 4.1.aeFAQ 4.1.alFAQ 3.3.axFAQ 3.3.bfFAQ 3.2.caFAQ 3.2.cbFAQ 3.2.ciFAQ 3.1.cnFAQ 3.1.cvFAQ 2.2.dtFAQ 2.2.ecFAQ 2.1.emFAQ 2.1.evFAQ 1.3.gbFAQ 1.3.gjFAQ 1.2.grFAQ 1.2.hbFAQ 1.1.@.263FAQ 1.1.@.272FAQ 12.3.@.275FAQ 12.2.@.276FAQ 12.1.@.277FAQ 11.3.@.278FAQ 11.2.@.279FAQ 11.1.@.280FAQ 10.2.@.281FAQ 10.1.@.282FAQ 9.3.@.283FAQ 9.2.@.284FAQ 9.1.@.285FAQ 8.3.@.286FAQ 8.2.@.287FAQ 8.1.@.288FAQ 7.3.@.289FAQ 7.2.@.290FAQ 7.1.@.291FAQ 6.2.@.292FAQ 6.1.@.293FAQ 5.4.@.294FAQ 5.3.@.295FAQ 5.2.@.296FAQ 5.1.@.297FAQ 4.3.@.298FAQ 4.2.@.299FAQ 4.1.@.300FAQ 3.3.@.301FAQ 3.2.@.302FAQ 3.1.@.303FAQ 2.2.@.304FAQ 2.1.@.305FAQ 1.3.@.306FAQ 1.2.@.307FAQ 1.1.@.308FAQ

FAQ 4.2.hFAQ 4.1.afFAQ 4.1.amFAQ 3.3.ayFAQ 3.3.bgFAQ 3.2.cbFAQ 3.2.ccFAQ 3.2.cjFAQ 3.1.coFAQ 3.1.cwFAQ 2.2.duFAQ 2.2.edFAQ 2.1.enFAQ 2.1.ewFAQ 1.3.gcFAQ 1.3.gkFAQ 1.2.gsFAQ 1.2.hcFAQ 1.1.@.264FAQ 1.1.@.273FAQ 12.3.@.276FAQ 12.2.@.277FAQ 12.1.@.278FAQ 11.3.@.279FAQ 11.2.@.280FAQ 11.1.@.281FAQ 10.2.@.282FAQ 10.1.@.283FAQ 9.3.@.284FAQ 9.2.@.285FAQ 9.1.@.286FAQ 8.3.@.287FAQ 8.2.@.288FAQ 8.1.@.289FAQ 7.3.@.290FAQ 7.2.@.291FAQ 7.1.@.292FAQ 6.2.@.293FAQ 6.1.@.294FAQ 5.4.@.295FAQ 5.3.@.296FAQ 5.2.@.297FAQ 5.1.@.298FAQ 4.3.@.299FAQ 4.2.@.300FAQ 4.1.@.301FAQ 3.3.@.302FAQ 3.2.@.303FAQ 3.1.@.304FAQ 2.2.@.305FAQ 2.1.@.306FAQ 1.3.@.307FAQ 1.2.@.308FAQ 1.1.@.309FAQ 4.2 (continued)

FAQ 4.2.aFAQ 4.2.iFAQ 4.1.agFAQ 4.1.anFAQ 3.3.azFAQ 3.3.bhFAQ 3.2.ccFAQ 3.2.cdFAQ 3.2.ckFAQ 3.1.cpFAQ 3.1.cxFAQ 2.2.dvFAQ 2.2.eeFAQ 2.1.eoFAQ 2.1.exFAQ 1.3.gdFAQ 1.3.glFAQ 1.2.gtFAQ 1.2.hdFAQ 1.1.@.265FAQ 1.1.@.274FAQ 12.3.@.277FAQ 12.2.@.278FAQ 12.1.@.279FAQ 11.3.@.280FAQ 11.2.@.281FAQ 11.1.@.282FAQ 10.2.@.283FAQ 10.1.@.284FAQ 9.3.@.285FAQ 9.2.@.286FAQ 9.1.@.287FAQ 8.3.@.288FAQ 8.2.@.289FAQ 8.1.@.290FAQ 7.3.@.291FAQ 7.2.@.292FAQ 7.1.@.293FAQ 6.2.@.294FAQ 6.1.@.295FAQ 5.4.@.296FAQ 5.3.@.297FAQ 5.2.@.298FAQ 5.1.@.299FAQ 4.3.@.300FAQ 4.2.@.301FAQ 4.1.@.302FAQ 3.3.@.303FAQ 3.2.@.304FAQ 3.1.@.305FAQ 2.2.@.306FAQ 2.1.@.307FAQ 1.3.@.308FAQ 1.2.@.309FAQ 1.1.@.3102015

FAQ 4.2.bFAQ 4.2.jFAQ 4.1.ahFAQ 4.1.aoFAQ 3.3.baFAQ 3.3.biFAQ 3.2.cdFAQ 3.2.ceFAQ 3.2.clFAQ 3.1.cqFAQ 3.1.cyFAQ 2.2.dwFAQ 2.2.efFAQ 2.1.epFAQ 2.1.eyFAQ 1.3.geFAQ 1.3.gmFAQ 1.2.guFAQ 1.2.heFAQ 1.1.@.266FAQ 1.1.@.275FAQ 12.3.@.278FAQ 12.2.@.279FAQ 12.1.@.280FAQ 11.3.@.281FAQ 11.2.@.282FAQ 11.1.@.283FAQ 10.2.@.284FAQ 10.1.@.285FAQ 9.3.@.286FAQ 9.2.@.287FAQ 9.1.@.288FAQ 8.3.@.289FAQ 8.2.@.290FAQ 8.1.@.291FAQ 7.3.@.292FAQ 7.2.@.293FAQ 7.1.@.294FAQ 6.2.@.295FAQ 6.1.@.296FAQ 5.4.@.297FAQ 5.3.@.298FAQ 5.2.@.299FAQ 5.1.@.300FAQ 4.3.@.301FAQ 4.2.@.302FAQ 4.1.@.303FAQ 3.3.@.304FAQ 3.2.@.305FAQ 3.1.@.306FAQ 2.2.@.307FAQ 2.1.@.308FAQ 1.3.@.309FAQ 1.2.@.310FAQ 1.1.@.311410

FAQ 4.2.cFAQ 4.2.kFAQ 4.1.aiFAQ 4.1.apFAQ 3.3.bbFAQ 3.3.bjFAQ 3.2.ceFAQ 3.2.cfFAQ 3.2.cmFAQ 3.1.crFAQ 3.1.czFAQ 2.2.dxFAQ 2.2.egFAQ 2.1.eqFAQ 2.1.ezFAQ 1.3.gfFAQ 1.3.gnFAQ 1.2.gvFAQ 1.2.hfFAQ 1.1.@.267FAQ 1.1.@.276FAQ 12.3.@.279FAQ 12.2.@.280FAQ 12.1.@.281FAQ 11.3.@.282FAQ 11.2.@.283FAQ 11.1.@.284FAQ 10.2.@.285FAQ 10.1.@.286FAQ 9.3.@.287FAQ 9.2.@.288FAQ 9.1.@.289FAQ 8.3.@.290FAQ 8.2.@.291FAQ 8.1.@.292FAQ 7.3.@.293FAQ 7.2.@.294FAQ 7.1.@.295FAQ 6.2.@.296FAQ 6.1.@.297FAQ 5.4.@.298FAQ 5.3.@.299FAQ 5.2.@.300FAQ 5.1.@.301FAQ 4.3.@.302FAQ 4.2.@.303FAQ 4.1.@.304FAQ 3.3.@.305FAQ 3.2.@.306FAQ 3.1.@.307FAQ 2.2.@.308FAQ 2.1.@.309FAQ 1.3.@.310FAQ 1.2.@.311FAQ 1.1.@.312440

FAQ 4.2.dFAQ 4.2.lFAQ 4.1.ajFAQ 4.1.aqFAQ 3.3.bcFAQ 3.3.bkFAQ 3.2.cfFAQ 3.2.cgFAQ 3.2.cnFAQ 3.1.csFAQ 3.1.daFAQ 2.2.dyFAQ 2.2.ehFAQ 2.1.erFAQ 2.1.faFAQ 1.3.ggFAQ 1.3.goFAQ 1.2.gwFAQ 1.2.hgFAQ 1.1.@.268FAQ 1.1.@.277FAQ 12.3.@.280FAQ 12.2.@.281FAQ 12.1.@.282FAQ 11.3.@.283FAQ 11.2.@.284FAQ 11.1.@.285FAQ 10.2.@.286FAQ 10.1.@.287FAQ 9.3.@.288FAQ 9.2.@.289FAQ 9.1.@.290FAQ 8.3.@.291FAQ 8.2.@.292FAQ 8.1.@.293FAQ 7.3.@.294FAQ 7.2.@.295FAQ 7.1.@.296FAQ 6.2.@.297FAQ 6.1.@.298FAQ 5.4.@.299FAQ 5.3.@.300FAQ 5.2.@.301FAQ 5.1.@.302FAQ 4.3.@.303FAQ 4.2.@.304FAQ 4.1.@.305FAQ 3.3.@.306FAQ 3.2.@.307FAQ 3.1.@.308FAQ 2.2.@.309FAQ 2.1.@.310FAQ 1.3.@.311FAQ 1.2.@.312FAQ 1.1.@.31320202025

FAQ 4.2.eFAQ 4.2.mFAQ 4.1.akFAQ 4.1.arFAQ 3.3.bdFAQ 3.3.blFAQ 3.2.cgFAQ 3.2.chFAQ 3.2.coFAQ 3.1.ctFAQ 3.1.dbFAQ 2.2.dzFAQ 2.2.eiFAQ 2.1.esFAQ 2.1.fbFAQ 1.3.ghFAQ 1.3.gpFAQ 1.2.gxFAQ 1.2.hhFAQ 1.1.@.269FAQ 1.1.@.278FAQ 12.3.@.281FAQ 12.2.@.282FAQ 12.1.@.283FAQ 11.3.@.284FAQ 11.2.@.285FAQ 11.1.@.286FAQ 10.2.@.287FAQ 10.1.@.288FAQ 9.3.@.289FAQ 9.2.@.290FAQ 9.1.@.291FAQ 8.3.@.292FAQ 8.2.@.293FAQ 8.1.@.294FAQ 7.3.@.295FAQ 7.2.@.296FAQ 7.1.@.297FAQ 6.2.@.298FAQ 6.1.@.299FAQ 5.4.@.300FAQ 5.3.@.301FAQ 5.2.@.302FAQ 5.1.@.303FAQ 4.3.@.304FAQ 4.2.@.305FAQ 4.1.@.306FAQ 3.3.@.307FAQ 3.2.@.308FAQ 3.1.@.309FAQ 2.2.@.310FAQ 2.1.@.311FAQ 1.3.@.312FAQ 1.2.@.313FAQ 1.1.@.314FAQ 4.2: Detecting reduced CO2emissions

FAQ 4.2.fFAQ 4.2.nFAQ 4.1.alFAQ 4.1.asFAQ 3.3.beFAQ 3.3.bmFAQ 3.2.chFAQ 3.2.ciFAQ 3.2.cpFAQ 3.1.cuFAQ 3.1.dcFAQ 2.2.eaFAQ 2.2.ejFAQ 2.1.etFAQ 2.1.fcFAQ 1.3.giFAQ 1.3.gqFAQ 1.2.gyFAQ 1.2.hiFAQ 1.1.@.270FAQ 1.1.@.279FAQ 12.3.@.282FAQ 12.2.@.283FAQ 12.1.@.284FAQ 11.3.@.285FAQ 11.2.@.286FAQ 11.1.@.287FAQ 10.2.@.288FAQ 10.1.@.289FAQ 9.3.@.290FAQ 9.2.@.291FAQ 9.1.@.292FAQ 8.3.@.293FAQ 8.2.@.294FAQ 8.1.@.295FAQ 7.3.@.296FAQ 7.2.@.297FAQ 7.1.@.298FAQ 6.2.@.299FAQ 6.1.@.300FAQ 5.4.@.301FAQ 5.3.@.302FAQ 5.2.@.303FAQ 5.1.@.304FAQ 4.3.@.305FAQ 4.2.@.306FAQ 4.1.@.307FAQ 3.3.@.308FAQ 3.2.@.309FAQ 3.1.@.310FAQ 2.2.@.311FAQ 2.1.@.312FAQ 1.3.@.313FAQ 1.2.@.314FAQ 1.1.@.315Sustained reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions would become apparent in atmospheric concentration after 5–10 years and in the temperature after 20–30 years.

FAQ 4.2.gFAQ 4.2.oFAQ 4.1.amFAQ 4.1.atFAQ 3.3.bfFAQ 3.3.bnFAQ 3.2.ciFAQ 3.2.cjFAQ 3.2.cqFAQ 3.1.cvFAQ 3.1.ddFAQ 2.2.ebFAQ 2.2.ekFAQ 2.1.euFAQ 2.1.fdFAQ 1.3.gjFAQ 1.3.grFAQ 1.2.gzFAQ 1.2.hjFAQ 1.1.@.271FAQ 1.1.@.280FAQ 12.3.@.283FAQ 12.2.@.284FAQ 12.1.@.285FAQ 11.3.@.286FAQ 11.2.@.287FAQ 11.1.@.288FAQ 10.2.@.289FAQ 10.1.@.290FAQ 9.3.@.291FAQ 9.2.@.292FAQ 9.1.@.293FAQ 8.3.@.294FAQ 8.2.@.295FAQ 8.1.@.296FAQ 7.3.@.297FAQ 7.2.@.298FAQ 7.1.@.299FAQ 6.2.@.300FAQ 6.1.@.301FAQ 5.4.@.302FAQ 5.3.@.303FAQ 5.2.@.304FAQ 5.1.@.305FAQ 4.3.@.306FAQ 4.2.@.307FAQ 4.1.@.308FAQ 3.3.@.309FAQ 3.2.@.310FAQ 3.1.@.311FAQ 2.2.@.312FAQ 2.1.@.313FAQ 1.3.@.314FAQ 1.2.@.315FAQ 1.1.@.316CO2emissions (billion tonnes of CO2per year)

FAQ 4.2.hFAQ 4.2.pFAQ 4.1.anFAQ 4.1.auFAQ 3.3.bgFAQ 3.3.boFAQ 3.2.cjFAQ 3.2.ckFAQ 3.2.crFAQ 3.1.cwFAQ 3.1.deFAQ 2.2.ecFAQ 2.2.elFAQ 2.1.evFAQ 2.1.feFAQ 1.3.gkFAQ 1.3.gsFAQ 1.2.haFAQ 1.2.hkFAQ 1.1.@.272FAQ 1.1.@.281FAQ 12.3.@.284FAQ 12.2.@.285FAQ 12.1.@.286FAQ 11.3.@.287FAQ 11.2.@.288FAQ 11.1.@.289FAQ 10.2.@.290FAQ 10.1.@.291FAQ 9.3.@.292FAQ 9.2.@.293FAQ 9.1.@.294FAQ 8.3.@.295FAQ 8.2.@.296FAQ 8.1.@.297FAQ 7.3.@.298FAQ 7.2.@.299FAQ 7.1.@.300FAQ 6.2.@.301FAQ 6.1.@.302FAQ 5.4.@.303FAQ 5.3.@.304FAQ 5.2.@.305FAQ 5.1.@.306FAQ 4.3.@.307FAQ 4.2.@.308FAQ 4.1.@.309FAQ 3.3.@.310FAQ 3.2.@.311FAQ 3.1.@.312FAQ 2.2.@.313FAQ 2.1.@.314FAQ 1.3.@.315FAQ 1.2.@.316FAQ 1.1.@.317CO2concentration in the atmosphere (ppm)

FAQ 4.2.iFAQ 4.2.qFAQ 4.1.aoFAQ 4.1.avFAQ 3.3.bhFAQ 3.3.bpFAQ 3.2.ckFAQ 3.2.clFAQ 3.2.csFAQ 3.1.cxFAQ 3.1.dfFAQ 2.2.edFAQ 2.2.emFAQ 2.1.ewFAQ 2.1.ffFAQ 1.3.glFAQ 1.3.gtFAQ 1.2.hbFAQ 1.2.hlFAQ 1.1.@.273FAQ 1.1.@.282FAQ 12.3.@.285FAQ 12.2.@.286FAQ 12.1.@.287FAQ 11.3.@.288FAQ 11.2.@.289FAQ 11.1.@.290FAQ 10.2.@.291FAQ 10.1.@.292FAQ 9.3.@.293FAQ 9.2.@.294FAQ 9.1.@.295FAQ 8.3.@.296FAQ 8.2.@.297FAQ 8.1.@.298FAQ 7.3.@.299FAQ 7.2.@.300FAQ 7.1.@.301FAQ 6.2.@.302FAQ 6.1.@.303FAQ 5.4.@.304FAQ 5.3.@.305FAQ 5.2.@.306FAQ 5.1.@.307FAQ 4.3.@.308FAQ 4.2.@.309FAQ 4.1.@.310FAQ 3.3.@.311FAQ 3.2.@.312FAQ 3.1.@.313FAQ 2.2.@.314FAQ 2.1.@.315FAQ 1.3.@.316FAQ 1.2.@.317FAQ 1.1.@.318Year

FAQ 4.2.jFAQ 4.2.rFAQ 4.1.apFAQ 4.1.awFAQ 3.3.biFAQ 3.3.bqFAQ 3.2.clFAQ 3.2.cmFAQ 3.2.ctFAQ 3.1.cyFAQ 3.1.dgFAQ 2.2.eeFAQ 2.2.enFAQ 2.1.exFAQ 2.1.fgFAQ 1.3.gmFAQ 1.3.guFAQ 1.2.hcFAQ 1.2.hmFAQ 1.1.@.274FAQ 1.1.@.283FAQ 12.3.@.286FAQ 12.2.@.287FAQ 12.1.@.288FAQ 11.3.@.289FAQ 11.2.@.290FAQ 11.1.@.291FAQ 10.2.@.292FAQ 10.1.@.293FAQ 9.3.@.294FAQ 9.2.@.295FAQ 9.1.@.296FAQ 8.3.@.297FAQ 8.2.@.298FAQ 8.1.@.299FAQ 7.3.@.300FAQ 7.2.@.301FAQ 7.1.@.302FAQ 6.2.@.303FAQ 6.1.@.304FAQ 5.4.@.305FAQ 5.3.@.306FAQ 5.2.@.307FAQ 5.1.@.308FAQ 4.3.@.309FAQ 4.2.@.310FAQ 4.1.@.311FAQ 3.3.@.312FAQ 3.2.@.313FAQ 3.1.@.314FAQ 2.2.@.315FAQ 2.1.@.316FAQ 1.3.@.317FAQ 1.2.@.318FAQ 1.1.@.319SSP3–7.0

FAQ 4.2.kFAQ 4.2.sFAQ 4.1.aqFAQ 4.1.axFAQ 3.3.bjFAQ 3.3.brFAQ 3.2.cmFAQ 3.2.cnFAQ 3.2.cuFAQ 3.1.czFAQ 3.1.dhFAQ 2.2.efFAQ 2.2.eoFAQ 2.1.eyFAQ 2.1.fhFAQ 1.3.gnFAQ 1.3.gvFAQ 1.2.hdFAQ 1.2.hnFAQ 1.1.@.275FAQ 1.1.@.284FAQ 12.3.@.287FAQ 12.2.@.288FAQ 12.1.@.289FAQ 11.3.@.290FAQ 11.2.@.291FAQ 11.1.@.292FAQ 10.2.@.293FAQ 10.1.@.294FAQ 9.3.@.295FAQ 9.2.@.296FAQ 9.1.@.297FAQ 8.3.@.298FAQ 8.2.@.299FAQ 8.1.@.300FAQ 7.3.@.301FAQ 7.2.@.302FAQ 7.1.@.303FAQ 6.2.@.304FAQ 6.1.@.305FAQ 5.4.@.306FAQ 5.3.@.307FAQ 5.2.@.308FAQ 5.1.@.309FAQ 4.3.@.310FAQ 4.2.@.311FAQ 4.1.@.312FAQ 3.3.@.313FAQ 3.2.@.314FAQ 3.1.@.315FAQ 2.2.@.316FAQ 2.1.@.317FAQ 1.3.@.318FAQ 1.2.@.319FAQ 1.1.@.320SSP1–2.6

FAQ 4.2.lFAQ 4.2.tFAQ 4.1.arFAQ 4.1.ayFAQ 3.3.bkFAQ 3.3.bsFAQ 3.2.cnFAQ 3.2.coFAQ 3.2.cvFAQ 3.1.daFAQ 3.1.diFAQ 2.2.egFAQ 2.2.epFAQ 2.1.ezFAQ 2.1.fiFAQ 1.3.goFAQ 1.3.gwFAQ 1.2.heFAQ 1.2.hoFAQ 1.1.@.276FAQ 1.1.@.285FAQ 12.3.@.288FAQ 12.2.@.289FAQ 12.1.@.290FAQ 11.3.@.291FAQ 11.2.@.292FAQ 11.1.@.293FAQ 10.2.@.294FAQ 10.1.@.295FAQ 9.3.@.296FAQ 9.2.@.297FAQ 9.1.@.298FAQ 8.3.@.299FAQ 8.2.@.300FAQ 8.1.@.301FAQ 7.3.@.302FAQ 7.2.@.303FAQ 7.1.@.304FAQ 6.2.@.305FAQ 6.1.@.306FAQ 5.4.@.307FAQ 5.3.@.308FAQ 5.2.@.309FAQ 5.1.@.310FAQ 4.3.@.311FAQ 4.2.@.312FAQ 4.1.@.313FAQ 3.3.@.314FAQ 3.2.@.315FAQ 3.1.@.316FAQ 2.2.@.317FAQ 2.1.@.318FAQ 1.3.@.319FAQ 1.2.@.320FAQ 1.1.@.321900

FAQ 4.2.mFAQ 4.2.uFAQ 4.1.asFAQ 4.1.azFAQ 3.3.blFAQ 3.3.btFAQ 3.2.coFAQ 3.2.cpFAQ 3.2.cwFAQ 3.1.dbFAQ 3.1.djFAQ 2.2.ehFAQ 2.2.eqFAQ 2.1.faFAQ 2.1.fjFAQ 1.3.gpFAQ 1.3.gxFAQ 1.2.hfFAQ 1.2.hpFAQ 1.1.@.277FAQ 1.1.@.286FAQ 12.3.@.289FAQ 12.2.@.290FAQ 12.1.@.291FAQ 11.3.@.292FAQ 11.2.@.293FAQ 11.1.@.294FAQ 10.2.@.295FAQ 10.1.@.296FAQ 9.3.@.297FAQ 9.2.@.298FAQ 9.1.@.299FAQ 8.3.@.300FAQ 8.2.@.301FAQ 8.1.@.302FAQ 7.3.@.303FAQ 7.2.@.304FAQ 7.1.@.305FAQ 6.2.@.306FAQ 6.1.@.307FAQ 5.4.@.308FAQ 5.3.@.309FAQ 5.2.@.310FAQ 5.1.@.311FAQ 4.3.@.312FAQ 4.2.@.313FAQ 4.1.@.314FAQ 3.3.@.315FAQ 3.2.@.316FAQ 3.1.@.317FAQ 2.2.@.318FAQ 2.1.@.319FAQ 1.3.@.320FAQ 1.2.@.321FAQ 1.1.@.322800

FAQ 4.2.nFAQ 4.2.vFAQ 4.1.atFAQ 4.1.baFAQ 3.3.bmFAQ 3.3.buFAQ 3.2.cpFAQ 3.2.cqFAQ 3.2.cxFAQ 3.1.dcFAQ 3.1.dkFAQ 2.2.eiFAQ 2.2.erFAQ 2.1.fbFAQ 2.1.fkFAQ 1.3.gqFAQ 1.3.gyFAQ 1.2.hgFAQ 1.2.hqFAQ 1.1.@.278FAQ 1.1.@.287FAQ 12.3.@.290FAQ 12.2.@.291FAQ 12.1.@.292FAQ 11.3.@.293FAQ 11.2.@.294FAQ 11.1.@.295FAQ 10.2.@.296FAQ 10.1.@.297FAQ 9.3.@.298FAQ 9.2.@.299FAQ 9.1.@.300FAQ 8.3.@.301FAQ 8.2.@.302FAQ 8.1.@.303FAQ 7.3.@.304FAQ 7.2.@.305FAQ 7.1.@.306FAQ 6.2.@.307FAQ 6.1.@.308FAQ 5.4.@.309FAQ 5.3.@.310FAQ 5.2.@.311FAQ 5.1.@.312FAQ 4.3.@.313FAQ 4.2.@.314FAQ 4.1.@.315FAQ 3.3.@.316FAQ 3.2.@.317FAQ 3.1.@.318FAQ 2.2.@.319FAQ 2.1.@.320FAQ 1.3.@.321FAQ 1.2.@.322FAQ 1.1.@.323700

FAQ 4.2.oFAQ 4.2.wFAQ 4.1.auFAQ 4.1.bbFAQ 3.3.bnFAQ 3.3.bvFAQ 3.2.cqFAQ 3.2.crFAQ 3.2.cyFAQ 3.1.ddFAQ 3.1.dlFAQ 2.2.ejFAQ 2.2.esFAQ 2.1.fcFAQ 2.1.flFAQ 1.3.grFAQ 1.3.gzFAQ 1.2.hhFAQ 1.2.hrFAQ 1.1.@.279FAQ 1.1.@.288FAQ 12.3.@.291FAQ 12.2.@.292FAQ 12.1.@.293FAQ 11.3.@.294FAQ 11.2.@.295FAQ 11.1.@.296FAQ 10.2.@.297FAQ 10.1.@.298FAQ 9.3.@.299FAQ 9.2.@.300FAQ 9.1.@.301FAQ 8.3.@.302FAQ 8.2.@.303FAQ 8.1.@.304FAQ 7.3.@.305FAQ 7.2.@.306FAQ 7.1.@.307FAQ 6.2.@.308FAQ 6.1.@.309FAQ 5.4.@.310FAQ 5.3.@.311FAQ 5.2.@.312FAQ 5.1.@.313FAQ 4.3.@.314FAQ 4.2.@.315FAQ 4.1.@.316FAQ 3.3.@.317FAQ 3.2.@.318FAQ 3.1.@.319FAQ 2.2.@.320FAQ 2.1.@.321FAQ 1.3.@.322FAQ 1.2.@.323FAQ 1.1.@.324600

FAQ 4.2.pFAQ 4.2.xFAQ 4.1.avFAQ 4.1.bcFAQ 3.3.boFAQ 3.3.bwFAQ 3.2.crFAQ 3.2.csFAQ 3.2.czFAQ 3.1.deFAQ 3.1.dmFAQ 2.2.ekFAQ 2.2.etFAQ 2.1.fdFAQ 2.1.fmFAQ 1.3.gsFAQ 1.3.haFAQ 1.2.hiFAQ 1.2.hsFAQ 1.1.@.280FAQ 1.1.@.289FAQ 12.3.@.292FAQ 12.2.@.293FAQ 12.1.@.294FAQ 11.3.@.295FAQ 11.2.@.296FAQ 11.1.@.297FAQ 10.2.@.298FAQ 10.1.@.299FAQ 9.3.@.300FAQ 9.2.@.301FAQ 9.1.@.302FAQ 8.3.@.303FAQ 8.2.@.304FAQ 8.1.@.305FAQ 7.3.@.306FAQ 7.2.@.307FAQ 7.1.@.308FAQ 6.2.@.309FAQ 6.1.@.310FAQ 5.4.@.311FAQ 5.3.@.312FAQ 5.2.@.313FAQ 5.1.@.314FAQ 4.3.@.315FAQ 4.2.@.316FAQ 4.1.@.317FAQ 3.3.@.318FAQ 3.2.@.319FAQ 3.1.@.320FAQ 2.2.@.321FAQ 2.1.@.322FAQ 1.3.@.323FAQ 1.2.@.324FAQ 1.1.@.325500

FAQ 4.2.qFAQ 4.2.yFAQ 4.1.awFAQ 4.1.bdFAQ 3.3.bpFAQ 3.3.bxFAQ 3.2.csFAQ 3.2.ctFAQ 3.2.daFAQ 3.1.dfFAQ 3.1.dnFAQ 2.2.elFAQ 2.2.euFAQ 2.1.feFAQ 2.1.fnFAQ 1.3.gtFAQ 1.3.hbFAQ 1.2.hjFAQ 1.2.htFAQ 1.1.@.281FAQ 1.1.@.290FAQ 12.3.@.293FAQ 12.2.@.294FAQ 12.1.@.295FAQ 11.3.@.296FAQ 11.2.@.297FAQ 11.1.@.298FAQ 10.2.@.299FAQ 10.1.@.300FAQ 9.3.@.301FAQ 9.2.@.302FAQ 9.1.@.303FAQ 8.3.@.304FAQ 8.2.@.305FAQ 8.1.@.306FAQ 7.3.@.307FAQ 7.2.@.308FAQ 7.1.@.309FAQ 6.2.@.310FAQ 6.1.@.311FAQ 5.4.@.312FAQ 5.3.@.313FAQ 5.2.@.314FAQ 5.1.@.315FAQ 4.3.@.316FAQ 4.2.@.317FAQ 4.1.@.318FAQ 3.3.@.319FAQ 3.2.@.320FAQ 3.1.@.321FAQ 2.2.@.322FAQ 2.1.@.323FAQ 1.3.@.324FAQ 1.2.@.325FAQ 1.1.@.326400

FAQ 4.2.rFAQ 4.2.zFAQ 4.1.axFAQ 4.1.beFAQ 3.3.bqFAQ 3.3.byFAQ 3.2.ctFAQ 3.2.cuFAQ 3.2.dbFAQ 3.1.dgFAQ 3.1.doFAQ 2.2.emFAQ 2.2.evFAQ 2.1.ffFAQ 2.1.foFAQ 1.3.guFAQ 1.3.hcFAQ 1.2.hkFAQ 1.2.huFAQ 1.1.@.282FAQ 1.1.@.291FAQ 12.3.@.294FAQ 12.2.@.295FAQ 12.1.@.296FAQ 11.3.@.297FAQ 11.2.@.298FAQ 11.1.@.299FAQ 10.2.@.300FAQ 10.1.@.301FAQ 9.3.@.302FAQ 9.2.@.303FAQ 9.1.@.304FAQ 8.3.@.305FAQ 8.2.@.306FAQ 8.1.@.307FAQ 7.3.@.308FAQ 7.2.@.309FAQ 7.1.@.310FAQ 6.2.@.311FAQ 6.1.@.312FAQ 5.4.@.313FAQ 5.3.@.314FAQ 5.2.@.315FAQ 5.1.@.316FAQ 4.3.@.317FAQ 4.2.@.318FAQ 4.1.@.319FAQ 3.3.@.320FAQ 3.2.@.321FAQ 3.1.@.322FAQ 2.2.@.323FAQ 2.1.@.324FAQ 1.3.@.325FAQ 1.2.@.326FAQ 1.1.@.32720202040206020802100

FAQ 4.2.sFAQ 4.2.aaFAQ 4.1.ayFAQ 4.1.bfFAQ 3.3.brFAQ 3.3.bzFAQ 3.2.cuFAQ 3.2.cvFAQ 3.2.dcFAQ 3.1.dhFAQ 3.1.dpFAQ 2.2.enFAQ 2.2.ewFAQ 2.1.fgFAQ 2.1.fpFAQ 1.3.gvFAQ 1.3.hdFAQ 1.2.hlFAQ 1.2.hvFAQ 1.1.@.283FAQ 1.1.@.292FAQ 12.3.@.295FAQ 12.2.@.296FAQ 12.1.@.297FAQ 11.3.@.298FAQ 11.2.@.299FAQ 11.1.@.300FAQ 10.2.@.301FAQ 10.1.@.302FAQ 9.3.@.303FAQ 9.2.@.304FAQ 9.1.@.305FAQ 8.3.@.306FAQ 8.2.@.307FAQ 8.1.@.308FAQ 7.3.@.309FAQ 7.2.@.310FAQ 7.1.@.311FAQ 6.2.@.312FAQ 6.1.@.313FAQ 5.4.@.314FAQ 5.3.@.315FAQ 5.2.@.316FAQ 5.1.@.317FAQ 4.3.@.318FAQ 4.2.@.319FAQ 4.1.@.320FAQ 3.3.@.321FAQ 3.2.@.322FAQ 3.1.@.323FAQ 2.2.@.324FAQ 2.1.@.325FAQ 1.3.@.326FAQ 1.2.@.327FAQ 1.1.@.328Year

FAQ 4.2.tFAQ 4.2.abFAQ 4.1.azFAQ 4.1.bgFAQ 3.3.bsFAQ 3.3.caFAQ 3.2.cvFAQ 3.2.cwFAQ 3.2.ddFAQ 3.1.diFAQ 3.1.dqFAQ 2.2.eoFAQ 2.2.exFAQ 2.1.fhFAQ 2.1.fqFAQ 1.3.gwFAQ 1.3.heFAQ 1.2.hmFAQ 1.2.hwFAQ 1.1.@.284FAQ 1.1.@.293FAQ 12.3.@.296FAQ 12.2.@.297FAQ 12.1.@.298FAQ 11.3.@.299FAQ 11.2.@.300FAQ 11.1.@.301FAQ 10.2.@.302FAQ 10.1.@.303FAQ 9.3.@.304FAQ 9.2.@.305FAQ 9.1.@.306FAQ 8.3.@.307FAQ 8.2.@.308FAQ 8.1.@.309FAQ 7.3.@.310FAQ 7.2.@.311FAQ 7.1.@.312FAQ 6.2.@.313FAQ 6.1.@.314FAQ 5.4.@.315FAQ 5.3.@.316FAQ 5.2.@.317FAQ 5.1.@.318FAQ 4.3.@.319FAQ 4.2.@.320FAQ 4.1.@.321FAQ 3.3.@.322FAQ 3.2.@.323FAQ 3.1.@.324FAQ 2.2.@.325FAQ 2.1.@.326FAQ 1.3.@.327FAQ 1.2.@.328FAQ 1.1.@.329Global surface temperature (°C)

FAQ 4.2.uFAQ 4.2.acFAQ 4.1.baFAQ 4.1.bhFAQ 3.3.btFAQ 3.3.cbFAQ 3.2.cwFAQ 3.2.cxFAQ 3.2.deFAQ 3.1.djFAQ 3.1.drFAQ 2.2.epFAQ 2.2.eyFAQ 2.1.fiFAQ 2.1.frFAQ 1.3.gxFAQ 1.3.hfFAQ 1.2.hnFAQ 1.2.hxFAQ 1.1.@.285FAQ 1.1.@.294FAQ 12.3.@.297FAQ 12.2.@.298FAQ 12.1.@.299FAQ 11.3.@.300FAQ 11.2.@.301FAQ 11.1.@.302FAQ 10.2.@.303FAQ 10.1.@.304FAQ 9.3.@.305FAQ 9.2.@.306FAQ 9.1.@.307FAQ 8.3.@.308FAQ 8.2.@.309FAQ 8.1.@.310FAQ 7.3.@.311FAQ 7.2.@.312FAQ 7.1.@.313FAQ 6.2.@.314FAQ 6.1.@.315FAQ 5.4.@.316FAQ 5.3.@.317FAQ 5.2.@.318FAQ 5.1.@.319FAQ 4.3.@.320FAQ 4.2.@.321FAQ 4.1.@.322FAQ 3.3.@.323FAQ 3.2.@.324FAQ 3.1.@.325FAQ 2.2.@.326FAQ 2.1.@.327FAQ 1.3.@.328FAQ 1.2.@.329FAQ 1.1.@.330SSP3–7.0

FAQ 4.2.vFAQ 4.2.adFAQ 4.1.bbFAQ 4.1.biFAQ 3.3.buFAQ 3.3.ccFAQ 3.2.cxFAQ 3.2.cyFAQ 3.2.dfFAQ 3.1.dkFAQ 3.1.dsFAQ 2.2.eqFAQ 2.2.ezFAQ 2.1.fjFAQ 2.1.fsFAQ 1.3.gyFAQ 1.3.hgFAQ 1.2.hoFAQ 1.2.hyFAQ 1.1.@.286FAQ 1.1.@.295FAQ 12.3.@.298FAQ 12.2.@.299FAQ 12.1.@.300FAQ 11.3.@.301FAQ 11.2.@.302FAQ 11.1.@.303FAQ 10.2.@.304FAQ 10.1.@.305FAQ 9.3.@.306FAQ 9.2.@.307FAQ 9.1.@.308FAQ 8.3.@.309FAQ 8.2.@.310FAQ 8.1.@.311FAQ 7.3.@.312FAQ 7.2.@.313FAQ 7.1.@.314FAQ 6.2.@.315FAQ 6.1.@.316FAQ 5.4.@.317FAQ 5.3.@.318FAQ 5.2.@.319FAQ 5.1.@.320FAQ 4.3.@.321FAQ 4.2.@.322FAQ 4.1.@.323FAQ 3.3.@.324FAQ 3.2.@.325FAQ 3.1.@.326FAQ 2.2.@.327FAQ 2.1.@.328FAQ 1.3.@.329FAQ 1.2.@.330FAQ 1.1.@.331SSP1–2.6

FAQ 4.2.wFAQ 4.2.aeFAQ 4.1.bcFAQ 4.1.bjFAQ 3.3.bvFAQ 3.3.cdFAQ 3.2.cyFAQ 3.2.czFAQ 3.2.dgFAQ 3.1.dlFAQ 3.1.dtFAQ 2.2.erFAQ 2.2.faFAQ 2.1.fkFAQ 2.1.ftFAQ 1.3.gzFAQ 1.3.hhFAQ 1.2.hpFAQ 1.2.hzFAQ 1.1.@.287FAQ 1.1.@.296FAQ 12.3.@.299FAQ 12.2.@.300FAQ 12.1.@.301FAQ 11.3.@.302FAQ 11.2.@.303FAQ 11.1.@.304FAQ 10.2.@.305FAQ 10.1.@.306FAQ 9.3.@.307FAQ 9.2.@.308FAQ 9.1.@.309FAQ 8.3.@.310FAQ 8.2.@.311FAQ 8.1.@.312FAQ 7.3.@.313FAQ 7.2.@.314FAQ 7.1.@.315FAQ 6.2.@.316FAQ 6.1.@.317FAQ 5.4.@.318FAQ 5.3.@.319FAQ 5.2.@.320FAQ 5.1.@.321FAQ 4.3.@.322FAQ 4.2.@.323FAQ 4.1.@.324FAQ 3.3.@.325FAQ 3.2.@.326FAQ 3.1.@.327FAQ 2.2.@.328FAQ 2.1.@.329FAQ 1.3.@.330FAQ 1.2.@.331FAQ 1.1.@.33217.5

FAQ 4.2.xFAQ 4.2.afFAQ 4.1.bdFAQ 4.1.bkFAQ 3.3.bwFAQ 3.3.ceFAQ 3.2.czFAQ 3.2.daFAQ 3.2.dhFAQ 3.1.dmFAQ 3.1.duFAQ 2.2.esFAQ 2.2.fbFAQ 2.1.flFAQ 2.1.fuFAQ 1.3.haFAQ 1.3.hiFAQ 1.2.hqFAQ 1.2.iaFAQ 1.1.@.288FAQ 1.1.@.297FAQ 12.3.@.300FAQ 12.2.@.301FAQ 12.1.@.302FAQ 11.3.@.303FAQ 11.2.@.304FAQ 11.1.@.305FAQ 10.2.@.306FAQ 10.1.@.307FAQ 9.3.@.308FAQ 9.2.@.309FAQ 9.1.@.310FAQ 8.3.@.311FAQ 8.2.@.312FAQ 8.1.@.313FAQ 7.3.@.314FAQ 7.2.@.315FAQ 7.1.@.316FAQ 6.2.@.317FAQ 6.1.@.318FAQ 5.4.@.319FAQ 5.3.@.320FAQ 5.2.@.321FAQ 5.1.@.322FAQ 4.3.@.323FAQ 4.2.@.324FAQ 4.1.@.325FAQ 3.3.@.326FAQ 3.2.@.327FAQ 3.1.@.328FAQ 2.2.@.329FAQ 2.1.@.330FAQ 1.3.@.331FAQ 1.2.@.332FAQ 1.1.@.33317.0

FAQ 4.2.yFAQ 4.2.agFAQ 4.1.beFAQ 4.1.blFAQ 3.3.bxFAQ 3.3.cfFAQ 3.2.daFAQ 3.2.dbFAQ 3.2.diFAQ 3.1.dnFAQ 3.1.dvFAQ 2.2.etFAQ 2.2.fcFAQ 2.1.fmFAQ 2.1.fvFAQ 1.3.hbFAQ 1.3.hjFAQ 1.2.hrFAQ 1.2.ibFAQ 1.1.@.289FAQ 1.1.@.298FAQ 12.3.@.301FAQ 12.2.@.302FAQ 12.1.@.303FAQ 11.3.@.304FAQ 11.2.@.305FAQ 11.1.@.306FAQ 10.2.@.307FAQ 10.1.@.308FAQ 9.3.@.309FAQ 9.2.@.310FAQ 9.1.@.311FAQ 8.3.@.312FAQ 8.2.@.313FAQ 8.1.@.314FAQ 7.3.@.315FAQ 7.2.@.316FAQ 7.1.@.317FAQ 6.2.@.318FAQ 6.1.@.319FAQ 5.4.@.320FAQ 5.3.@.321FAQ 5.2.@.322FAQ 5.1.@.323FAQ 4.3.@.324FAQ 4.2.@.325FAQ 4.1.@.326FAQ 3.3.@.327FAQ 3.2.@.328FAQ 3.1.@.329FAQ 2.2.@.330FAQ 2.1.@.331FAQ 1.3.@.332FAQ 1.2.@.333FAQ 1.1.@.33416.5

FAQ 4.2.zFAQ 4.2.ahFAQ 4.1.bfFAQ 4.1.bmFAQ 3.3.byFAQ 3.3.cgFAQ 3.2.dbFAQ 3.2.dcFAQ 3.2.djFAQ 3.1.doFAQ 3.1.dwFAQ 2.2.euFAQ 2.2.fdFAQ 2.1.fnFAQ 2.1.fwFAQ 1.3.hcFAQ 1.3.hkFAQ 1.2.hsFAQ 1.2.icFAQ 1.1.@.290FAQ 1.1.@.299FAQ 12.3.@.302FAQ 12.2.@.303FAQ 12.1.@.304FAQ 11.3.@.305FAQ 11.2.@.306FAQ 11.1.@.307FAQ 10.2.@.308FAQ 10.1.@.309FAQ 9.3.@.310FAQ 9.2.@.311FAQ 9.1.@.312FAQ 8.3.@.313FAQ 8.2.@.314FAQ 8.1.@.315FAQ 7.3.@.316FAQ 7.2.@.317FAQ 7.1.@.318FAQ 6.2.@.319FAQ 6.1.@.320FAQ 5.4.@.321FAQ 5.3.@.322FAQ 5.2.@.323FAQ 5.1.@.324FAQ 4.3.@.325FAQ 4.2.@.326FAQ 4.1.@.327FAQ 3.3.@.328FAQ 3.2.@.329FAQ 3.1.@.330FAQ 2.2.@.331FAQ 2.1.@.332FAQ 1.3.@.333FAQ 1.2.@.334FAQ 1.1.@.33516.0

FAQ 4.2.aaFAQ 4.2.aiFAQ 4.1.bgFAQ 4.1.bnFAQ 3.3.bzFAQ 3.3.chFAQ 3.2.dcFAQ 3.2.ddFAQ 3.2.dkFAQ 3.1.dpFAQ 3.1.dxFAQ 2.2.evFAQ 2.2.feFAQ 2.1.foFAQ 2.1.fxFAQ 1.3.hdFAQ 1.3.hlFAQ 1.2.htFAQ 1.2.idFAQ 1.1.@.291FAQ 1.1.@.300FAQ 12.3.@.303FAQ 12.2.@.304FAQ 12.1.@.305FAQ 11.3.@.306FAQ 11.2.@.307FAQ 11.1.@.308FAQ 10.2.@.309FAQ 10.1.@.310FAQ 9.3.@.311FAQ 9.2.@.312FAQ 9.1.@.313FAQ 8.3.@.314FAQ 8.2.@.315FAQ 8.1.@.316FAQ 7.3.@.317FAQ 7.2.@.318FAQ 7.1.@.319FAQ 6.2.@.320FAQ 6.1.@.321FAQ 5.4.@.322FAQ 5.3.@.323FAQ 5.2.@.324FAQ 5.1.@.325FAQ 4.3.@.326FAQ 4.2.@.327FAQ 4.1.@.328FAQ 3.3.@.329FAQ 3.2.@.330FAQ 3.1.@.331FAQ 2.2.@.332FAQ 2.1.@.333FAQ 1.3.@.334FAQ 1.2.@.335FAQ 1.1.@.33615.5

FAQ 4.2.abFAQ 4.2.ajFAQ 4.1.bhFAQ 4.1.boFAQ 3.3.caFAQ 3.3.ciFAQ 3.2.ddFAQ 3.2.deFAQ 3.2.dlFAQ 3.1.dqFAQ 3.1.dyFAQ 2.2.ewFAQ 2.2.ffFAQ 2.1.fpFAQ 2.1.fyFAQ 1.3.heFAQ 1.3.hmFAQ 1.2.huFAQ 1.2.ieFAQ 1.1.@.292FAQ 1.1.@.301FAQ 12.3.@.304FAQ 12.2.@.305FAQ 12.1.@.306FAQ 11.3.@.307FAQ 11.2.@.308FAQ 11.1.@.309FAQ 10.2.@.310FAQ 10.1.@.311FAQ 9.3.@.312FAQ 9.2.@.313FAQ 9.1.@.314FAQ 8.3.@.315FAQ 8.2.@.316FAQ 8.1.@.317FAQ 7.3.@.318FAQ 7.2.@.319FAQ 7.1.@.320FAQ 6.2.@.321FAQ 6.1.@.322FAQ 5.4.@.323FAQ 5.3.@.324FAQ 5.2.@.325FAQ 5.1.@.326FAQ 4.3.@.327FAQ 4.2.@.328FAQ 4.1.@.329FAQ 3.3.@.330FAQ 3.2.@.331FAQ 3.1.@.332FAQ 2.2.@.333FAQ 2.1.@.334FAQ 1.3.@.335FAQ 1.2.@.336FAQ 1.1.@.33715.0

FAQ 4.2.acFAQ 4.2.akFAQ 4.1.biFAQ 4.1.bpFAQ 3.3.cbFAQ 3.3.cjFAQ 3.2.deFAQ 3.2.dfFAQ 3.2.dmFAQ 3.1.drFAQ 3.1.dzFAQ 2.2.exFAQ 2.2.fgFAQ 2.1.fqFAQ 2.1.fzFAQ 1.3.hfFAQ 1.3.hnFAQ 1.2.hvFAQ 1.2.ifFAQ 1.1.@.293FAQ 1.1.@.302FAQ 12.3.@.305FAQ 12.2.@.306FAQ 12.1.@.307FAQ 11.3.@.308FAQ 11.2.@.309FAQ 11.1.@.310FAQ 10.2.@.311FAQ 10.1.@.312FAQ 9.3.@.313FAQ 9.2.@.314FAQ 9.1.@.315FAQ 8.3.@.316FAQ 8.2.@.317FAQ 8.1.@.318FAQ 7.3.@.319FAQ 7.2.@.320FAQ 7.1.@.321FAQ 6.2.@.322FAQ 6.1.@.323FAQ 5.4.@.324FAQ 5.3.@.325FAQ 5.2.@.326FAQ 5.1.@.327FAQ 4.3.@.328FAQ 4.2.@.329FAQ 4.1.@.330FAQ 3.3.@.331FAQ 3.2.@.332FAQ 3.1.@.333FAQ 2.2.@.334FAQ 2.1.@.335FAQ 1.3.@.336FAQ 1.2.@.337FAQ 1.1.@.33814.5

FAQ 4.2.adFAQ 4.2.alFAQ 4.1.bjFAQ 4.1.bqFAQ 3.3.ccFAQ 3.3.ckFAQ 3.2.dfFAQ 3.2.dgFAQ 3.2.dnFAQ 3.1.dsFAQ 3.1.eaFAQ 2.2.eyFAQ 2.2.fhFAQ 2.1.frFAQ 2.1.gaFAQ 1.3.hgFAQ 1.3.hoFAQ 1.2.hwFAQ 1.2.igFAQ 1.1.@.294FAQ 1.1.@.303FAQ 12.3.@.306FAQ 12.2.@.307FAQ 12.1.@.308FAQ 11.3.@.309FAQ 11.2.@.310FAQ 11.1.@.311FAQ 10.2.@.312FAQ 10.1.@.313FAQ 9.3.@.314FAQ 9.2.@.315FAQ 9.1.@.316FAQ 8.3.@.317FAQ 8.2.@.318FAQ 8.1.@.319FAQ 7.3.@.320FAQ 7.2.@.321FAQ 7.1.@.322FAQ 6.2.@.323FAQ 6.1.@.324FAQ 5.4.@.325FAQ 5.3.@.326FAQ 5.2.@.327FAQ 5.1.@.328FAQ 4.3.@.329FAQ 4.2.@.330FAQ 4.1.@.331FAQ 3.3.@.332FAQ 3.2.@.333FAQ 3.1.@.334FAQ 2.2.@.335FAQ 2.1.@.336FAQ 1.3.@.337FAQ 1.2.@.338FAQ 1.1.@.33920202040206020802100

FAQ 4.2.aeFAQ 4.2.amFAQ 4.1.bkFAQ 4.1.brFAQ 3.3.cdFAQ 3.3.clFAQ 3.2.dgFAQ 3.2.dhFAQ 3.2.doFAQ 3.1.dtFAQ 3.1.ebFAQ 2.2.ezFAQ 2.2.fiFAQ 2.1.fsFAQ 2.1.gbFAQ 1.3.hhFAQ 1.3.hpFAQ 1.2.hxFAQ 1.2.ihFAQ 1.1.@.295FAQ 1.1.@.304FAQ 12.3.@.307FAQ 12.2.@.308FAQ 12.1.@.309FAQ 11.3.@.310FAQ 11.2.@.311FAQ 11.1.@.312FAQ 10.2.@.313FAQ 10.1.@.314FAQ 9.3.@.315FAQ 9.2.@.316FAQ 9.1.@.317FAQ 8.3.@.318FAQ 8.2.@.319FAQ 8.1.@.320FAQ 7.3.@.321FAQ 7.2.@.322FAQ 7.1.@.323FAQ 6.2.@.324FAQ 6.1.@.325FAQ 5.4.@.326FAQ 5.3.@.327FAQ 5.2.@.328FAQ 5.1.@.329FAQ 4.3.@.330FAQ 4.2.@.331FAQ 4.1.@.332FAQ 3.3.@.333FAQ 3.2.@.334FAQ 3.1.@.335FAQ 2.2.@.336FAQ 2.1.@.337FAQ 1.3.@.338FAQ 1.2.@.339FAQ 1.1.@.340Year

FAQ 4.2.afFAQ 4.2.anFAQ 4.1.blFAQ 4.1.bsFAQ 3.3.ceFAQ 3.3.cmFAQ 3.2.dhFAQ 3.2.diFAQ 3.2.dpFAQ 3.1.duFAQ 3.1.ecFAQ 2.2.faFAQ 2.2.fjFAQ 2.1.ftFAQ 2.1.gcFAQ 1.3.hiFAQ 1.3.hqFAQ 1.2.hyFAQ 1.2.iiFAQ 1.1.@.296FAQ 1.1.@.305FAQ 12.3.@.308FAQ 12.2.@.309FAQ 12.1.@.310FAQ 11.3.@.311FAQ 11.2.@.312FAQ 11.1.@.313FAQ 10.2.@.314FAQ 10.1.@.315FAQ 9.3.@.316FAQ 9.2.@.317FAQ 9.1.@.318FAQ 8.3.@.319FAQ 8.2.@.320FAQ 8.1.@.321FAQ 7.3.@.322FAQ 7.2.@.323FAQ 7.1.@.324FAQ 6.2.@.325FAQ 6.1.@.326FAQ 5.4.@.327FAQ 5.3.@.328FAQ 5.2.@.329FAQ 5.1.@.330FAQ 4.3.@.331FAQ 4.2.@.332FAQ 4.1.@.333FAQ 3.3.@.334FAQ 3.2.@.335FAQ 3.1.@.336FAQ 2.2.@.337FAQ 2.1.@.338FAQ 1.3.@.339FAQ 1.2.@.340FAQ 1.1.@.341Divergence of scenarios

FAQ 4.2.agFAQ 4.2.aoFAQ 4.1.bmFAQ 4.1.btFAQ 3.3.cfFAQ 3.3.cnFAQ 3.2.diFAQ 3.2.djFAQ 3.2.dqFAQ 3.1.dvFAQ 3.1.edFAQ 2.2.fbFAQ 2.2.fkFAQ 2.1.fuFAQ 2.1.gdFAQ 1.3.hjFAQ 1.3.hrFAQ 1.2.hzFAQ 1.2.ijFAQ 1.1.@.297FAQ 1.1.@.306FAQ 12.3.@.309FAQ 12.2.@.310FAQ 12.1.@.311FAQ 11.3.@.312FAQ 11.2.@.313FAQ 11.1.@.314FAQ 10.2.@.315FAQ 10.1.@.316FAQ 9.3.@.317FAQ 9.2.@.318FAQ 9.1.@.319FAQ 8.3.@.320FAQ 8.2.@.321FAQ 8.1.@.322FAQ 7.3.@.323FAQ 7.2.@.324FAQ 7.1.@.325FAQ 6.2.@.326FAQ 6.1.@.327FAQ 5.4.@.328FAQ 5.3.@.329FAQ 5.2.@.330FAQ 5.1.@.331FAQ 4.3.@.332FAQ 4.2.@.333FAQ 4.1.@.334FAQ 3.3.@.335FAQ 3.2.@.336FAQ 3.1.@.337FAQ 2.2.@.338FAQ 2.1.@.339FAQ 1.3.@.340FAQ 1.2.@.341FAQ 1.1.@.342Divergence of scenarios

FAQ 4.2.ahFAQ 4.2.apFAQ 4.1.bnFAQ 4.1.buFAQ 3.3.cgFAQ 3.3.coFAQ 3.2.djFAQ 3.2.dkFAQ 3.2.drFAQ 3.1.dwFAQ 3.1.eeFAQ 2.2.fcFAQ 2.2.flFAQ 2.1.fvFAQ 2.1.geFAQ 1.3.hkFAQ 1.3.hsFAQ 1.2.iaFAQ 1.2.ikFAQ 1.1.@.298FAQ 1.1.@.307FAQ 12.3.@.310FAQ 12.2.@.311FAQ 12.1.@.312FAQ 11.3.@.313FAQ 11.2.@.314FAQ 11.1.@.315FAQ 10.2.@.316FAQ 10.1.@.317FAQ 9.3.@.318FAQ 9.2.@.319FAQ 9.1.@.320FAQ 8.3.@.321FAQ 8.2.@.322FAQ 8.1.@.323FAQ 7.3.@.324FAQ 7.2.@.325FAQ 7.1.@.326FAQ 6.2.@.327FAQ 6.1.@.328FAQ 5.4.@.329FAQ 5.3.@.330FAQ 5.2.@.331FAQ 5.1.@.332FAQ 4.3.@.333FAQ 4.2.@.334FAQ 4.1.@.335FAQ 3.3.@.336FAQ 3.2.@.337FAQ 3.1.@.338FAQ 2.2.@.339FAQ 2.1.@.340FAQ 1.3.@.341FAQ 1.2.@.342FAQ 1.1.@.343SSP3–7.0

FAQ 4.2.aiFAQ 4.2.aqFAQ 4.1.boFAQ 4.1.bvFAQ 3.3.chFAQ 3.3.cpFAQ 3.2.dkFAQ 3.2.dlFAQ 3.2.dsFAQ 3.1.dxFAQ 3.1.efFAQ 2.2.fdFAQ 2.2.fmFAQ 2.1.fwFAQ 2.1.gfFAQ 1.3.hlFAQ 1.3.htFAQ 1.2.ibFAQ 1.2.ilFAQ 1.1.@.299FAQ 1.1.@.308FAQ 12.3.@.311FAQ 12.2.@.312FAQ 12.1.@.313FAQ 11.3.@.314FAQ 11.2.@.315FAQ 11.1.@.316FAQ 10.2.@.317FAQ 10.1.@.318FAQ 9.3.@.319FAQ 9.2.@.320FAQ 9.1.@.321FAQ 8.3.@.322FAQ 8.2.@.323FAQ 8.1.@.324FAQ 7.3.@.325FAQ 7.2.@.326FAQ 7.1.@.327FAQ 6.2.@.328FAQ 6.1.@.329FAQ 5.4.@.330FAQ 5.3.@.331FAQ 5.2.@.332FAQ 5.1.@.333FAQ 4.3.@.334FAQ 4.2.@.335FAQ 4.1.@.336FAQ 3.3.@.337FAQ 3.2.@.338FAQ 3.1.@.339FAQ 2.2.@.340FAQ 2.1.@.341FAQ 1.3.@.342FAQ 1.2.@.343FAQ 1.1.@.344SSP1–2.6Low

FAQ 4.2.ajFAQ 4.2.arFAQ 4.1.bpFAQ 4.1.bwFAQ 3.3.ciFAQ 3.3.cqFAQ 3.2.dlFAQ 3.2.dmFAQ 3.2.dtFAQ 3.1.dyFAQ 3.1.egFAQ 2.2.feFAQ 2.2.fnFAQ 2.1.fxFAQ 2.1.ggFAQ 1.3.hmFAQ 1.3.huFAQ 1.2.icFAQ 1.2.imFAQ 1.1.@.300FAQ 1.1.@.309FAQ 12.3.@.312FAQ 12.2.@.313FAQ 12.1.@.314FAQ 11.3.@.315FAQ 11.2.@.316FAQ 11.1.@.317FAQ 10.2.@.318FAQ 10.1.@.319FAQ 9.3.@.320FAQ 9.2.@.321FAQ 9.1.@.322FAQ 8.3.@.323FAQ 8.2.@.324FAQ 8.1.@.325FAQ 7.3.@.326FAQ 7.2.@.327FAQ 7.1.@.328FAQ 6.2.@.329FAQ 6.1.@.330FAQ 5.4.@.331FAQ 5.3.@.332FAQ 5.2.@.333FAQ 5.1.@.334FAQ 4.3.@.335FAQ 4.2.@.336FAQ 4.1.@.337FAQ 3.3.@.338FAQ 3.2.@.339FAQ 3.1.@.340FAQ 2.2.@.341FAQ 2.1.@.342FAQ 1.3.@.343FAQ 1.2.@.344FAQ 1.1.@.345Emission scenario

FAQ 4.2.akFAQ 4.2.asFAQ 4.1.bqFAQ 4.1.bxFAQ 3.3.cjFAQ 3.3.crFAQ 3.2.dmFAQ 3.2.dnFAQ 3.2.duFAQ 3.1.dzFAQ 3.1.ehFAQ 2.2.ffFAQ 2.2.foFAQ 2.1.fyFAQ 2.1.ghFAQ 1.3.hnFAQ 1.3.hvFAQ 1.2.idFAQ 1.2.inFAQ 1.1.@.301FAQ 1.1.@.310FAQ 12.3.@.313FAQ 12.2.@.314FAQ 12.1.@.315FAQ 11.3.@.316FAQ 11.2.@.317FAQ 11.1.@.318FAQ 10.2.@.319FAQ 10.1.@.320FAQ 9.3.@.321FAQ 9.2.@.322FAQ 9.1.@.323FAQ 8.3.@.324FAQ 8.2.@.325FAQ 8.1.@.326FAQ 7.3.@.327FAQ 7.2.@.328FAQ 7.1.@.329FAQ 6.2.@.330FAQ 6.1.@.331FAQ 5.4.@.332FAQ 5.3.@.333FAQ 5.2.@.334FAQ 5.1.@.335FAQ 4.3.@.336FAQ 4.2.@.337FAQ 4.1.@.338FAQ 3.3.@.339FAQ 3.2.@.340FAQ 3.1.@.341FAQ 2.2.@.342FAQ 2.1.@.343FAQ 1.3.@.344FAQ 1.2.@.345FAQ 1.1.@.346High

FAQ 4.2.alFAQ 4.2.atFAQ 4.1.brFAQ 4.1.byFAQ 3.3.ckFAQ 3.3.csFAQ 3.2.dnFAQ 3.2.doFAQ 3.2.dvFAQ 3.1.eaFAQ 3.1.eiFAQ 2.2.fgFAQ 2.2.fpFAQ 2.1.fzFAQ 2.1.giFAQ 1.3.hoFAQ 1.3.hwFAQ 1.2.ieFAQ 1.2.ioFAQ 1.1.@.302FAQ 1.1.@.311FAQ 12.3.@.314FAQ 12.2.@.315FAQ 12.1.@.316FAQ 11.3.@.317FAQ 11.2.@.318FAQ 11.1.@.319FAQ 10.2.@.320FAQ 10.1.@.321FAQ 9.3.@.322FAQ 9.2.@.323FAQ 9.1.@.324FAQ 8.3.@.325FAQ 8.2.@.326FAQ 8.1.@.327FAQ 7.3.@.328FAQ 7.2.@.329FAQ 7.1.@.330FAQ 6.2.@.331FAQ 6.1.@.332FAQ 5.4.@.333FAQ 5.3.@.334FAQ 5.2.@.335FAQ 5.1.@.336FAQ 4.3.@.337FAQ 4.2.@.338FAQ 4.1.@.339FAQ 3.3.@.340FAQ 3.2.@.341FAQ 3.1.@.342FAQ 2.2.@.343FAQ 2.1.@.344FAQ 1.3.@.345FAQ 1.2.@.346FAQ 1.1.@.34780

FAQ 4.2.amFAQ 4.2.auFAQ 4.1.bsFAQ 4.1.bzFAQ 3.3.clFAQ 3.3.ctFAQ 3.2.doFAQ 3.2.dpFAQ 3.2.dwFAQ 3.1.ebFAQ 3.1.ejFAQ 2.2.fhFAQ 2.2.fqFAQ 2.1.gaFAQ 2.1.gjFAQ 1.3.hpFAQ 1.3.hxFAQ 1.2.ifFAQ 1.2.ipFAQ 1.1.@.303FAQ 1.1.@.312FAQ 12.3.@.315FAQ 12.2.@.316FAQ 12.1.@.317FAQ 11.3.@.318FAQ 11.2.@.319FAQ 11.1.@.320FAQ 10.2.@.321FAQ 10.1.@.322FAQ 9.3.@.323FAQ 9.2.@.324FAQ 9.1.@.325FAQ 8.3.@.326FAQ 8.2.@.327FAQ 8.1.@.328FAQ 7.3.@.329FAQ 7.2.@.330FAQ 7.1.@.331FAQ 6.2.@.332FAQ 6.1.@.333FAQ 5.4.@.334FAQ 5.3.@.335FAQ 5.2.@.336FAQ 5.1.@.337FAQ 4.3.@.338FAQ 4.2.@.339FAQ 4.1.@.340FAQ 3.3.@.341FAQ 3.2.@.342FAQ 3.1.@.343FAQ 2.2.@.344FAQ 2.1.@.345FAQ 1.3.@.346FAQ 1.2.@.347FAQ 1.1.@.34860

FAQ 4.2.anFAQ 4.2.avFAQ 4.1.btFAQ 4.1.caFAQ 3.3.cmFAQ 3.3.cuFAQ 3.2.dpFAQ 3.2.dqFAQ 3.2.dxFAQ 3.1.ecFAQ 3.1.ekFAQ 2.2.fiFAQ 2.2.frFAQ 2.1.gbFAQ 2.1.gkFAQ 1.3.hqFAQ 1.3.hyFAQ 1.2.igFAQ 1.2.iqFAQ 1.1.@.304FAQ 1.1.@.313FAQ 12.3.@.316FAQ 12.2.@.317FAQ 12.1.@.318FAQ 11.3.@.319FAQ 11.2.@.320FAQ 11.1.@.321FAQ 10.2.@.322FAQ 10.1.@.323FAQ 9.3.@.324FAQ 9.2.@.325FAQ 9.1.@.326FAQ 8.3.@.327FAQ 8.2.@.328FAQ 8.1.@.329FAQ 7.3.@.330FAQ 7.2.@.331FAQ 7.1.@.332FAQ 6.2.@.333FAQ 6.1.@.334FAQ 5.4.@.335FAQ 5.3.@.336FAQ 5.2.@.337FAQ 5.1.@.338FAQ 4.3.@.339FAQ 4.2.@.340FAQ 4.1.@.341FAQ 3.3.@.342FAQ 3.2.@.343FAQ 3.1.@.344FAQ 2.2.@.345FAQ 2.1.@.346FAQ 1.3.@.347FAQ 1.2.@.348FAQ 1.1.@.34940

FAQ 4.2.aoFAQ 4.2.awFAQ 4.1.buFAQ 4.1.cbFAQ 3.3.cnFAQ 3.3.cvFAQ 3.2.dqFAQ 3.2.drFAQ 3.2.dyFAQ 3.1.edFAQ 3.1.elFAQ 2.2.fjFAQ 2.2.fsFAQ 2.1.gcFAQ 2.1.glFAQ 1.3.hrFAQ 1.3.hzFAQ 1.2.ihFAQ 1.2.irFAQ 1.1.@.305FAQ 1.1.@.314FAQ 12.3.@.317FAQ 12.2.@.318FAQ 12.1.@.319FAQ 11.3.@.320FAQ 11.2.@.321FAQ 11.1.@.322FAQ 10.2.@.323FAQ 10.1.@.324FAQ 9.3.@.325FAQ 9.2.@.326FAQ 9.1.@.327FAQ 8.3.@.328FAQ 8.2.@.329FAQ 8.1.@.330FAQ 7.3.@.331FAQ 7.2.@.332FAQ 7.1.@.333FAQ 6.2.@.334FAQ 6.1.@.335FAQ 5.4.@.336FAQ 5.3.@.337FAQ 5.2.@.338FAQ 5.1.@.339FAQ 4.3.@.340FAQ 4.2.@.341FAQ 4.1.@.342FAQ 3.3.@.343FAQ 3.2.@.344FAQ 3.1.@.345FAQ 2.2.@.346FAQ 2.1.@.347FAQ 1.3.@.348FAQ 1.2.@.349FAQ 1.1.@.35020

FAQ 4.2.apFAQ 4.2.axFAQ 4.1.bvFAQ 4.1.ccFAQ 3.3.coFAQ 3.3.cwFAQ 3.2.drFAQ 3.2.dsFAQ 3.2.dzFAQ 3.1.eeFAQ 3.1.emFAQ 2.2.fkFAQ 2.2.ftFAQ 2.1.gdFAQ 2.1.gmFAQ 1.3.hsFAQ 1.3.iaFAQ 1.2.iiFAQ 1.2.isFAQ 1.1.@.306FAQ 1.1.@.315FAQ 12.3.@.318FAQ 12.2.@.319FAQ 12.1.@.320FAQ 11.3.@.321FAQ 11.2.@.322FAQ 11.1.@.323FAQ 10.2.@.324FAQ 10.1.@.325FAQ 9.3.@.326FAQ 9.2.@.327FAQ 9.1.@.328FAQ 8.3.@.329FAQ 8.2.@.330FAQ 8.1.@.331FAQ 7.3.@.332FAQ 7.2.@.333FAQ 7.1.@.334FAQ 6.2.@.335FAQ 6.1.@.336FAQ 5.4.@.337FAQ 5.3.@.338FAQ 5.2.@.339FAQ 5.1.@.340FAQ 4.3.@.341FAQ 4.2.@.342FAQ 4.1.@.343FAQ 3.3.@.344FAQ 3.2.@.345FAQ 3.1.@.346FAQ 2.2.@.347FAQ 2.1.@.348FAQ 1.3.@.349FAQ 1.2.@.350FAQ 1.1.@.3510

FAQ 4.2.aqFAQ 4.2.ayFAQ 4.1.bwFAQ 4.1.cdFAQ 3.3.cpFAQ 3.3.cxFAQ 3.2.dsFAQ 3.2.dtFAQ 3.2.eaFAQ 3.1.efFAQ 3.1.enFAQ 2.2.flFAQ 2.2.fuFAQ 2.1.geFAQ 2.1.gnFAQ 1.3.htFAQ 1.3.ibFAQ 1.2.ijFAQ 1.2.itFAQ 1.1.@.307FAQ 1.1.@.316FAQ 12.3.@.319FAQ 12.2.@.320FAQ 12.1.@.321FAQ 11.3.@.322FAQ 11.2.@.323FAQ 11.1.@.324FAQ 10.2.@.325FAQ 10.1.@.326FAQ 9.3.@.327FAQ 9.2.@.328FAQ 9.1.@.329FAQ 8.3.@.330FAQ 8.2.@.331FAQ 8.1.@.332FAQ 7.3.@.333FAQ 7.2.@.334FAQ 7.1.@.335FAQ 6.2.@.336FAQ 6.1.@.337FAQ 5.4.@.338FAQ 5.3.@.339FAQ 5.2.@.340FAQ 5.1.@.341FAQ 4.3.@.342FAQ 4.2.@.343FAQ 4.1.@.344FAQ 3.3.@.345FAQ 3.2.@.346FAQ 3.1.@.347FAQ 2.2.@.348FAQ 2.1.@.349FAQ 1.3.@.350FAQ 1.2.@.351FAQ 1.1.@.35220202040206020802100

FAQ 4.2.arFAQ 4.2.azFAQ 4.1.bxFAQ 4.1.ceFAQ 3.3.cqFAQ 3.3.cyFAQ 3.2.dtFAQ 3.2.duFAQ 3.2.ebFAQ 3.1.egFAQ 3.1.eoFAQ 2.2.fmFAQ 2.2.fvFAQ 2.1.gfFAQ 2.1.goFAQ 1.3.huFAQ 1.3.icFAQ 1.2.ikFAQ 1.2.iuFAQ 1.1.@.308FAQ 1.1.@.317FAQ 12.3.@.320FAQ 12.2.@.321FAQ 12.1.@.322FAQ 11.3.@.323FAQ 11.2.@.324FAQ 11.1.@.325FAQ 10.2.@.326FAQ 10.1.@.327FAQ 9.3.@.328FAQ 9.2.@.329FAQ 9.1.@.330FAQ 8.3.@.331FAQ 8.2.@.332FAQ 8.1.@.333FAQ 7.3.@.334FAQ 7.2.@.335FAQ 7.1.@.336FAQ 6.2.@.337FAQ 6.1.@.338FAQ 5.4.@.339FAQ 5.3.@.340FAQ 5.2.@.341FAQ 5.1.@.342FAQ 4.3.@.343FAQ 4.2.@.344FAQ 4.1.@.345FAQ 3.3.@.346FAQ 3.2.@.347FAQ 3.1.@.348FAQ 2.2.@.349FAQ 2.1.@.350FAQ 1.3.@.351FAQ 1.2.@.352FAQ 1.1.@.3532015Divergence of scenarios

FAQ 4.2.asFAQ 4.2.baFAQ 4.1.byFAQ 4.1.cfFAQ 3.3.crFAQ 3.3.czFAQ 3.2.duFAQ 3.2.dvFAQ 3.2.ecFAQ 3.1.ehFAQ 3.1.epFAQ 2.2.fnFAQ 2.2.fwFAQ 2.1.ggFAQ 2.1.gpFAQ 1.3.hvFAQ 1.3.idFAQ 1.2.ilFAQ 1.2.ivFAQ 1.1.@.309FAQ 1.1.@.318FAQ 12.3.@.321FAQ 12.2.@.322FAQ 12.1.@.323FAQ 11.3.@.324FAQ 11.2.@.325FAQ 11.1.@.326FAQ 10.2.@.327FAQ 10.1.@.328FAQ 9.3.@.329FAQ 9.2.@.330FAQ 9.1.@.331FAQ 8.3.@.332FAQ 8.2.@.333FAQ 8.1.@.334FAQ 7.3.@.335FAQ 7.2.@.336FAQ 7.1.@.337FAQ 6.2.@.338FAQ 6.1.@.339FAQ 5.4.@.340FAQ 5.3.@.341FAQ 5.2.@.342FAQ 5.1.@.343FAQ 4.3.@.344FAQ 4.2.@.345FAQ 4.1.@.346FAQ 3.3.@.347FAQ 3.2.@.348FAQ 3.1.@.349FAQ 2.2.@.350FAQ 2.1.@.351FAQ 1.3.@.352FAQ 1.2.@.353FAQ 1.1.@.354FAQ 4.2, Figure 1 | Observing the benefits of emissions reductions. (Top) Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, (middle) CO2concentration in the atmosphere and (bottom) effect on global surface temperature for two scenarios: a low-emissions scenario (SSP1-2.6, blue) and a high-emissions scenario (SSP3-7.0). In the low-emissions scenario, CO2emissions begin to decrease in 2020 whereas they keep increasing throughout the 21st century in the high-emissions scenario.

FAQ 4.2.atFAQ 4.2.bbFAQ 4.1.bzFAQ 4.1.cgFAQ 3.3.csFAQ 3.3.daFAQ 3.2.dvFAQ 3.2.dwFAQ 3.2.edFAQ 3.1.eiFAQ 3.1.eqFAQ 2.2.foFAQ 2.2.fxFAQ 2.1.ghFAQ 2.1.gqFAQ 1.3.hwFAQ 1.3.ieFAQ 1.2.imFAQ 1.2.@.256FAQ 1.1.@.310FAQ 1.1.@.319FAQ 12.3.@.322FAQ 12.2.@.323FAQ 12.1.@.324FAQ 11.3.@.325FAQ 11.2.@.326FAQ 11.1.@.327FAQ 10.2.@.328FAQ 10.1.@.329FAQ 9.3.@.330FAQ 9.2.@.331FAQ 9.1.@.332FAQ 8.3.@.333FAQ 8.2.@.334FAQ 8.1.@.335FAQ 7.3.@.336FAQ 7.2.@.337FAQ 7.1.@.338FAQ 6.2.@.339FAQ 6.1.@.340FAQ 5.4.@.341FAQ 5.3.@.342FAQ 5.2.@.343FAQ 5.1.@.344FAQ 4.3.@.345FAQ 4.2.@.346FAQ 4.1.@.347FAQ 3.3.@.348FAQ 3.2.@.349FAQ 3.1.@.350FAQ 2.2.@.351FAQ 2.1.@.352FAQ 1.3.@.353FAQ 1.2.@.354FAQ 1.1.@.355FAQ

FAQ 4.2.auFAQ 4.2.bcFAQ 4.1.caFAQ 4.1.chFAQ 3.3.ctFAQ 3.3.dbFAQ 3.2.dwFAQ 3.2.dxFAQ 3.2.eeFAQ 3.1.ejFAQ 3.1.erFAQ 2.2.fpFAQ 2.2.fyFAQ 2.1.giFAQ 2.1.grFAQ 1.3.hxFAQ 1.3.ifFAQ 1.2.inFAQ 1.2.@.257FAQ 1.1.@.311FAQ 1.1.@.320FAQ 12.3.@.323FAQ 12.2.@.324FAQ 12.1.@.325FAQ 11.3.@.326FAQ 11.2.@.327FAQ 11.1.@.328FAQ 10.2.@.329FAQ 10.1.@.330FAQ 9.3.@.331FAQ 9.2.@.332FAQ 9.1.@.333FAQ 8.3.@.334FAQ 8.2.@.335FAQ 8.1.@.336FAQ 7.3.@.337FAQ 7.2.@.338FAQ 7.1.@.339FAQ 6.2.@.340FAQ 6.1.@.341FAQ 5.4.@.342FAQ 5.3.@.343FAQ 5.2.@.344FAQ 5.1.@.345FAQ 4.3.@.346FAQ 4.2.@.347FAQ 4.1.@.348FAQ 3.3.@.349FAQ 3.2.@.350FAQ 3.1.@.351FAQ 2.2.@.352FAQ 2.1.@.353FAQ 1.3.@.354FAQ 1.2.@.355FAQ 1.1.@.356Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 4.2.avFAQ 4.2.bdFAQ 4.1.cbFAQ 4.1.ciFAQ 3.3.cuFAQ 3.3.dcFAQ 3.2.dxFAQ 3.2.dyFAQ 3.2.efFAQ 3.1.ekFAQ 3.1.esFAQ 2.2.fqFAQ 2.2.fzFAQ 2.1.gjFAQ 2.1.gsFAQ 1.3.hyFAQ 1.3.igFAQ 1.2.ioFAQ 1.2.@.258FAQ 1.1.@.312FAQ 1.1.@.321FAQ 12.3.@.324FAQ 12.2.@.325FAQ 12.1.@.326FAQ 11.3.@.327FAQ 11.2.@.328FAQ 11.1.@.329FAQ 10.2.@.330FAQ 10.1.@.331FAQ 9.3.@.332FAQ 9.2.@.333FAQ 9.1.@.334FAQ 8.3.@.335FAQ 8.2.@.336FAQ 8.1.@.337FAQ 7.3.@.338FAQ 7.2.@.339FAQ 7.1.@.340FAQ 6.2.@.341FAQ 6.1.@.342FAQ 5.4.@.343FAQ 5.3.@.344FAQ 5.2.@.345FAQ 5.1.@.346FAQ 4.3.@.347FAQ 4.2.@.348FAQ 4.1.@.349FAQ 3.3.@.350FAQ 3.2.@.351FAQ 3.1.@.352FAQ 2.2.@.353FAQ 2.1.@.354FAQ 1.3.@.355FAQ 1.2.@.356FAQ 1.1.@.357FAQ 4.3 | At a Given Level of Global Warming, What Are the Spatial Patterns of Climate Change?

FAQ 4.3.aFAQ 4.2.awFAQ 4.2.beFAQ 4.1.ccFAQ 4.1.cjFAQ 3.3.cvFAQ 3.3.ddFAQ 3.2.dyFAQ 3.2.dzFAQ 3.2.egFAQ 3.1.elFAQ 3.1.etFAQ 2.2.frFAQ 2.2.gaFAQ 2.1.gkFAQ 2.1.gtFAQ 1.3.hzFAQ 1.3.ihFAQ 1.2.ipFAQ 1.2.@.259FAQ 1.1.@.313FAQ 1.1.@.322FAQ 12.3.@.325FAQ 12.2.@.326FAQ 12.1.@.327FAQ 11.3.@.328FAQ 11.2.@.329FAQ 11.1.@.330FAQ 10.2.@.331FAQ 10.1.@.332FAQ 9.3.@.333FAQ 9.2.@.334FAQ 9.1.@.335FAQ 8.3.@.336FAQ 8.2.@.337FAQ 8.1.@.338FAQ 7.3.@.339FAQ 7.2.@.340FAQ 7.1.@.341FAQ 6.2.@.342FAQ 6.1.@.343FAQ 5.4.@.344FAQ 5.3.@.345FAQ 5.2.@.346FAQ 5.1.@.347FAQ 4.3.@.348FAQ 4.2.@.349FAQ 4.1.@.350FAQ 3.3.@.351FAQ 3.2.@.352FAQ 3.1.@.353FAQ 2.2.@.354FAQ 2.1.@.355FAQ 1.3.@.356FAQ 1.2.@.357FAQ 1.1.@.358As the planet warms, climate change does not unfold uniformly across the globe, but some patterns of regional change show clear, direct and consistent relationships to increases in global surface temperature. The Arctic warms more than other regions, land areas warm more than the ocean surface, and the Northern Hemisphere more than the Southern Hemisphere. Precipitation increases over high latitudes, tropics and large parts of the monsoon regions, but decreases over the subtropics. For cases like these, we can infer the direction and magnitude of some regional changes – particularly temperature and precipitation changes – for any given level of global warming.

FAQ 4.3.bFAQ 4.2.axFAQ 4.2.bfFAQ 4.1.cdFAQ 4.1.ckFAQ 3.3.cwFAQ 3.3.deFAQ 3.2.dzFAQ 3.2.eaFAQ 3.2.ehFAQ 3.1.emFAQ 3.1.euFAQ 2.2.fsFAQ 2.2.gbFAQ 2.1.glFAQ 2.1.guFAQ 1.3.iaFAQ 1.3.iiFAQ 1.2.iqFAQ 1.2.@.260FAQ 1.1.@.314FAQ 1.1.@.323FAQ 12.3.@.326FAQ 12.2.@.327FAQ 12.1.@.328FAQ 11.3.@.329FAQ 11.2.@.330FAQ 11.1.@.331FAQ 10.2.@.332FAQ 10.1.@.333FAQ 9.3.@.334FAQ 9.2.@.335FAQ 9.1.@.336FAQ 8.3.@.337FAQ 8.2.@.338FAQ 8.1.@.339FAQ 7.3.@.340FAQ 7.2.@.341FAQ 7.1.@.342FAQ 6.2.@.343FAQ 6.1.@.344FAQ 5.4.@.345FAQ 5.3.@.346FAQ 5.2.@.347FAQ 5.1.@.348FAQ 4.3.@.349FAQ 4.2.@.350FAQ 4.1.@.351FAQ 3.3.@.352FAQ 3.2.@.353FAQ 3.1.@.354FAQ 2.2.@.355FAQ 2.1.@.356FAQ 1.3.@.357FAQ 1.2.@.358FAQ 1.1.@.359The intensity of climate change will depend on the level of global warming. It is possible to identify certain patterns of regional climate change that occur consistently, but increase in amplitude, across increasing levels of global warming. Such robust spatial patterns of climate change are largely independent of the specific scenario (and pathway in time) that results in a given level of global warming. That is, as long as different scenarios result in the same global warming level, irrespective of the time when this level is attained in each scenario, we can infer the patterns of regional change that would result from this warming. When patterns of changes are robust, regional consequences can be assessed for all levels of global warming, for all future time periods, and for all scenarios. Temperature and precipitation show such robust patterns of changes that are particularly striking.

FAQ 4.3.cFAQ 4.2.ayFAQ 4.2.bgFAQ 4.1.ceFAQ 4.1.clFAQ 3.3.cxFAQ 3.3.dfFAQ 3.2.eaFAQ 3.2.ebFAQ 3.2.eiFAQ 3.1.enFAQ 3.1.evFAQ 2.2.ftFAQ 2.2.gcFAQ 2.1.gmFAQ 2.1.gvFAQ 1.3.ibFAQ 1.3.ijFAQ 1.2.irFAQ 1.2.@.261FAQ 1.1.@.315FAQ 1.1.@.324FAQ 12.3.@.327FAQ 12.2.@.328FAQ 12.1.@.329FAQ 11.3.@.330FAQ 11.2.@.331FAQ 11.1.@.332FAQ 10.2.@.333FAQ 10.1.@.334FAQ 9.3.@.335FAQ 9.2.@.336FAQ 9.1.@.337FAQ 8.3.@.338FAQ 8.2.@.339FAQ 8.1.@.340FAQ 7.3.@.341FAQ 7.2.@.342FAQ 7.1.@.343FAQ 6.2.@.344FAQ 6.1.@.345FAQ 5.4.@.346FAQ 5.3.@.347FAQ 5.2.@.348FAQ 5.1.@.349FAQ 4.3.@.350FAQ 4.2.@.351FAQ 4.1.@.352FAQ 3.3.@.353FAQ 3.2.@.354FAQ 3.1.@.355FAQ 2.2.@.356FAQ 2.1.@.357FAQ 1.3.@.358FAQ 1.2.@.359FAQ 1.1.@.360The high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere are projected to warm the most, by two to four times the level of global warming – a phenomenon referred to as Arctic amplification (FAQ 4.3, Figure 1, left). Several processes contribute to this high rate of warming, including increases in the absorption of solar radiation due to the loss of reflective sea ice and snow in a warmer world. In the Southern Hemisphere, Antarctica is projected to warm faster than the mid-latitude Southern Ocean, but the Southern Hemisphere high latitudes are projected to warm at a reduced amplitude compared to the level of global warming (FAQ 4.3, Figure 1, left). An important reason for the relatively slower warming of the Southern Hemisphere high latitudes is the upwelling of Antarctic deep waters that drives a large surface heat uptake in the Southern Ocean.

FAQ 4.3.dFAQ 4.2.azFAQ 4.2.bhFAQ 4.1.cfFAQ 4.1.cmFAQ 3.3.cyFAQ 3.3.dgFAQ 3.2.ebFAQ 3.2.ecFAQ 3.2.ejFAQ 3.1.eoFAQ 3.1.ewFAQ 2.2.fuFAQ 2.2.gdFAQ 2.1.gnFAQ 2.1.gwFAQ 1.3.icFAQ 1.3.ikFAQ 1.2.isFAQ 1.2.@.262FAQ 1.1.@.316FAQ 1.1.@.325FAQ 12.3.@.328FAQ 12.2.@.329FAQ 12.1.@.330FAQ 11.3.@.331FAQ 11.2.@.332FAQ 11.1.@.333FAQ 10.2.@.334FAQ 10.1.@.335FAQ 9.3.@.336FAQ 9.2.@.337FAQ 9.1.@.338FAQ 8.3.@.339FAQ 8.2.@.340FAQ 8.1.@.341FAQ 7.3.@.342FAQ 7.2.@.343FAQ 7.1.@.344FAQ 6.2.@.345FAQ 6.1.@.346FAQ 5.4.@.347FAQ 5.3.@.348FAQ 5.2.@.349FAQ 5.1.@.350FAQ 4.3.@.351FAQ 4.2.@.352FAQ 4.1.@.353FAQ 3.3.@.354FAQ 3.2.@.355FAQ 3.1.@.356FAQ 2.2.@.357FAQ 2.1.@.358FAQ 1.3.@.359FAQ 1.2.@.360FAQ 1.1.@.361The warming is generally stronger over land than over the ocean, and in the Northern Hemisphere compared to the Southern Hemisphere, and with less warming over the central subpolar North Atlantic and the southernmost Pacific. The differences are the result of several factors, including differences in how land and ocean areas absorb and retain heat, the fact that there is more land area in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere, and the influence of ocean circulation. In the Southern Hemisphere, robust patterns of relatively high warming are projected for subtropical South America, southern Africa, and Australia. The relatively strong warming in subtropical southern Africa arises from strong interactions between soil moisture and temperature and from increased solar radiation as a consequence of enhanced subsidence.

FAQ 4.3.eFAQ 4.2.baFAQ 4.2.biFAQ 4.1.cgFAQ 4.1.cnFAQ 3.3.czFAQ 3.3.dhFAQ 3.2.ecFAQ 3.2.edFAQ 3.2.ekFAQ 3.1.epFAQ 3.1.exFAQ 2.2.fvFAQ 2.2.geFAQ 2.1.goFAQ 2.1.gxFAQ 1.3.idFAQ 1.3.ilFAQ 1.2.itFAQ 1.2.@.263FAQ 1.1.@.317FAQ 1.1.@.326FAQ 12.3.@.329FAQ 12.2.@.330FAQ 12.1.@.331FAQ 11.3.@.332FAQ 11.2.@.333FAQ 11.1.@.334FAQ 10.2.@.335FAQ 10.1.@.336FAQ 9.3.@.337FAQ 9.2.@.338FAQ 9.1.@.339FAQ 8.3.@.340FAQ 8.2.@.341FAQ 8.1.@.342FAQ 7.3.@.343FAQ 7.2.@.344FAQ 7.1.@.345FAQ 6.2.@.346FAQ 6.1.@.347FAQ 5.4.@.348FAQ 5.3.@.349FAQ 5.2.@.350FAQ 5.1.@.351FAQ 4.3.@.352FAQ 4.2.@.353FAQ 4.1.@.354FAQ 3.3.@.355FAQ 3.2.@.356FAQ 3.1.@.357FAQ 2.2.@.358FAQ 2.1.@.359FAQ 1.3.@.360FAQ 1.2.@.361FAQ 1.1.@.362Precipitation changes are also proportional to the level of global warming (FAQ 4.3, Figure 1, right), although uncertainties are larger than for the temperature change. In the high latitudes of both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres, increases in precipitation are expected as the planet continues to warm, with larger changes expected at higher levels of global warming (FAQ 4.3, Figure 1, right). The same holds true for the projected precipitation increases over the tropics and large parts of the monsoon regions. General drying is expected over the subtropical regions, particularly over the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of Australia, South America, and south-west North America, as well as over the subtropical Atlantic and parts of the subtropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Increases in precipitation over the tropics and decreases over the subtropics amplify with higher levels of global warming.

FAQ 4.3.fFAQ 4.2.bbFAQ 4.2.bjFAQ 4.1.chFAQ 4.1.coFAQ 3.3.daFAQ 3.3.diFAQ 3.2.edFAQ 3.2.eeFAQ 3.2.elFAQ 3.1.eqFAQ 3.1.eyFAQ 2.2.fwFAQ 2.2.gfFAQ 2.1.gpFAQ 2.1.gyFAQ 1.3.ieFAQ 1.3.imFAQ 1.2.iuFAQ 1.2.@.264FAQ 1.1.@.318FAQ 1.1.@.327FAQ 12.3.@.330FAQ 12.2.@.331FAQ 12.1.@.332FAQ 11.3.@.333FAQ 11.2.@.334FAQ 11.1.@.335FAQ 10.2.@.336FAQ 10.1.@.337FAQ 9.3.@.338FAQ 9.2.@.339FAQ 9.1.@.340FAQ 8.3.@.341FAQ 8.2.@.342FAQ 8.1.@.343FAQ 7.3.@.344FAQ 7.2.@.345FAQ 7.1.@.346FAQ 6.2.@.347FAQ 6.1.@.348FAQ 5.4.@.349FAQ 5.3.@.350FAQ 5.2.@.351FAQ 5.1.@.352FAQ 4.3.@.353FAQ 4.2.@.354FAQ 4.1.@.355FAQ 3.3.@.356FAQ 3.2.@.357FAQ 3.1.@.358FAQ 2.2.@.359FAQ 2.1.@.360FAQ 1.3.@.361FAQ 1.2.@.362FAQ 1.1.@.363Some regions that are already dry and warm, such as southern Africa and the Mediterranean, are expected to become progressively drier and drastically warmer at higher levels of global warming.

FAQ 4.3.gFAQ 4.2.bcFAQ 4.2.bkFAQ 4.1.ciFAQ 4.1.cpFAQ 3.3.dbFAQ 3.3.djFAQ 3.2.eeFAQ 3.2.efFAQ 3.2.emFAQ 3.1.erFAQ 3.1.ezFAQ 2.2.fxFAQ 2.2.ggFAQ 2.1.gqFAQ 2.1.gzFAQ 1.3.ifFAQ 1.3.inFAQ 1.2.ivFAQ 1.2.@.265FAQ 1.1.@.319FAQ 1.1.@.328FAQ 12.3.@.331FAQ 12.2.@.332FAQ 12.1.@.333FAQ 11.3.@.334FAQ 11.2.@.335FAQ 11.1.@.336FAQ 10.2.@.337FAQ 10.1.@.338FAQ 9.3.@.339FAQ 9.2.@.340FAQ 9.1.@.341FAQ 8.3.@.342FAQ 8.2.@.343FAQ 8.1.@.344FAQ 7.3.@.345FAQ 7.2.@.346FAQ 7.1.@.347FAQ 6.2.@.348FAQ 6.1.@.349FAQ 5.4.@.350FAQ 5.3.@.351FAQ 5.2.@.352FAQ 5.1.@.353FAQ 4.3.@.354FAQ 4.2.@.355FAQ 4.1.@.356FAQ 3.3.@.357FAQ 3.2.@.358FAQ 3.1.@.359FAQ 2.2.@.360FAQ 2.1.@.361FAQ 1.3.@.362FAQ 1.2.@.363FAQ 1.1.@.364In summary, climate change will not affect all the parts of the globe evenly. Rather, distinct regional patterns of temperature and precipitation change can be identified, and these changes are projected to amplify as the level of global warming increases.

FAQ 4.3.hFAQ 4.2.bdFAQ 4.2.blFAQ 4.1.cjFAQ 4.1.cqFAQ 3.3.dcFAQ 3.3.dkFAQ 3.2.efFAQ 3.2.egFAQ 3.2.enFAQ 3.1.esFAQ 3.1.faFAQ 2.2.fyFAQ 2.2.ghFAQ 2.1.grFAQ 2.1.haFAQ 1.3.igFAQ 1.3.ioFAQ 1.2.@.256FAQ 1.2.@.266FAQ 1.1.@.320FAQ 1.1.@.329FAQ 12.3.@.332FAQ 12.2.@.333FAQ 12.1.@.334FAQ 11.3.@.335FAQ 11.2.@.336FAQ 11.1.@.337FAQ 10.2.@.338FAQ 10.1.@.339FAQ 9.3.@.340FAQ 9.2.@.341FAQ 9.1.@.342FAQ 8.3.@.343FAQ 8.2.@.344FAQ 8.1.@.345FAQ 7.3.@.346FAQ 7.2.@.347FAQ 7.1.@.348FAQ 6.2.@.349FAQ 6.1.@.350FAQ 5.4.@.351FAQ 5.3.@.352FAQ 5.2.@.353FAQ 5.1.@.354FAQ 4.3.@.355FAQ 4.2.@.356FAQ 4.1.@.357FAQ 3.3.@.358FAQ 3.2.@.359FAQ 3.1.@.360FAQ 2.2.@.361FAQ 2.1.@.362FAQ 1.3.@.363FAQ 1.2.@.364FAQ 1.1.@.365FAQ

FAQ 4.3.iFAQ 4.2.beFAQ 4.2.bmFAQ 4.1.ckFAQ 4.1.crFAQ 3.3.ddFAQ 3.3.dlFAQ 3.2.egFAQ 3.2.ehFAQ 3.2.eoFAQ 3.1.etFAQ 3.1.fbFAQ 2.2.fzFAQ 2.2.giFAQ 2.1.gsFAQ 2.1.hbFAQ 1.3.ihFAQ 1.3.ipFAQ 1.2.@.257FAQ 1.2.@.267FAQ 1.1.@.321FAQ 1.1.@.330FAQ 12.3.@.333FAQ 12.2.@.334FAQ 12.1.@.335FAQ 11.3.@.336FAQ 11.2.@.337FAQ 11.1.@.338FAQ 10.2.@.339FAQ 10.1.@.340FAQ 9.3.@.341FAQ 9.2.@.342FAQ 9.1.@.343FAQ 8.3.@.344FAQ 8.2.@.345FAQ 8.1.@.346FAQ 7.3.@.347FAQ 7.2.@.348FAQ 7.1.@.349FAQ 6.2.@.350FAQ 6.1.@.351FAQ 5.4.@.352FAQ 5.3.@.353FAQ 5.2.@.354FAQ 5.1.@.355FAQ 4.3.@.356FAQ 4.2.@.357FAQ 4.1.@.358FAQ 3.3.@.359FAQ 3.2.@.360FAQ 3.1.@.361FAQ 2.2.@.362FAQ 2.1.@.363FAQ 1.3.@.364FAQ 1.2.@.365FAQ 1.1.@.366FAQ 4.3 (continued)

FAQ 4.3.aFAQ 4.3.jFAQ 4.2.bfFAQ 4.2.bnFAQ 4.1.clFAQ 4.1.csFAQ 3.3.deFAQ 3.3.dmFAQ 3.2.ehFAQ 3.2.eiFAQ 3.2.epFAQ 3.1.euFAQ 3.1.fcFAQ 2.2.gaFAQ 2.2.gjFAQ 2.1.gtFAQ 2.1.hcFAQ 1.3.iiFAQ 1.3.iqFAQ 1.2.@.258FAQ 1.2.@.268FAQ 1.1.@.322FAQ 1.1.@.331FAQ 12.3.@.334FAQ 12.2.@.335FAQ 12.1.@.336FAQ 11.3.@.337FAQ 11.2.@.338FAQ 11.1.@.339FAQ 10.2.@.340FAQ 10.1.@.341FAQ 9.3.@.342FAQ 9.2.@.343FAQ 9.1.@.344FAQ 8.3.@.345FAQ 8.2.@.346FAQ 8.1.@.347FAQ 7.3.@.348FAQ 7.2.@.349FAQ 7.1.@.350FAQ 6.2.@.351FAQ 6.1.@.352FAQ 5.4.@.353FAQ 5.3.@.354FAQ 5.2.@.355FAQ 5.1.@.356FAQ 4.3.@.357FAQ 4.2.@.358FAQ 4.1.@.359FAQ 3.3.@.360FAQ 3.2.@.361FAQ 3.1.@.362FAQ 2.2.@.363FAQ 2.1.@.364FAQ 1.3.@.365FAQ 1.2.@.366FAQ 1.1.@.367FAQ 4.3: Climate change and regional patternsClimate change is not uniform and proportional to the level of global warming.

FAQ 4.3.bFAQ 4.3.kFAQ 4.2.bgFAQ 4.2.boFAQ 4.1.cmFAQ 4.1.ctFAQ 3.3.dfFAQ 3.3.dnFAQ 3.2.eiFAQ 3.2.ejFAQ 3.2.eqFAQ 3.1.evFAQ 3.1.fdFAQ 2.2.gbFAQ 2.2.gkFAQ 2.1.guFAQ 2.1.hdFAQ 1.3.ijFAQ 1.3.irFAQ 1.2.@.259FAQ 1.2.@.269FAQ 1.1.@.323FAQ 1.1.@.332FAQ 12.3.@.335FAQ 12.2.@.336FAQ 12.1.@.337FAQ 11.3.@.338FAQ 11.2.@.339FAQ 11.1.@.340FAQ 10.2.@.341FAQ 10.1.@.342FAQ 9.3.@.343FAQ 9.2.@.344FAQ 9.1.@.345FAQ 8.3.@.346FAQ 8.2.@.347FAQ 8.1.@.348FAQ 7.3.@.349FAQ 7.2.@.350FAQ 7.1.@.351FAQ 6.2.@.352FAQ 6.1.@.353FAQ 5.4.@.354FAQ 5.3.@.355FAQ 5.2.@.356FAQ 5.1.@.357FAQ 4.3.@.358FAQ 4.2.@.359FAQ 4.1.@.360FAQ 3.3.@.361FAQ 3.2.@.362FAQ 3.1.@.363FAQ 2.2.@.364FAQ 2.1.@.365FAQ 1.3.@.366FAQ 1.2.@.367FAQ 1.1.@.368Precipitation will increasein high latitudes, the tropics and monsoon regions and decreasein the subtropicsWarmingwill be strongerin the Arctic, on land and in the Northern Hemisphere

FAQ 4.3.cFAQ 4.3.lFAQ 4.2.bhFAQ 4.2.bpFAQ 4.1.cnFAQ 4.1.cuFAQ 3.3.dgFAQ 3.3.doFAQ 3.2.ejFAQ 3.2.ekFAQ 3.2.erFAQ 3.1.ewFAQ 3.1.feFAQ 2.2.gcFAQ 2.2.glFAQ 2.1.gvFAQ 2.1.heFAQ 1.3.ikFAQ 1.3.isFAQ 1.2.@.260FAQ 1.2.@.270FAQ 1.1.@.324FAQ 1.1.@.333FAQ 12.3.@.336FAQ 12.2.@.337FAQ 12.1.@.338FAQ 11.3.@.339FAQ 11.2.@.340FAQ 11.1.@.341FAQ 10.2.@.342FAQ 10.1.@.343FAQ 9.3.@.344FAQ 9.2.@.345FAQ 9.1.@.346FAQ 8.3.@.347FAQ 8.2.@.348FAQ 8.1.@.349FAQ 7.3.@.350FAQ 7.2.@.351FAQ 7.1.@.352FAQ 6.2.@.353FAQ 6.1.@.354FAQ 5.4.@.355FAQ 5.3.@.356FAQ 5.2.@.357FAQ 5.1.@.358FAQ 4.3.@.359FAQ 4.2.@.360FAQ 4.1.@.361FAQ 3.3.@.362FAQ 3.2.@.363FAQ 3.1.@.364FAQ 2.2.@.365FAQ 2.1.@.366FAQ 1.3.@.367FAQ 1.2.@.368FAQ 1.1.@.369Warmer WetterDrier

FAQ 4.3.dFAQ 4.3.mFAQ 4.2.biFAQ 4.2.bqFAQ 4.1.coFAQ 4.1.cvFAQ 3.3.dhFAQ 3.3.dpFAQ 3.2.ekFAQ 3.2.elFAQ 3.2.esFAQ 3.1.exFAQ 3.1.ffFAQ 2.2.gdFAQ 2.2.gmFAQ 2.1.gwFAQ 2.1.hfFAQ 1.3.ilFAQ 1.3.itFAQ 1.2.@.261FAQ 1.2.@.271FAQ 1.1.@.325FAQ 1.1.@.334FAQ 12.3.@.337FAQ 12.2.@.338FAQ 12.1.@.339FAQ 11.3.@.340FAQ 11.2.@.341FAQ 11.1.@.342FAQ 10.2.@.343FAQ 10.1.@.344FAQ 9.3.@.345FAQ 9.2.@.346FAQ 9.1.@.347FAQ 8.3.@.348FAQ 8.2.@.349FAQ 8.1.@.350FAQ 7.3.@.351FAQ 7.2.@.352FAQ 7.1.@.353FAQ 6.2.@.354FAQ 6.1.@.355FAQ 5.4.@.356FAQ 5.3.@.357FAQ 5.2.@.358FAQ 5.1.@.359FAQ 4.3.@.360FAQ 4.2.@.361FAQ 4.1.@.362FAQ 3.3.@.363FAQ 3.2.@.364FAQ 3.1.@.365FAQ 2.2.@.366FAQ 2.1.@.367FAQ 1.3.@.368FAQ 1.2.@.369FAQ 1.1.@.370+1.5°C

FAQ 4.3.eFAQ 4.3.nFAQ 4.2.bjFAQ 4.2.brFAQ 4.1.cpFAQ 4.1.cwFAQ 3.3.diFAQ 3.3.dqFAQ 3.2.elFAQ 3.2.emFAQ 3.2.etFAQ 3.1.eyFAQ 3.1.fgFAQ 2.2.geFAQ 2.2.gnFAQ 2.1.gxFAQ 2.1.hgFAQ 1.3.imFAQ 1.3.iuFAQ 1.2.@.262FAQ 1.2.@.272FAQ 1.1.@.326FAQ 1.1.@.335FAQ 12.3.@.338FAQ 12.2.@.339FAQ 12.1.@.340FAQ 11.3.@.341FAQ 11.2.@.342FAQ 11.1.@.343FAQ 10.2.@.344FAQ 10.1.@.345FAQ 9.3.@.346FAQ 9.2.@.347FAQ 9.1.@.348FAQ 8.3.@.349FAQ 8.2.@.350FAQ 8.1.@.351FAQ 7.3.@.352FAQ 7.2.@.353FAQ 7.1.@.354FAQ 6.2.@.355FAQ 6.1.@.356FAQ 5.4.@.357FAQ 5.3.@.358FAQ 5.2.@.359FAQ 5.1.@.360FAQ 4.3.@.361FAQ 4.2.@.362FAQ 4.1.@.363FAQ 3.3.@.364FAQ 3.2.@.365FAQ 3.1.@.366FAQ 2.2.@.367FAQ 2.1.@.368FAQ 1.3.@.369FAQ 1.2.@.370FAQ 1.1.@.371+3.0°C

FAQ 4.3.fFAQ 4.3.oFAQ 4.2.bkFAQ 4.2.bsFAQ 4.1.cqFAQ 4.1.cxFAQ 3.3.djFAQ 3.3.drFAQ 3.2.emFAQ 3.2.enFAQ 3.2.euFAQ 3.1.ezFAQ 3.1.fhFAQ 2.2.gfFAQ 2.2.goFAQ 2.1.gyFAQ 2.1.hhFAQ 1.3.inFAQ 1.3.ivFAQ 1.2.@.263FAQ 1.2.@.273FAQ 1.1.@.327FAQ 1.1.@.336FAQ 12.3.@.339FAQ 12.2.@.340FAQ 12.1.@.341FAQ 11.3.@.342FAQ 11.2.@.343FAQ 11.1.@.344FAQ 10.2.@.345FAQ 10.1.@.346FAQ 9.3.@.347FAQ 9.2.@.348FAQ 9.1.@.349FAQ 8.3.@.350FAQ 8.2.@.351FAQ 8.1.@.352FAQ 7.3.@.353FAQ 7.2.@.354FAQ 7.1.@.355FAQ 6.2.@.356FAQ 6.1.@.357FAQ 5.4.@.358FAQ 5.3.@.359FAQ 5.2.@.360FAQ 5.1.@.361FAQ 4.3.@.362FAQ 4.2.@.363FAQ 4.1.@.364FAQ 3.3.@.365FAQ 3.2.@.366FAQ 3.1.@.367FAQ 2.2.@.368FAQ 2.1.@.369FAQ 1.3.@.370FAQ 1.2.@.371FAQ 1.1.@.3721°C3°C5°C0%-40%-20%20%40%

FAQ 4.3.gFAQ 4.3.pFAQ 4.2.blFAQ 4.2.btFAQ 4.1.crFAQ 4.1.cyFAQ 3.3.dkFAQ 3.3.dsFAQ 3.2.enFAQ 3.2.eoFAQ 3.2.evFAQ 3.1.faFAQ 3.1.fiFAQ 2.2.ggFAQ 2.2.gpFAQ 2.1.gzFAQ 2.1.hiFAQ 1.3.ioFAQ 1.3.@.256FAQ 1.2.@.264FAQ 1.2.@.274FAQ 1.1.@.328FAQ 1.1.@.337FAQ 12.3.@.340FAQ 12.2.@.341FAQ 12.1.@.342FAQ 11.3.@.343FAQ 11.2.@.344FAQ 11.1.@.345FAQ 10.2.@.346FAQ 10.1.@.347FAQ 9.3.@.348FAQ 9.2.@.349FAQ 9.1.@.350FAQ 8.3.@.351FAQ 8.2.@.352FAQ 8.1.@.353FAQ 7.3.@.354FAQ 7.2.@.355FAQ 7.1.@.356FAQ 6.2.@.357FAQ 6.1.@.358FAQ 5.4.@.359FAQ 5.3.@.360FAQ 5.2.@.361FAQ 5.1.@.362FAQ 4.3.@.363FAQ 4.2.@.364FAQ 4.1.@.365FAQ 3.3.@.366FAQ 3.2.@.367FAQ 3.1.@.368FAQ 2.2.@.369FAQ 2.1.@.370FAQ 1.3.@.371FAQ 1.2.@.372FAQ 1.1.@.373FAQ 4.3, Figure 1 | Regional changes in temperature (left) and precipitation (right) are proportional to the level of global warming, irrespective of the scenario through which the level of global warming is reached. Surface warming and precipitation change are shown relative to the 1850–1900 climate, and for time periods over which the globally averaged surface warming is 1.5°C (top) and 3°C (bottom), respectively. Changes presented here are based on 31 CMIP6 models using the high-emissions scenario SSP3-7.0.

FAQ 4.3.hFAQ 4.3.qFAQ 4.2.bmFAQ 4.2.buFAQ 4.1.csFAQ 4.1.czFAQ 3.3.dlFAQ 3.3.dtFAQ 3.2.eoFAQ 3.2.epFAQ 3.2.ewFAQ 3.1.fbFAQ 3.1.fjFAQ 2.2.ghFAQ 2.2.gqFAQ 2.1.haFAQ 2.1.hjFAQ 1.3.ipFAQ 1.3.@.257FAQ 1.2.@.265FAQ 1.2.@.275FAQ 1.1.@.329FAQ 1.1.@.338FAQ 12.3.@.341FAQ 12.2.@.342FAQ 12.1.@.343FAQ 11.3.@.344FAQ 11.2.@.345FAQ 11.1.@.346FAQ 10.2.@.347FAQ 10.1.@.348FAQ 9.3.@.349FAQ 9.2.@.350FAQ 9.1.@.351FAQ 8.3.@.352FAQ 8.2.@.353FAQ 8.1.@.354FAQ 7.3.@.355FAQ 7.2.@.356FAQ 7.1.@.357FAQ 6.2.@.358FAQ 6.1.@.359FAQ 5.4.@.360FAQ 5.3.@.361FAQ 5.2.@.362FAQ 5.1.@.363FAQ 4.3.@.364FAQ 4.2.@.365FAQ 4.1.@.366FAQ 3.3.@.367FAQ 3.2.@.368FAQ 3.1.@.369FAQ 2.2.@.370FAQ 2.1.@.371FAQ 1.3.@.372FAQ 1.2.@.373FAQ 1.1.@.374FAQ

FAQ 4.3.iFAQ 4.3.rFAQ 4.2.bnFAQ 4.2.bvFAQ 4.1.ctFAQ 4.1.daFAQ 3.3.dmFAQ 3.3.duFAQ 3.2.epFAQ 3.2.eqFAQ 3.2.exFAQ 3.1.fcFAQ 3.1.fkFAQ 2.2.giFAQ 2.2.grFAQ 2.1.hbFAQ 2.1.hkFAQ 1.3.iqFAQ 1.3.@.258FAQ 1.2.@.266FAQ 1.2.@.276FAQ 1.1.@.330FAQ 1.1.@.339FAQ 12.3.@.342FAQ 12.2.@.343FAQ 12.1.@.344FAQ 11.3.@.345FAQ 11.2.@.346FAQ 11.1.@.347FAQ 10.2.@.348FAQ 10.1.@.349FAQ 9.3.@.350FAQ 9.2.@.351FAQ 9.1.@.352FAQ 8.3.@.353FAQ 8.2.@.354FAQ 8.1.@.355FAQ 7.3.@.356FAQ 7.2.@.357FAQ 7.1.@.358FAQ 6.2.@.359FAQ 6.1.@.360FAQ 5.4.@.361FAQ 5.3.@.362FAQ 5.2.@.363FAQ 5.1.@.364FAQ 4.3.@.365FAQ 4.2.@.366FAQ 4.1.@.367FAQ 3.3.@.368FAQ 3.2.@.369FAQ 3.1.@.370FAQ 2.2.@.371FAQ 2.1.@.372FAQ 1.3.@.373FAQ 1.2.@.374FAQ 1.1.@.375Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 4.3.jFAQ 4.3.sFAQ 4.2.boFAQ 4.2.bwFAQ 4.1.cuFAQ 4.1.dbFAQ 3.3.dnFAQ 3.3.dvFAQ 3.2.eqFAQ 3.2.erFAQ 3.2.eyFAQ 3.1.fdFAQ 3.1.flFAQ 2.2.gjFAQ 2.2.gsFAQ 2.1.hcFAQ 2.1.hlFAQ 1.3.irFAQ 1.3.@.259FAQ 1.2.@.267FAQ 1.2.@.277FAQ 1.1.@.331FAQ 1.1.@.340FAQ 12.3.@.343FAQ 12.2.@.344FAQ 12.1.@.345FAQ 11.3.@.346FAQ 11.2.@.347FAQ 11.1.@.348FAQ 10.2.@.349FAQ 10.1.@.350FAQ 9.3.@.351FAQ 9.2.@.352FAQ 9.1.@.353FAQ 8.3.@.354FAQ 8.2.@.355FAQ 8.1.@.356FAQ 7.3.@.357FAQ 7.2.@.358FAQ 7.1.@.359FAQ 6.2.@.360FAQ 6.1.@.361FAQ 5.4.@.362FAQ 5.3.@.363FAQ 5.2.@.364FAQ 5.1.@.365FAQ 4.3.@.366FAQ 4.2.@.367FAQ 4.1.@.368FAQ 3.3.@.369FAQ 3.2.@.370FAQ 3.1.@.371FAQ 2.2.@.372FAQ 2.1.@.373FAQ 1.3.@.374FAQ 1.2.@.375FAQ 1.1.@.376FAQ 5.1 | Is the Natural Removal of Carbon From the Atmosphere Weakening?

FAQ 5.1.aFAQ 4.3.kFAQ 4.3.tFAQ 4.2.bpFAQ 4.2.bxFAQ 4.1.cvFAQ 4.1.dcFAQ 3.3.doFAQ 3.3.dwFAQ 3.2.erFAQ 3.2.esFAQ 3.2.ezFAQ 3.1.feFAQ 3.1.fmFAQ 2.2.gkFAQ 2.2.gtFAQ 2.1.hdFAQ 2.1.hmFAQ 1.3.isFAQ 1.3.@.260FAQ 1.2.@.268FAQ 1.2.@.278FAQ 1.1.@.332FAQ 1.1.@.341FAQ 12.3.@.344FAQ 12.2.@.345FAQ 12.1.@.346FAQ 11.3.@.347FAQ 11.2.@.348FAQ 11.1.@.349FAQ 10.2.@.350FAQ 10.1.@.351FAQ 9.3.@.352FAQ 9.2.@.353FAQ 9.1.@.354FAQ 8.3.@.355FAQ 8.2.@.356FAQ 8.1.@.357FAQ 7.3.@.358FAQ 7.2.@.359FAQ 7.1.@.360FAQ 6.2.@.361FAQ 6.1.@.362FAQ 5.4.@.363FAQ 5.3.@.364FAQ 5.2.@.365FAQ 5.1.@.366FAQ 4.3.@.367FAQ 4.2.@.368FAQ 4.1.@.369FAQ 3.3.@.370FAQ 3.2.@.371FAQ 3.1.@.372FAQ 2.2.@.373FAQ 2.1.@.374FAQ 1.3.@.375FAQ 1.2.@.376FAQ 1.1.@.377For decades, about half of the carbon dioxide (CO2) that human activities have emitted to the atmosphere has been taken up by natural carbon sinks in vegetation, soils and oceans. These natural sinks of CO2 have thus roughly halved the rate at which atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased, and therefore slowed down global warming. However, observations show that the processes underlying this uptake are beginning to respond to increasing CO2 in the atmosphere and climate change in a way that will weaken nature’s capacity to take up CO2 in the future. Understanding of the magnitude of this change is essential for projecting how the climate system will respond to future emissions and emissions reduction efforts.

FAQ 5.1.bFAQ 4.3.lFAQ 4.3.uFAQ 4.2.bqFAQ 4.2.byFAQ 4.1.cwFAQ 4.1.ddFAQ 3.3.dpFAQ 3.3.dxFAQ 3.2.esFAQ 3.2.etFAQ 3.2.faFAQ 3.1.ffFAQ 3.1.fnFAQ 2.2.glFAQ 2.2.guFAQ 2.1.heFAQ 2.1.hnFAQ 1.3.itFAQ 1.3.@.261FAQ 1.2.@.269FAQ 1.2.@.279FAQ 1.1.@.333FAQ 1.1.@.342FAQ 12.3.@.345FAQ 12.2.@.346FAQ 12.1.@.347FAQ 11.3.@.348FAQ 11.2.@.349FAQ 11.1.@.350FAQ 10.2.@.351FAQ 10.1.@.352FAQ 9.3.@.353FAQ 9.2.@.354FAQ 9.1.@.355FAQ 8.3.@.356FAQ 8.2.@.357FAQ 8.1.@.358FAQ 7.3.@.359FAQ 7.2.@.360FAQ 7.1.@.361FAQ 6.2.@.362FAQ 6.1.@.363FAQ 5.4.@.364FAQ 5.3.@.365FAQ 5.2.@.366FAQ 5.1.@.367FAQ 4.3.@.368FAQ 4.2.@.369FAQ 4.1.@.370FAQ 3.3.@.371FAQ 3.2.@.372FAQ 3.1.@.373FAQ 2.2.@.374FAQ 2.1.@.375FAQ 1.3.@.376FAQ 1.2.@.377FAQ 1.1.@.378Direct observations of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere, which began in 1958, show that the atmosphere has only retained roughly half of the CO2 emitted by human activities, due to the combustion of fossil fuels and land-use change such as deforestation (FAQ 5.1, Figure 1). Natural carbon cycle processes on land and in the oceans have taken up the remainder of these emissions. These land and ocean removals or ‘sinks’ have grown largely in proportion to the increase in CO2 emissions, taking up 31% (land) and 23% (ocean) of the emissions in 2010–2019, respectively (FAQ 5.1, Figure 1). Therefore, the average proportion of yearly CO2 emissions staying in the atmosphere has remained roughly stable at 44% over the last six decades, despite continuously increasing CO2 emissions from human activities.

FAQ 5.1.cFAQ 4.3.mFAQ 4.3.vFAQ 4.2.brFAQ 4.2.bzFAQ 4.1.cxFAQ 4.1.deFAQ 3.3.dqFAQ 3.3.dyFAQ 3.2.etFAQ 3.2.euFAQ 3.2.fbFAQ 3.1.fgFAQ 3.1.foFAQ 2.2.gmFAQ 2.2.gvFAQ 2.1.hfFAQ 2.1.hoFAQ 1.3.iuFAQ 1.3.@.262FAQ 1.2.@.270FAQ 1.2.@.280FAQ 1.1.@.334FAQ 1.1.@.343FAQ 12.3.@.346FAQ 12.2.@.347FAQ 12.1.@.348FAQ 11.3.@.349FAQ 11.2.@.350FAQ 11.1.@.351FAQ 10.2.@.352FAQ 10.1.@.353FAQ 9.3.@.354FAQ 9.2.@.355FAQ 9.1.@.356FAQ 8.3.@.357FAQ 8.2.@.358FAQ 8.1.@.359FAQ 7.3.@.360FAQ 7.2.@.361FAQ 7.1.@.362FAQ 6.2.@.363FAQ 6.1.@.364FAQ 5.4.@.365FAQ 5.3.@.366FAQ 5.2.@.367FAQ 5.1.@.368FAQ 4.3.@.369FAQ 4.2.@.370FAQ 4.1.@.371FAQ 3.3.@.372FAQ 3.2.@.373FAQ 3.1.@.374FAQ 2.2.@.375FAQ 2.1.@.376FAQ 1.3.@.377FAQ 1.2.@.378FAQ 1.1.@.379On land, it is mainly the vegetation that captures CO2 from the atmosphere through plant photosynthesis, which ultimately accumulates both in vegetation and soils. As more CO2 accumulates in the atmosphere, plant carbon capture increases through the CO2 fertilization effect in regions where plant growth is not limited by, for instance, nutrient availability. Climate change affects the processes responsible for the uptake and release of CO2 on land in multiple ways. Land CO2 uptake is generally increased by longer growing seasons due to global warming in cold regions and by nitrogen deposition in nitrogen-limited regions. Respiration by plants and soil organisms, natural disturbances such as fires, and human activities such as deforestation all release CO2 back into the atmosphere. The combined effect of climate change on these processes is to weaken the future land sink. In particular, extreme temperatures and droughts as well as permafrost thaw (see FAQ 5.2) tend to reduce the land sink regionally. In the ocean,

FAQ 5.1.dFAQ 4.3.nFAQ 4.3.wFAQ 4.2.bsFAQ 4.2.caFAQ 4.1.cyFAQ 4.1.dfFAQ 3.3.drFAQ 3.3.dzFAQ 3.2.euFAQ 3.2.evFAQ 3.2.fcFAQ 3.1.fhFAQ 3.1.fpFAQ 2.2.gnFAQ 2.2.gwFAQ 2.1.hgFAQ 2.1.hpFAQ 1.3.ivFAQ 1.3.@.263FAQ 1.2.@.271FAQ 1.2.@.281FAQ 1.1.@.335FAQ 1.1.@.344FAQ 12.3.@.347FAQ 12.2.@.348FAQ 12.1.@.349FAQ 11.3.@.350FAQ 11.2.@.351FAQ 11.1.@.352FAQ 10.2.@.353FAQ 10.1.@.354FAQ 9.3.@.355FAQ 9.2.@.356FAQ 9.1.@.357FAQ 8.3.@.358FAQ 8.2.@.359FAQ 8.1.@.360FAQ 7.3.@.361FAQ 7.2.@.362FAQ 7.1.@.363FAQ 6.2.@.364FAQ 6.1.@.365FAQ 5.4.@.366FAQ 5.3.@.367FAQ 5.2.@.368FAQ 5.1.@.369FAQ 4.3.@.370FAQ 4.2.@.371FAQ 4.1.@.372FAQ 3.3.@.373FAQ 3.2.@.374FAQ 3.1.@.375FAQ 2.2.@.376FAQ 2.1.@.377FAQ 1.3.@.378FAQ 1.2.@.379FAQ 1.1.@.380FAQ 5.1, Figure 1 | Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and natural carbon sinks. (Top) Global emissions of CO2from human activities and the growth rate of CO2in the atmosphere; (middle) the net land and ocean CO2removal (natural sinks); and (bottom) the fraction of CO2emitted by human activities remaining in atmosphere from 1960 to 2019. Lines are the five years running mean, error bars denote the uncertainty of the mean estimate. See Table 5.SM.6 for more information on the data

FAQ 5.1.eFAQ 4.3.oFAQ 4.3.xFAQ 4.2.btFAQ 4.2.cbFAQ 4.1.czFAQ 4.1.dgFAQ 3.3.dsFAQ 3.3.eaFAQ 3.2.evFAQ 3.2.ewFAQ 3.2.fdFAQ 3.1.fiFAQ 3.1.fqFAQ 2.2.goFAQ 2.2.gxFAQ 2.1.hhFAQ 2.1.hqFAQ 1.3.@.256FAQ 1.3.@.264FAQ 1.2.@.272FAQ 1.2.@.282FAQ 1.1.@.336FAQ 1.1.@.345FAQ 12.3.@.348FAQ 12.2.@.349FAQ 12.1.@.350FAQ 11.3.@.351FAQ 11.2.@.352FAQ 11.1.@.353FAQ 10.2.@.354FAQ 10.1.@.355FAQ 9.3.@.356FAQ 9.2.@.357FAQ 9.1.@.358FAQ 8.3.@.359FAQ 8.2.@.360FAQ 8.1.@.361FAQ 7.3.@.362FAQ 7.2.@.363FAQ 7.1.@.364FAQ 6.2.@.365FAQ 6.1.@.366FAQ 5.4.@.367FAQ 5.3.@.368FAQ 5.2.@.369FAQ 5.1.@.370FAQ 4.3.@.371FAQ 4.2.@.372FAQ 4.1.@.373FAQ 3.3.@.374FAQ 3.2.@.375FAQ 3.1.@.376FAQ 2.2.@.377FAQ 2.1.@.378FAQ 1.3.@.379FAQ 1.2.@.380FAQ 1.1.@.381FAQ 5.1: Is natural removal of carbon from the atmosphere weakening?

FAQ 5.1.fFAQ 4.3.pFAQ 4.3.yFAQ 4.2.buFAQ 4.2.ccFAQ 4.1.daFAQ 4.1.dhFAQ 3.3.dtFAQ 3.3.ebFAQ 3.2.ewFAQ 3.2.exFAQ 3.2.feFAQ 3.1.fjFAQ 3.1.frFAQ 2.2.gpFAQ 2.2.gyFAQ 2.1.hiFAQ 2.1.hrFAQ 1.3.@.257FAQ 1.3.@.265FAQ 1.2.@.273FAQ 1.2.@.283FAQ 1.1.@.337FAQ 1.1.@.346FAQ 12.3.@.349FAQ 12.2.@.350FAQ 12.1.@.351FAQ 11.3.@.352FAQ 11.2.@.353FAQ 11.1.@.354FAQ 10.2.@.355FAQ 10.1.@.356FAQ 9.3.@.357FAQ 9.2.@.358FAQ 9.1.@.359FAQ 8.3.@.360FAQ 8.2.@.361FAQ 8.1.@.362FAQ 7.3.@.363FAQ 7.2.@.364FAQ 7.1.@.365FAQ 6.2.@.366FAQ 6.1.@.367FAQ 5.4.@.368FAQ 5.3.@.369FAQ 5.2.@.370FAQ 5.1.@.371FAQ 4.3.@.372FAQ 4.2.@.373FAQ 4.1.@.374FAQ 3.3.@.375FAQ 3.2.@.376FAQ 3.1.@.377FAQ 2.2.@.378FAQ 2.1.@.379FAQ 1.3.@.380FAQ 1.2.@.381FAQ 1.1.@.382No, natural carbon sinks have taken up a near constant fraction of our carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over the last six decades. However, this fraction is expected to decline in the future if CO2emissions continue to increase.

FAQ 5.1.gFAQ 4.3.qFAQ 4.3.zFAQ 4.2.bvFAQ 4.2.cdFAQ 4.1.dbFAQ 4.1.diFAQ 3.3.duFAQ 3.3.ecFAQ 3.2.exFAQ 3.2.eyFAQ 3.2.ffFAQ 3.1.fkFAQ 3.1.fsFAQ 2.2.gqFAQ 2.2.gzFAQ 2.1.hjFAQ 2.1.hsFAQ 1.3.@.258FAQ 1.3.@.266FAQ 1.2.@.274FAQ 1.2.@.284FAQ 1.1.@.338FAQ 1.1.@.347FAQ 12.3.@.350FAQ 12.2.@.351FAQ 12.1.@.352FAQ 11.3.@.353FAQ 11.2.@.354FAQ 11.1.@.355FAQ 10.2.@.356FAQ 10.1.@.357FAQ 9.3.@.358FAQ 9.2.@.359FAQ 9.1.@.360FAQ 8.3.@.361FAQ 8.2.@.362FAQ 8.1.@.363FAQ 7.3.@.364FAQ 7.2.@.365FAQ 7.1.@.366FAQ 6.2.@.367FAQ 6.1.@.368FAQ 5.4.@.369FAQ 5.3.@.370FAQ 5.2.@.371FAQ 5.1.@.372FAQ 4.3.@.373FAQ 4.2.@.374FAQ 4.1.@.375FAQ 3.3.@.376FAQ 3.2.@.377FAQ 3.1.@.378FAQ 2.2.@.379FAQ 2.1.@.380FAQ 1.3.@.381FAQ 1.2.@.382FAQ 1.1.@.383Atmosphere

FAQ 5.1.hFAQ 4.3.rFAQ 4.3.aaFAQ 4.2.bwFAQ 4.2.ceFAQ 4.1.dcFAQ 4.1.djFAQ 3.3.dvFAQ 3.3.edFAQ 3.2.eyFAQ 3.2.ezFAQ 3.2.fgFAQ 3.1.flFAQ 3.1.ftFAQ 2.2.grFAQ 2.2.haFAQ 2.1.hkFAQ 2.1.htFAQ 1.3.@.259FAQ 1.3.@.267FAQ 1.2.@.275FAQ 1.2.@.285FAQ 1.1.@.339FAQ 1.1.@.348FAQ 12.3.@.351FAQ 12.2.@.352FAQ 12.1.@.353FAQ 11.3.@.354FAQ 11.2.@.355FAQ 11.1.@.356FAQ 10.2.@.357FAQ 10.1.@.358FAQ 9.3.@.359FAQ 9.2.@.360FAQ 9.1.@.361FAQ 8.3.@.362FAQ 8.2.@.363FAQ 8.1.@.364FAQ 7.3.@.365FAQ 7.2.@.366FAQ 7.1.@.367FAQ 6.2.@.368FAQ 6.1.@.369FAQ 5.4.@.370FAQ 5.3.@.371FAQ 5.2.@.372FAQ 5.1.@.373FAQ 4.3.@.374FAQ 4.2.@.375FAQ 4.1.@.376FAQ 3.3.@.377FAQ 3.2.@.378FAQ 3.1.@.379FAQ 2.2.@.380FAQ 2.1.@.381FAQ 1.3.@.382FAQ 1.2.@.383FAQ 1.1.@.384Natural sinks

FAQ 5.1.iFAQ 4.3.sFAQ 4.3.abFAQ 4.2.bxFAQ 4.2.cfFAQ 4.1.ddFAQ 4.1.dkFAQ 3.3.dwFAQ 3.3.eeFAQ 3.2.ezFAQ 3.2.faFAQ 3.2.fhFAQ 3.1.fmFAQ 3.1.fuFAQ 2.2.gsFAQ 2.2.hbFAQ 2.1.hlFAQ 2.1.huFAQ 1.3.@.260FAQ 1.3.@.268FAQ 1.2.@.276FAQ 1.2.@.286FAQ 1.1.@.340FAQ 1.1.@.349FAQ 12.3.@.352FAQ 12.2.@.353FAQ 12.1.@.354FAQ 11.3.@.355FAQ 11.2.@.356FAQ 11.1.@.357FAQ 10.2.@.358FAQ 10.1.@.359FAQ 9.3.@.360FAQ 9.2.@.361FAQ 9.1.@.362FAQ 8.3.@.363FAQ 8.2.@.364FAQ 8.1.@.365FAQ 7.3.@.366FAQ 7.2.@.367FAQ 7.1.@.368FAQ 6.2.@.369FAQ 6.1.@.370FAQ 5.4.@.371FAQ 5.3.@.372FAQ 5.2.@.373FAQ 5.1.@.374FAQ 4.3.@.375FAQ 4.2.@.376FAQ 4.1.@.377FAQ 3.3.@.378FAQ 3.2.@.379FAQ 3.1.@.380FAQ 2.2.@.381FAQ 2.1.@.382FAQ 1.3.@.383FAQ 1.2.@.384FAQ 1.1.@.385CO2remaining in the atmosphere

FAQ 5.1.jFAQ 4.3.tFAQ 4.3.acFAQ 4.2.byFAQ 4.2.cgFAQ 4.1.deFAQ 4.1.dlFAQ 3.3.dxFAQ 3.3.efFAQ 3.2.faFAQ 3.2.fbFAQ 3.2.fiFAQ 3.1.fnFAQ 3.1.fvFAQ 2.2.gtFAQ 2.2.hcFAQ 2.1.hmFAQ 2.1.hvFAQ 1.3.@.261FAQ 1.3.@.269FAQ 1.2.@.277FAQ 1.2.@.287FAQ 1.1.@.341FAQ 1.1.@.350FAQ 12.3.@.353FAQ 12.2.@.354FAQ 12.1.@.355FAQ 11.3.@.356FAQ 11.2.@.357FAQ 11.1.@.358FAQ 10.2.@.359FAQ 10.1.@.360FAQ 9.3.@.361FAQ 9.2.@.362FAQ 9.1.@.363FAQ 8.3.@.364FAQ 8.2.@.365FAQ 8.1.@.366FAQ 7.3.@.367FAQ 7.2.@.368FAQ 7.1.@.369FAQ 6.2.@.370FAQ 6.1.@.371FAQ 5.4.@.372FAQ 5.3.@.373FAQ 5.2.@.374FAQ 5.1.@.375FAQ 4.3.@.376FAQ 4.2.@.377FAQ 4.1.@.378FAQ 3.3.@.379FAQ 3.2.@.380FAQ 3.1.@.381FAQ 2.2.@.382FAQ 2.1.@.383FAQ 1.3.@.384FAQ 1.2.@.385FAQ 1.1.@.38650

FAQ 5.1.kFAQ 4.3.uFAQ 4.3.adFAQ 4.2.bzFAQ 4.2.chFAQ 4.1.dfFAQ 4.1.dmFAQ 3.3.dyFAQ 3.3.egFAQ 3.2.fbFAQ 3.2.fcFAQ 3.2.fjFAQ 3.1.foFAQ 3.1.fwFAQ 2.2.guFAQ 2.2.hdFAQ 2.1.hnFAQ 2.1.hwFAQ 1.3.@.262FAQ 1.3.@.270FAQ 1.2.@.278FAQ 1.2.@.288FAQ 1.1.@.342FAQ 1.1.@.351FAQ 12.3.@.354FAQ 12.2.@.355FAQ 12.1.@.356FAQ 11.3.@.357FAQ 11.2.@.358FAQ 11.1.@.359FAQ 10.2.@.360FAQ 10.1.@.361FAQ 9.3.@.362FAQ 9.2.@.363FAQ 9.1.@.364FAQ 8.3.@.365FAQ 8.2.@.366FAQ 8.1.@.367FAQ 7.3.@.368FAQ 7.2.@.369FAQ 7.1.@.370FAQ 6.2.@.371FAQ 6.1.@.372FAQ 5.4.@.373FAQ 5.3.@.374FAQ 5.2.@.375FAQ 5.1.@.376FAQ 4.3.@.377FAQ 4.2.@.378FAQ 4.1.@.379FAQ 3.3.@.380FAQ 3.2.@.381FAQ 3.1.@.382FAQ 2.2.@.383FAQ 2.1.@.384FAQ 1.3.@.385FAQ 1.2.@.386FAQ 1.1.@.38740

FAQ 5.1.lFAQ 4.3.vFAQ 4.3.aeFAQ 4.2.caFAQ 4.2.ciFAQ 4.1.dgFAQ 4.1.dnFAQ 3.3.dzFAQ 3.3.ehFAQ 3.2.fcFAQ 3.2.fdFAQ 3.2.fkFAQ 3.1.fpFAQ 3.1.fxFAQ 2.2.gvFAQ 2.2.heFAQ 2.1.hoFAQ 2.1.hxFAQ 1.3.@.263FAQ 1.3.@.271FAQ 1.2.@.279FAQ 1.2.@.289FAQ 1.1.@.343FAQ 1.1.@.352FAQ 12.3.@.355FAQ 12.2.@.356FAQ 12.1.@.357FAQ 11.3.@.358FAQ 11.2.@.359FAQ 11.1.@.360FAQ 10.2.@.361FAQ 10.1.@.362FAQ 9.3.@.363FAQ 9.2.@.364FAQ 9.1.@.365FAQ 8.3.@.366FAQ 8.2.@.367FAQ 8.1.@.368FAQ 7.3.@.369FAQ 7.2.@.370FAQ 7.1.@.371FAQ 6.2.@.372FAQ 6.1.@.373FAQ 5.4.@.374FAQ 5.3.@.375FAQ 5.2.@.376FAQ 5.1.@.377FAQ 4.3.@.378FAQ 4.2.@.379FAQ 4.1.@.380FAQ 3.3.@.381FAQ 3.2.@.382FAQ 3.1.@.383FAQ 2.2.@.384FAQ 2.1.@.385FAQ 1.3.@.386FAQ 1.2.@.387FAQ 1.1.@.38830

FAQ 5.1.mFAQ 4.3.wFAQ 4.3.afFAQ 4.2.cbFAQ 4.2.cjFAQ 4.1.dhFAQ 4.1.doFAQ 3.3.eaFAQ 3.3.eiFAQ 3.2.fdFAQ 3.2.feFAQ 3.2.flFAQ 3.1.fqFAQ 3.1.fyFAQ 2.2.gwFAQ 2.2.hfFAQ 2.1.hpFAQ 2.1.hyFAQ 1.3.@.264FAQ 1.3.@.272FAQ 1.2.@.280FAQ 1.2.@.290FAQ 1.1.@.344FAQ 1.1.@.353FAQ 12.3.@.356FAQ 12.2.@.357FAQ 12.1.@.358FAQ 11.3.@.359FAQ 11.2.@.360FAQ 11.1.@.361FAQ 10.2.@.362FAQ 10.1.@.363FAQ 9.3.@.364FAQ 9.2.@.365FAQ 9.1.@.366FAQ 8.3.@.367FAQ 8.2.@.368FAQ 8.1.@.369FAQ 7.3.@.370FAQ 7.2.@.371FAQ 7.1.@.372FAQ 6.2.@.373FAQ 6.1.@.374FAQ 5.4.@.375FAQ 5.3.@.376FAQ 5.2.@.377FAQ 5.1.@.378FAQ 4.3.@.379FAQ 4.2.@.380FAQ 4.1.@.381FAQ 3.3.@.382FAQ 3.2.@.383FAQ 3.1.@.384FAQ 2.2.@.385FAQ 2.1.@.386FAQ 1.3.@.387FAQ 1.2.@.388FAQ 1.1.@.38920

FAQ 5.1.nFAQ 4.3.xFAQ 4.3.agFAQ 4.2.ccFAQ 4.2.ckFAQ 4.1.diFAQ 4.1.dpFAQ 3.3.ebFAQ 3.3.ejFAQ 3.2.feFAQ 3.2.ffFAQ 3.2.fmFAQ 3.1.frFAQ 3.1.fzFAQ 2.2.gxFAQ 2.2.hgFAQ 2.1.hqFAQ 2.1.hzFAQ 1.3.@.265FAQ 1.3.@.273FAQ 1.2.@.281FAQ 1.2.@.291FAQ 1.1.@.345FAQ 1.1.@.354FAQ 12.3.@.357FAQ 12.2.@.358FAQ 12.1.@.359FAQ 11.3.@.360FAQ 11.2.@.361FAQ 11.1.@.362FAQ 10.2.@.363FAQ 10.1.@.364FAQ 9.3.@.365FAQ 9.2.@.366FAQ 9.1.@.367FAQ 8.3.@.368FAQ 8.2.@.369FAQ 8.1.@.370FAQ 7.3.@.371FAQ 7.2.@.372FAQ 7.1.@.373FAQ 6.2.@.374FAQ 6.1.@.375FAQ 5.4.@.376FAQ 5.3.@.377FAQ 5.2.@.378FAQ 5.1.@.379FAQ 4.3.@.380FAQ 4.2.@.381FAQ 4.1.@.382FAQ 3.3.@.383FAQ 3.2.@.384FAQ 3.1.@.385FAQ 2.2.@.386FAQ 2.1.@.387FAQ 1.3.@.388FAQ 1.2.@.389FAQ 1.1.@.39010

FAQ 5.1.oFAQ 4.3.yFAQ 4.3.ahFAQ 4.2.cdFAQ 4.2.clFAQ 4.1.djFAQ 4.1.dqFAQ 3.3.ecFAQ 3.3.ekFAQ 3.2.ffFAQ 3.2.fgFAQ 3.2.fnFAQ 3.1.fsFAQ 3.1.gaFAQ 2.2.gyFAQ 2.2.hhFAQ 2.1.hrFAQ 2.1.iaFAQ 1.3.@.266FAQ 1.3.@.274FAQ 1.2.@.282FAQ 1.2.@.292FAQ 1.1.@.346FAQ 1.1.@.355FAQ 12.3.@.358FAQ 12.2.@.359FAQ 12.1.@.360FAQ 11.3.@.361FAQ 11.2.@.362FAQ 11.1.@.363FAQ 10.2.@.364FAQ 10.1.@.365FAQ 9.3.@.366FAQ 9.2.@.367FAQ 9.1.@.368FAQ 8.3.@.369FAQ 8.2.@.370FAQ 8.1.@.371FAQ 7.3.@.372FAQ 7.2.@.373FAQ 7.1.@.374FAQ 6.2.@.375FAQ 6.1.@.376FAQ 5.4.@.377FAQ 5.3.@.378FAQ 5.2.@.379FAQ 5.1.@.380FAQ 4.3.@.381FAQ 4.2.@.382FAQ 4.1.@.383FAQ 3.3.@.384FAQ 3.2.@.385FAQ 3.1.@.386FAQ 2.2.@.387FAQ 2.1.@.388FAQ 1.3.@.389FAQ 1.2.@.390FAQ 1.1.@.3910

FAQ 5.1.pFAQ 4.3.zFAQ 4.3.aiFAQ 4.2.ceFAQ 4.2.cmFAQ 4.1.dkFAQ 4.1.drFAQ 3.3.edFAQ 3.3.elFAQ 3.2.fgFAQ 3.2.fhFAQ 3.2.foFAQ 3.1.ftFAQ 3.1.gbFAQ 2.2.gzFAQ 2.2.hiFAQ 2.1.hsFAQ 2.1.ibFAQ 1.3.@.267FAQ 1.3.@.275FAQ 1.2.@.283FAQ 1.2.@.293FAQ 1.1.@.347FAQ 1.1.@.356FAQ 12.3.@.359FAQ 12.2.@.360FAQ 12.1.@.361FAQ 11.3.@.362FAQ 11.2.@.363FAQ 11.1.@.364FAQ 10.2.@.365FAQ 10.1.@.366FAQ 9.3.@.367FAQ 9.2.@.368FAQ 9.1.@.369FAQ 8.3.@.370FAQ 8.2.@.371FAQ 8.1.@.372FAQ 7.3.@.373FAQ 7.2.@.374FAQ 7.1.@.375FAQ 6.2.@.376FAQ 6.1.@.377FAQ 5.4.@.378FAQ 5.3.@.379FAQ 5.2.@.380FAQ 5.1.@.381FAQ 4.3.@.382FAQ 4.2.@.383FAQ 4.1.@.384FAQ 3.3.@.385FAQ 3.2.@.386FAQ 3.1.@.387FAQ 2.2.@.388FAQ 2.1.@.389FAQ 1.3.@.390FAQ 1.2.@.391FAQ 1.1.@.39215

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FAQ 5.1.wFAQ 4.3.agFAQ 4.3.apFAQ 4.2.clFAQ 4.2.ctFAQ 4.1.drFAQ 4.1.dyFAQ 3.3.ekFAQ 3.3.esFAQ 3.2.fnFAQ 3.2.foFAQ 3.2.fvFAQ 3.1.gaFAQ 3.1.giFAQ 2.2.hgFAQ 2.2.hpFAQ 2.1.hzFAQ 2.1.iiFAQ 1.3.@.274FAQ 1.3.@.282FAQ 1.2.@.290FAQ 1.2.@.300FAQ 1.1.@.354FAQ 1.1.@.363FAQ 12.3.@.366FAQ 12.2.@.367FAQ 12.1.@.368FAQ 11.3.@.369FAQ 11.2.@.370FAQ 11.1.@.371FAQ 10.2.@.372FAQ 10.1.@.373FAQ 9.3.@.374FAQ 9.2.@.375FAQ 9.1.@.376FAQ 8.3.@.377FAQ 8.2.@.378FAQ 8.1.@.379FAQ 7.3.@.380FAQ 7.2.@.381FAQ 7.1.@.382FAQ 6.2.@.383FAQ 6.1.@.384FAQ 5.4.@.385FAQ 5.3.@.386FAQ 5.2.@.387FAQ 5.1.@.388FAQ 4.3.@.389FAQ 4.2.@.390FAQ 4.1.@.391FAQ 3.3.@.392FAQ 3.2.@.393FAQ 3.1.@.394FAQ 2.2.@.395FAQ 2.1.@.396FAQ 1.3.@.397FAQ 1.2.@.398FAQ 1.1.@.39980

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FAQ 5.1.abFAQ 4.3.alFAQ 4.3.auFAQ 4.2.cqFAQ 4.2.cyFAQ 4.1.dwFAQ 4.1.edFAQ 3.3.epFAQ 3.3.exFAQ 3.2.fsFAQ 3.2.ftFAQ 3.2.gaFAQ 3.1.gfFAQ 3.1.gnFAQ 2.2.hlFAQ 2.2.huFAQ 2.1.ieFAQ 2.1.inFAQ 1.3.@.279FAQ 1.3.@.287FAQ 1.2.@.295FAQ 1.2.@.305FAQ 1.1.@.359FAQ 1.1.@.368FAQ 12.3.@.371FAQ 12.2.@.372FAQ 12.1.@.373FAQ 11.3.@.374FAQ 11.2.@.375FAQ 11.1.@.376FAQ 10.2.@.377FAQ 10.1.@.378FAQ 9.3.@.379FAQ 9.2.@.380FAQ 9.1.@.381FAQ 8.3.@.382FAQ 8.2.@.383FAQ 8.1.@.384FAQ 7.3.@.385FAQ 7.2.@.386FAQ 7.1.@.387FAQ 6.2.@.388FAQ 6.1.@.389FAQ 5.4.@.390FAQ 5.3.@.391FAQ 5.2.@.392FAQ 5.1.@.393FAQ 4.3.@.394FAQ 4.2.@.395FAQ 4.1.@.396FAQ 3.3.@.397FAQ 3.2.@.398FAQ 3.1.@.399FAQ 2.2.@.400FAQ 2.1.@.401FAQ 1.3.@.402FAQ 1.2.@.403FAQ 1.1.@.404Years

FAQ 5.1.acFAQ 4.3.amFAQ 4.3.avFAQ 4.2.crFAQ 4.2.czFAQ 4.1.dxFAQ 4.1.eeFAQ 3.3.eqFAQ 3.3.eyFAQ 3.2.ftFAQ 3.2.fuFAQ 3.2.gbFAQ 3.1.ggFAQ 3.1.goFAQ 2.2.hmFAQ 2.2.hvFAQ 2.1.ifFAQ 2.1.ioFAQ 1.3.@.280FAQ 1.3.@.288FAQ 1.2.@.296FAQ 1.2.@.306FAQ 1.1.@.360FAQ 1.1.@.369FAQ 12.3.@.372FAQ 12.2.@.373FAQ 12.1.@.374FAQ 11.3.@.375FAQ 11.2.@.376FAQ 11.1.@.377FAQ 10.2.@.378FAQ 10.1.@.379FAQ 9.3.@.380FAQ 9.2.@.381FAQ 9.1.@.382FAQ 8.3.@.383FAQ 8.2.@.384FAQ 8.1.@.385FAQ 7.3.@.386FAQ 7.2.@.387FAQ 7.1.@.388FAQ 6.2.@.389FAQ 6.1.@.390FAQ 5.4.@.391FAQ 5.3.@.392FAQ 5.2.@.393FAQ 5.1.@.394FAQ 4.3.@.395FAQ 4.2.@.396FAQ 4.1.@.397FAQ 3.3.@.398FAQ 3.2.@.399FAQ 3.1.@.400FAQ 2.2.@.401FAQ 2.1.@.402FAQ 1.3.@.403FAQ 1.2.@.404FAQ 1.1.@.40520002020

FAQ 5.1.adFAQ 4.3.anFAQ 4.3.awFAQ 4.2.csFAQ 4.2.daFAQ 4.1.dyFAQ 4.1.efFAQ 3.3.erFAQ 3.3.ezFAQ 3.2.fuFAQ 3.2.fvFAQ 3.2.gcFAQ 3.1.ghFAQ 3.1.gpFAQ 2.2.hnFAQ 2.2.hwFAQ 2.1.igFAQ 2.1.ipFAQ 1.3.@.281FAQ 1.3.@.289FAQ 1.2.@.297FAQ 1.2.@.307FAQ 1.1.@.361FAQ 1.1.@.370FAQ 12.3.@.373FAQ 12.2.@.374FAQ 12.1.@.375FAQ 11.3.@.376FAQ 11.2.@.377FAQ 11.1.@.378FAQ 10.2.@.379FAQ 10.1.@.380FAQ 9.3.@.381FAQ 9.2.@.382FAQ 9.1.@.383FAQ 8.3.@.384FAQ 8.2.@.385FAQ 8.1.@.386FAQ 7.3.@.387FAQ 7.2.@.388FAQ 7.1.@.389FAQ 6.2.@.390FAQ 6.1.@.391FAQ 5.4.@.392FAQ 5.3.@.393FAQ 5.2.@.394FAQ 5.1.@.395FAQ 4.3.@.396FAQ 4.2.@.397FAQ 4.1.@.398FAQ 3.3.@.399FAQ 3.2.@.400FAQ 3.1.@.401FAQ 2.2.@.402FAQ 2.1.@.403FAQ 1.3.@.404FAQ 1.2.@.405FAQ 1.1.@.406FAQseveral factors control how much CO2 is captured: the difference in CO2 partial pressure between the atmosphere and the surface ocean; wind speeds at the ocean surface; the chemical composition of seawater (that is, its buffering capacity), which affects how much CO2 can be taken up; and the use of CO2 in photosynthesis by seawater microalgae. The CO2-enriched surface ocean water is transported to the deep ocean in specific zones around the globe (such as the Northern Atlantic and the Southern Ocean), effectively storing the CO2 away from the atmosphere for many decades to centuries. The combined effect of warmer surface ocean temperatures on these processes is to weaken the future ocean CO2 sink. 

FAQ 5.1.aeFAQ 4.3.aoFAQ 4.3.axFAQ 4.2.ctFAQ 4.2.dbFAQ 4.1.dzFAQ 4.1.egFAQ 3.3.esFAQ 3.3.faFAQ 3.2.fvFAQ 3.2.fwFAQ 3.2.gdFAQ 3.1.giFAQ 3.1.gqFAQ 2.2.hoFAQ 2.2.hxFAQ 2.1.ihFAQ 2.1.iqFAQ 1.3.@.282FAQ 1.3.@.290FAQ 1.2.@.298FAQ 1.2.@.308FAQ 1.1.@.362FAQ 1.1.@.371FAQ 12.3.@.374FAQ 12.2.@.375FAQ 12.1.@.376FAQ 11.3.@.377FAQ 11.2.@.378FAQ 11.1.@.379FAQ 10.2.@.380FAQ 10.1.@.381FAQ 9.3.@.382FAQ 9.2.@.383FAQ 9.1.@.384FAQ 8.3.@.385FAQ 8.2.@.386FAQ 8.1.@.387FAQ 7.3.@.388FAQ 7.2.@.389FAQ 7.1.@.390FAQ 6.2.@.391FAQ 6.1.@.392FAQ 5.4.@.393FAQ 5.3.@.394FAQ 5.2.@.395FAQ 5.1.@.396FAQ 4.3.@.397FAQ 4.2.@.398FAQ 4.1.@.399FAQ 3.3.@.400FAQ 3.2.@.401FAQ 3.1.@.402FAQ 2.2.@.403FAQ 2.1.@.404FAQ 1.3.@.405FAQ 1.2.@.406FAQ 1.1.@.407The ocean carbon sink is better quantified than the land sink, thanks to direct ocean and atmospheric carbon observations. The land carbon sink is more challenging to monitor globally, because it varies widely, even regionally. There is currently no direct evidence that the natural sinks are slowing down, because observable changes in the fraction of human emissions stored on land or in oceans are small compared to year-to-year and decadal variations of these sinks. Nevertheless, it is becoming more obvious that atmospheric and climate changes are affecting the processes controlling the land and ocean sinks.

FAQ 5.1.afFAQ 4.3.apFAQ 4.3.ayFAQ 4.2.cuFAQ 4.2.dcFAQ 4.1.eaFAQ 4.1.ehFAQ 3.3.etFAQ 3.3.fbFAQ 3.2.fwFAQ 3.2.fxFAQ 3.2.geFAQ 3.1.gjFAQ 3.1.grFAQ 2.2.hpFAQ 2.2.hyFAQ 2.1.iiFAQ 2.1.irFAQ 1.3.@.283FAQ 1.3.@.291FAQ 1.2.@.299FAQ 1.2.@.309FAQ 1.1.@.363FAQ 1.1.@.372FAQ 12.3.@.375FAQ 12.2.@.376FAQ 12.1.@.377FAQ 11.3.@.378FAQ 11.2.@.379FAQ 11.1.@.380FAQ 10.2.@.381FAQ 10.1.@.382FAQ 9.3.@.383FAQ 9.2.@.384FAQ 9.1.@.385FAQ 8.3.@.386FAQ 8.2.@.387FAQ 8.1.@.388FAQ 7.3.@.389FAQ 7.2.@.390FAQ 7.1.@.391FAQ 6.2.@.392FAQ 6.1.@.393FAQ 5.4.@.394FAQ 5.3.@.395FAQ 5.2.@.396FAQ 5.1.@.397FAQ 4.3.@.398FAQ 4.2.@.399FAQ 4.1.@.400FAQ 3.3.@.401FAQ 3.2.@.402FAQ 3.1.@.403FAQ 2.2.@.404FAQ 2.1.@.405FAQ 1.3.@.406FAQ 1.2.@.407FAQ 1.1.@.408Since the land and ocean sinks respond to the rise in atmospheric CO2 and to human-induced global warming, the absolute amount of CO2 taken up by land and ocean will be affected by future CO2 emissions. This also implies that, if countries manage to strongly reduce global CO2 emissions, or even remove CO2 from the atmosphere, these sinks will take up less CO2 because of the reduced human perturbation of the carbon cycle. Under future high-warming scenarios, it is expected that the global ocean and land sinks will stop growing in the second half of the century as climate change increasingly affects them. Thus, the total amount of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere and the responses of the natural CO2 sinks will both determine what efforts are required to limit global warming to a certain level (see FAQ 5.4), underscoring how important it is to understand the evolution of these natural CO2 sinks.

FAQ 5.1.agFAQ 4.3.aqFAQ 4.3.azFAQ 4.2.cvFAQ 4.2.ddFAQ 4.1.ebFAQ 4.1.eiFAQ 3.3.euFAQ 3.3.fcFAQ 3.2.fxFAQ 3.2.fyFAQ 3.2.gfFAQ 3.1.gkFAQ 3.1.gsFAQ 2.2.hqFAQ 2.2.hzFAQ 2.1.ijFAQ 2.1.isFAQ 1.3.@.284FAQ 1.3.@.292FAQ 1.2.@.300FAQ 1.2.@.310FAQ 1.1.@.364FAQ 1.1.@.373FAQ 12.3.@.376FAQ 12.2.@.377FAQ 12.1.@.378FAQ 11.3.@.379FAQ 11.2.@.380FAQ 11.1.@.381FAQ 10.2.@.382FAQ 10.1.@.383FAQ 9.3.@.384FAQ 9.2.@.385FAQ 9.1.@.386FAQ 8.3.@.387FAQ 8.2.@.388FAQ 8.1.@.389FAQ 7.3.@.390FAQ 7.2.@.391FAQ 7.1.@.392FAQ 6.2.@.393FAQ 6.1.@.394FAQ 5.4.@.395FAQ 5.3.@.396FAQ 5.2.@.397FAQ 5.1.@.398FAQ 4.3.@.399FAQ 4.2.@.400FAQ 4.1.@.401FAQ 3.3.@.402FAQ 3.2.@.403FAQ 3.1.@.404FAQ 2.2.@.405FAQ 2.1.@.406FAQ 1.3.@.407FAQ 1.2.@.408FAQ 1.1.@.409FAQ 5.1 (continued)

FAQ 5.1.aFAQ 5.1.ahFAQ 4.3.arFAQ 4.3.baFAQ 4.2.cwFAQ 4.2.deFAQ 4.1.ecFAQ 4.1.ejFAQ 3.3.evFAQ 3.3.fdFAQ 3.2.fyFAQ 3.2.fzFAQ 3.2.ggFAQ 3.1.glFAQ 3.1.gtFAQ 2.2.hrFAQ 2.2.iaFAQ 2.1.ikFAQ 2.1.itFAQ 1.3.@.285FAQ 1.3.@.293FAQ 1.2.@.301FAQ 1.2.@.311FAQ 1.1.@.365FAQ 1.1.@.374FAQ 12.3.@.377FAQ 12.2.@.378FAQ 12.1.@.379FAQ 11.3.@.380FAQ 11.2.@.381FAQ 11.1.@.382FAQ 10.2.@.383FAQ 10.1.@.384FAQ 9.3.@.385FAQ 9.2.@.386FAQ 9.1.@.387FAQ 8.3.@.388FAQ 8.2.@.389FAQ 8.1.@.390FAQ 7.3.@.391FAQ 7.2.@.392FAQ 7.1.@.393FAQ 6.2.@.394FAQ 6.1.@.395FAQ 5.4.@.396FAQ 5.3.@.397FAQ 5.2.@.398FAQ 5.1.@.399FAQ 4.3.@.400FAQ 4.2.@.401FAQ 4.1.@.402FAQ 3.3.@.403FAQ 3.2.@.404FAQ 3.1.@.405FAQ 2.2.@.406FAQ 2.1.@.407FAQ 1.3.@.408FAQ 1.2.@.409FAQ 1.1.@.410FAQ

FAQ 5.1.bFAQ 5.1.aiFAQ 4.3.asFAQ 4.3.bbFAQ 4.2.cxFAQ 4.2.dfFAQ 4.1.edFAQ 4.1.ekFAQ 3.3.ewFAQ 3.3.feFAQ 3.2.fzFAQ 3.2.gaFAQ 3.2.ghFAQ 3.1.gmFAQ 3.1.guFAQ 2.2.hsFAQ 2.2.ibFAQ 2.1.ilFAQ 2.1.iuFAQ 1.3.@.286FAQ 1.3.@.294FAQ 1.2.@.302FAQ 1.2.@.312FAQ 1.1.@.366FAQ 1.1.@.375FAQ 12.3.@.378FAQ 12.2.@.379FAQ 12.1.@.380FAQ 11.3.@.381FAQ 11.2.@.382FAQ 11.1.@.383FAQ 10.2.@.384FAQ 10.1.@.385FAQ 9.3.@.386FAQ 9.2.@.387FAQ 9.1.@.388FAQ 8.3.@.389FAQ 8.2.@.390FAQ 8.1.@.391FAQ 7.3.@.392FAQ 7.2.@.393FAQ 7.1.@.394FAQ 6.2.@.395FAQ 6.1.@.396FAQ 5.4.@.397FAQ 5.3.@.398FAQ 5.2.@.399FAQ 5.1.@.400FAQ 4.3.@.401FAQ 4.2.@.402FAQ 4.1.@.403FAQ 3.3.@.404FAQ 3.2.@.405FAQ 3.1.@.406FAQ 2.2.@.407FAQ 2.1.@.408FAQ 1.3.@.409FAQ 1.2.@.410FAQ 1.1.@.411Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 5.1.cFAQ 5.1.ajFAQ 4.3.atFAQ 4.3.bcFAQ 4.2.cyFAQ 4.2.dgFAQ 4.1.eeFAQ 4.1.elFAQ 3.3.exFAQ 3.3.ffFAQ 3.2.gaFAQ 3.2.gbFAQ 3.2.giFAQ 3.1.gnFAQ 3.1.gvFAQ 2.2.htFAQ 2.2.icFAQ 2.1.imFAQ 2.1.ivFAQ 1.3.@.287FAQ 1.3.@.295FAQ 1.2.@.303FAQ 1.2.@.313FAQ 1.1.@.367FAQ 1.1.@.376FAQ 12.3.@.379FAQ 12.2.@.380FAQ 12.1.@.381FAQ 11.3.@.382FAQ 11.2.@.383FAQ 11.1.@.384FAQ 10.2.@.385FAQ 10.1.@.386FAQ 9.3.@.387FAQ 9.2.@.388FAQ 9.1.@.389FAQ 8.3.@.390FAQ 8.2.@.391FAQ 8.1.@.392FAQ 7.3.@.393FAQ 7.2.@.394FAQ 7.1.@.395FAQ 6.2.@.396FAQ 6.1.@.397FAQ 5.4.@.398FAQ 5.3.@.399FAQ 5.2.@.400FAQ 5.1.@.401FAQ 4.3.@.402FAQ 4.2.@.403FAQ 4.1.@.404FAQ 3.3.@.405FAQ 3.2.@.406FAQ 3.1.@.407FAQ 2.2.@.408FAQ 2.1.@.409FAQ 1.3.@.410FAQ 1.2.@.411FAQ 1.1.@.412FAQ 5.2 | Can Thawing Permafrost Substantially Increase Global Warming?

FAQ 5.2.aFAQ 5.1.dFAQ 5.1.akFAQ 4.3.auFAQ 4.3.bdFAQ 4.2.czFAQ 4.2.dhFAQ 4.1.efFAQ 4.1.emFAQ 3.3.eyFAQ 3.3.fgFAQ 3.2.gbFAQ 3.2.gcFAQ 3.2.gjFAQ 3.1.goFAQ 3.1.gwFAQ 2.2.huFAQ 2.2.idFAQ 2.1.inFAQ 2.1.@.256FAQ 1.3.@.288FAQ 1.3.@.296FAQ 1.2.@.304FAQ 1.2.@.314FAQ 1.1.@.368FAQ 1.1.@.377FAQ 12.3.@.380FAQ 12.2.@.381FAQ 12.1.@.382FAQ 11.3.@.383FAQ 11.2.@.384FAQ 11.1.@.385FAQ 10.2.@.386FAQ 10.1.@.387FAQ 9.3.@.388FAQ 9.2.@.389FAQ 9.1.@.390FAQ 8.3.@.391FAQ 8.2.@.392FAQ 8.1.@.393FAQ 7.3.@.394FAQ 7.2.@.395FAQ 7.1.@.396FAQ 6.2.@.397FAQ 6.1.@.398FAQ 5.4.@.399FAQ 5.3.@.400FAQ 5.2.@.401FAQ 5.1.@.402FAQ 4.3.@.403FAQ 4.2.@.404FAQ 4.1.@.405FAQ 3.3.@.406FAQ 3.2.@.407FAQ 3.1.@.408FAQ 2.2.@.409FAQ 2.1.@.410FAQ 1.3.@.411FAQ 1.2.@.412FAQ 1.1.@.413In the Arctic, large amounts of organic carbon are stored in permafrost – ground that remains frozen throughout the year. If significant areas of permafrost thaw as the climate warms, some of that carbon may be released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide or methane, resulting in additional warming. Projections from models of permafrost ecosystems suggest that future permafrost thaw will lead to some additional warming – enough to be important, but not enough to lead to a ‘runaway warming’ situation, where permafrost thaw leads to a dramatic, self-reinforcing acceleration of global warming.

FAQ 5.2.bFAQ 5.1.eFAQ 5.1.alFAQ 4.3.avFAQ 4.3.beFAQ 4.2.daFAQ 4.2.diFAQ 4.1.egFAQ 4.1.enFAQ 3.3.ezFAQ 3.3.fhFAQ 3.2.gcFAQ 3.2.gdFAQ 3.2.gkFAQ 3.1.gpFAQ 3.1.gxFAQ 2.2.hvFAQ 2.2.ieFAQ 2.1.ioFAQ 2.1.@.257FAQ 1.3.@.289FAQ 1.3.@.297FAQ 1.2.@.305FAQ 1.2.@.315FAQ 1.1.@.369FAQ 1.1.@.378FAQ 12.3.@.381FAQ 12.2.@.382FAQ 12.1.@.383FAQ 11.3.@.384FAQ 11.2.@.385FAQ 11.1.@.386FAQ 10.2.@.387FAQ 10.1.@.388FAQ 9.3.@.389FAQ 9.2.@.390FAQ 9.1.@.391FAQ 8.3.@.392FAQ 8.2.@.393FAQ 8.1.@.394FAQ 7.3.@.395FAQ 7.2.@.396FAQ 7.1.@.397FAQ 6.2.@.398FAQ 6.1.@.399FAQ 5.4.@.400FAQ 5.3.@.401FAQ 5.2.@.402FAQ 5.1.@.403FAQ 4.3.@.404FAQ 4.2.@.405FAQ 4.1.@.406FAQ 3.3.@.407FAQ 3.2.@.408FAQ 3.1.@.409FAQ 2.2.@.410FAQ 2.1.@.411FAQ 1.3.@.412FAQ 1.2.@.413FAQ 1.1.@.414The Arctic is the biggest climate-sensitive carbon pool on Earth, storing twice as much carbon in its frozen soils, or permafrost, than is currently stored in the atmosphere. As the Arctic region warms faster than anywhere else on Earth, there are concerns that this warming could release greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and therefore significantly amplify climate change.

FAQ 5.2.cFAQ 5.1.fFAQ 5.1.amFAQ 4.3.awFAQ 4.3.bfFAQ 4.2.dbFAQ 4.2.djFAQ 4.1.ehFAQ 4.1.eoFAQ 3.3.faFAQ 3.3.fiFAQ 3.2.gdFAQ 3.2.geFAQ 3.2.glFAQ 3.1.gqFAQ 3.1.gyFAQ 2.2.hwFAQ 2.2.ifFAQ 2.1.ipFAQ 2.1.@.258FAQ 1.3.@.290FAQ 1.3.@.298FAQ 1.2.@.306FAQ 1.2.@.316FAQ 1.1.@.370FAQ 1.1.@.379FAQ 12.3.@.382FAQ 12.2.@.383FAQ 12.1.@.384FAQ 11.3.@.385FAQ 11.2.@.386FAQ 11.1.@.387FAQ 10.2.@.388FAQ 10.1.@.389FAQ 9.3.@.390FAQ 9.2.@.391FAQ 9.1.@.392FAQ 8.3.@.393FAQ 8.2.@.394FAQ 8.1.@.395FAQ 7.3.@.396FAQ 7.2.@.397FAQ 7.1.@.398FAQ 6.2.@.399FAQ 6.1.@.400FAQ 5.4.@.401FAQ 5.3.@.402FAQ 5.2.@.403FAQ 5.1.@.404FAQ 4.3.@.405FAQ 4.2.@.406FAQ 4.1.@.407FAQ 3.3.@.408FAQ 3.2.@.409FAQ 3.1.@.410FAQ 2.2.@.411FAQ 2.1.@.412FAQ 1.3.@.413FAQ 1.2.@.414FAQ 1.1.@.415The carbon in the permafrost has built up over thousands of years, as dead plants have been buried and accumulated within layers of frozen soil, where the cold prevents the organic material from decomposing. As the Arctic warms and soils thaw, the organic matter in these soils begins to decompose rapidly and return to the atmosphere as either carbon dioxide or methane, which are both important greenhouse gases. Permafrost can also thaw abruptly in a given place, due to melting ice in the ground reshaping Arctic landscapes, lakes growing and draining, and fires burning away insulating surface soil layers. Thawing of permafrost carbon has already been observed in the Arctic, and climate models project that much of the shallow permafrost (<3 m depth) throughout the Arctic would thaw under moderate to high amounts of global warming (2°C–4°C).

FAQ 5.2.dFAQ 5.1.gFAQ 5.1.anFAQ 4.3.axFAQ 4.3.bgFAQ 4.2.dcFAQ 4.2.dkFAQ 4.1.eiFAQ 4.1.epFAQ 3.3.fbFAQ 3.3.fjFAQ 3.2.geFAQ 3.2.gfFAQ 3.2.gmFAQ 3.1.grFAQ 3.1.gzFAQ 2.2.hxFAQ 2.2.igFAQ 2.1.iqFAQ 2.1.@.259FAQ 1.3.@.291FAQ 1.3.@.299FAQ 1.2.@.307FAQ 1.2.@.317FAQ 1.1.@.371FAQ 1.1.@.380FAQ 12.3.@.383FAQ 12.2.@.384FAQ 12.1.@.385FAQ 11.3.@.386FAQ 11.2.@.387FAQ 11.1.@.388FAQ 10.2.@.389FAQ 10.1.@.390FAQ 9.3.@.391FAQ 9.2.@.392FAQ 9.1.@.393FAQ 8.3.@.394FAQ 8.2.@.395FAQ 8.1.@.396FAQ 7.3.@.397FAQ 7.2.@.398FAQ 7.1.@.399FAQ 6.2.@.400FAQ 6.1.@.401FAQ 5.4.@.402FAQ 5.3.@.403FAQ 5.2.@.404FAQ 5.1.@.405FAQ 4.3.@.406FAQ 4.2.@.407FAQ 4.1.@.408FAQ 3.3.@.409FAQ 3.2.@.410FAQ 3.1.@.411FAQ 2.2.@.412FAQ 2.1.@.413FAQ 1.3.@.414FAQ 1.2.@.415FAQ 1.1.@.416While permafrost processes are complex, they are beginning to be included in models that represent the interactions between the climate and the carbon cycle. The projections from these permafrost carbon models show a wide range in the estimated strength of a carbon–climate vicious circle, from both carbon dioxide and methane, equivalent to 14–175 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide released per 1°C of global warming. By comparison, in 2019, human activities have released about 40 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This has two implications. First, the extra warming caused by permafrost thawing is strong enough that it must be considered when estimating the total amount of remaining emissions permitted to stabilize the climate at a given level of global warming (i.e., the remaining carbon budget, see FAQ 5.4). Second, the models do not identify any one amount of warming at which permafrost thaw becomes a ‘tipping point’ or threshold in the climate system that would lead to a runaway global warming. However, models do project that emissions would continuously increase with warming, and that this trend could last for hundreds of years.

FAQ 5.2.eFAQ 5.1.hFAQ 5.1.aoFAQ 4.3.ayFAQ 4.3.bhFAQ 4.2.ddFAQ 4.2.dlFAQ 4.1.ejFAQ 4.1.eqFAQ 3.3.fcFAQ 3.3.fkFAQ 3.2.gfFAQ 3.2.ggFAQ 3.2.gnFAQ 3.1.gsFAQ 3.1.haFAQ 2.2.hyFAQ 2.2.ihFAQ 2.1.irFAQ 2.1.@.260FAQ 1.3.@.292FAQ 1.3.@.300FAQ 1.2.@.308FAQ 1.2.@.318FAQ 1.1.@.372FAQ 1.1.@.381FAQ 12.3.@.384FAQ 12.2.@.385FAQ 12.1.@.386FAQ 11.3.@.387FAQ 11.2.@.388FAQ 11.1.@.389FAQ 10.2.@.390FAQ 10.1.@.391FAQ 9.3.@.392FAQ 9.2.@.393FAQ 9.1.@.394FAQ 8.3.@.395FAQ 8.2.@.396FAQ 8.1.@.397FAQ 7.3.@.398FAQ 7.2.@.399FAQ 7.1.@.400FAQ 6.2.@.401FAQ 6.1.@.402FAQ 5.4.@.403FAQ 5.3.@.404FAQ 5.2.@.405FAQ 5.1.@.406FAQ 4.3.@.407FAQ 4.2.@.408FAQ 4.1.@.409FAQ 3.3.@.410FAQ 3.2.@.411FAQ 3.1.@.412FAQ 2.2.@.413FAQ 2.1.@.414FAQ 1.3.@.415FAQ 1.2.@.416FAQ 1.1.@.417Permafrost can also be found in other cold places (e.g., mountain ranges), but those places contain much less carbon than in the Arctic. For instance, the Tibetan plateau contains about 3% as much carbon as is stored in the Arctic. There is also concern about carbon frozen in shallow ocean sediments. These deposits are known as methane hydrates or clathrates, which are methane molecules locked within a cage of ice molecules. They formed as frozen soils that were flooded when sea levels rose after the last ice age. If these hydrates thaw, they may release methane that can bubble up to the surface. The total amount of carbon in permafrost-associated methane hydrates is much less than the carbon in permafrost soils. Global warming takes millennia to penetrate into the sediments beneath the ocean, which is why these hydrates are still responding to the last deglaciation. As a result, only a small fraction of the existing hydrates could be destabilised during the coming century. Even when methane is released from hydrates, most of it is expected to be consumed and oxidised into carbon dioxide in the ocean before reaching the atmosphere. The most complete modelling of these processes to date suggests a release to the atmosphere at a rate of less than 2% of current human-induced methane emissions.

FAQ 5.2.fFAQ 5.1.iFAQ 5.1.apFAQ 4.3.azFAQ 4.3.biFAQ 4.2.deFAQ 4.2.dmFAQ 4.1.ekFAQ 4.1.erFAQ 3.3.fdFAQ 3.3.flFAQ 3.2.ggFAQ 3.2.ghFAQ 3.2.goFAQ 3.1.gtFAQ 3.1.hbFAQ 2.2.hzFAQ 2.2.iiFAQ 2.1.isFAQ 2.1.@.261FAQ 1.3.@.293FAQ 1.3.@.301FAQ 1.2.@.309FAQ 1.2.@.319FAQ 1.1.@.373FAQ 1.1.@.382FAQ 12.3.@.385FAQ 12.2.@.386FAQ 12.1.@.387FAQ 11.3.@.388FAQ 11.2.@.389FAQ 11.1.@.390FAQ 10.2.@.391FAQ 10.1.@.392FAQ 9.3.@.393FAQ 9.2.@.394FAQ 9.1.@.395FAQ 8.3.@.396FAQ 8.2.@.397FAQ 8.1.@.398FAQ 7.3.@.399FAQ 7.2.@.400FAQ 7.1.@.401FAQ 6.2.@.402FAQ 6.1.@.403FAQ 5.4.@.404FAQ 5.3.@.405FAQ 5.2.@.406FAQ 5.1.@.407FAQ 4.3.@.408FAQ 4.2.@.409FAQ 4.1.@.410FAQ 3.3.@.411FAQ 3.2.@.412FAQ 3.1.@.413FAQ 2.2.@.414FAQ 2.1.@.415FAQ 1.3.@.416FAQ 1.2.@.417FAQ 1.1.@.418Overall, thawing permafrost in the Arctic appears to be an important additional source of heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere, more so than undersea hydrates. Climate and carbon cycle models are beginning to consider permafrost processes. While these models disagree on the exact amount of the heat-trapping gases that will be released into the atmosphere, they agree that: (i) the amount of such gases released from permafrost will increase with the amount of global warming; and (ii) the warming effect of thawing permafrost is significant enough to be considered in estimates of the remaining carbon budgets for limiting future warming.

FAQ 5.2.gFAQ 5.1.jFAQ 5.1.aqFAQ 4.3.baFAQ 4.3.bjFAQ 4.2.dfFAQ 4.2.dnFAQ 4.1.elFAQ 4.1.esFAQ 3.3.feFAQ 3.3.fmFAQ 3.2.ghFAQ 3.2.giFAQ 3.2.gpFAQ 3.1.guFAQ 3.1.hcFAQ 2.2.iaFAQ 2.2.ijFAQ 2.1.itFAQ 2.1.@.262FAQ 1.3.@.294FAQ 1.3.@.302FAQ 1.2.@.310FAQ 1.2.@.320FAQ 1.1.@.374FAQ 1.1.@.383FAQ 12.3.@.386FAQ 12.2.@.387FAQ 12.1.@.388FAQ 11.3.@.389FAQ 11.2.@.390FAQ 11.1.@.391FAQ 10.2.@.392FAQ 10.1.@.393FAQ 9.3.@.394FAQ 9.2.@.395FAQ 9.1.@.396FAQ 8.3.@.397FAQ 8.2.@.398FAQ 8.1.@.399FAQ 7.3.@.400FAQ 7.2.@.401FAQ 7.1.@.402FAQ 6.2.@.403FAQ 6.1.@.404FAQ 5.4.@.405FAQ 5.3.@.406FAQ 5.2.@.407FAQ 5.1.@.408FAQ 4.3.@.409FAQ 4.2.@.410FAQ 4.1.@.411FAQ 3.3.@.412FAQ 3.2.@.413FAQ 3.1.@.414FAQ 2.2.@.415FAQ 2.1.@.416FAQ 1.3.@.417FAQ 1.2.@.418FAQ 1.1.@.419FAQFAQ 5.2, Figure 1 | The Arctic permafrost is a big pool of carbon that is sensitive to climate change. (Left) Quantity of carbon stored in the permafrost, to 3 m depth (NCSCDv2 dataset) and (right) area of permafrost vulnerable to abrupt thaw (Circumpolar Thermokarst Landscapes dataset).

FAQ 5.2.hFAQ 5.1.kFAQ 5.1.arFAQ 4.3.bbFAQ 4.3.bkFAQ 4.2.dgFAQ 4.2.doFAQ 4.1.emFAQ 4.1.etFAQ 3.3.ffFAQ 3.3.fnFAQ 3.2.giFAQ 3.2.gjFAQ 3.2.gqFAQ 3.1.gvFAQ 3.1.hdFAQ 2.2.ibFAQ 2.2.ikFAQ 2.1.iuFAQ 2.1.@.263FAQ 1.3.@.295FAQ 1.3.@.303FAQ 1.2.@.311FAQ 1.2.@.321FAQ 1.1.@.375FAQ 1.1.@.384FAQ 12.3.@.387FAQ 12.2.@.388FAQ 12.1.@.389FAQ 11.3.@.390FAQ 11.2.@.391FAQ 11.1.@.392FAQ 10.2.@.393FAQ 10.1.@.394FAQ 9.3.@.395FAQ 9.2.@.396FAQ 9.1.@.397FAQ 8.3.@.398FAQ 8.2.@.399FAQ 8.1.@.400FAQ 7.3.@.401FAQ 7.2.@.402FAQ 7.1.@.403FAQ 6.2.@.404FAQ 6.1.@.405FAQ 5.4.@.406FAQ 5.3.@.407FAQ 5.2.@.408FAQ 5.1.@.409FAQ 4.3.@.410FAQ 4.2.@.411FAQ 4.1.@.412FAQ 3.3.@.413FAQ 3.2.@.414FAQ 3.1.@.415FAQ 2.2.@.416FAQ 2.1.@.417FAQ 1.3.@.418FAQ 1.2.@.419FAQ 1.1.@.420FAQ5.2:Can thawing permafrost substantially increase global temperatures?

FAQ 5.2.iFAQ 5.1.lFAQ 5.1.asFAQ 4.3.bcFAQ 4.3.blFAQ 4.2.dhFAQ 4.2.dpFAQ 4.1.enFAQ 4.1.euFAQ 3.3.fgFAQ 3.3.foFAQ 3.2.gjFAQ 3.2.gkFAQ 3.2.grFAQ 3.1.gwFAQ 3.1.heFAQ 2.2.icFAQ 2.2.ilFAQ 2.1.ivFAQ 2.1.@.264FAQ 1.3.@.296FAQ 1.3.@.304FAQ 1.2.@.312FAQ 1.2.@.322FAQ 1.1.@.376FAQ 1.1.@.385FAQ 12.3.@.388FAQ 12.2.@.389FAQ 12.1.@.390FAQ 11.3.@.391FAQ 11.2.@.392FAQ 11.1.@.393FAQ 10.2.@.394FAQ 10.1.@.395FAQ 9.3.@.396FAQ 9.2.@.397FAQ 9.1.@.398FAQ 8.3.@.399FAQ 8.2.@.400FAQ 8.1.@.401FAQ 7.3.@.402FAQ 7.2.@.403FAQ 7.1.@.404FAQ 6.2.@.405FAQ 6.1.@.406FAQ 5.4.@.407FAQ 5.3.@.408FAQ 5.2.@.409FAQ 5.1.@.410FAQ 4.3.@.411FAQ 4.2.@.412FAQ 4.1.@.413FAQ 3.3.@.414FAQ 3.2.@.415FAQ 3.1.@.416FAQ 2.2.@.417FAQ 2.1.@.418FAQ 1.3.@.419FAQ 1.2.@.420FAQ 1.1.@.421Carbon stored in the Arctic permafrostPermafrost vulnerableto abrupt thaw

FAQ 5.2.jFAQ 5.1.mFAQ 5.1.atFAQ 4.3.bdFAQ 4.3.bmFAQ 4.2.diFAQ 4.2.dqFAQ 4.1.eoFAQ 4.1.evFAQ 3.3.fhFAQ 3.3.fpFAQ 3.2.gkFAQ 3.2.glFAQ 3.2.gsFAQ 3.1.gxFAQ 3.1.hfFAQ 2.2.idFAQ 2.2.imFAQ 2.1.@.256FAQ 2.1.@.265FAQ 1.3.@.297FAQ 1.3.@.305FAQ 1.2.@.313FAQ 1.2.@.323FAQ 1.1.@.377FAQ 1.1.@.386FAQ 12.3.@.389FAQ 12.2.@.390FAQ 12.1.@.391FAQ 11.3.@.392FAQ 11.2.@.393FAQ 11.1.@.394FAQ 10.2.@.395FAQ 10.1.@.396FAQ 9.3.@.397FAQ 9.2.@.398FAQ 9.1.@.399FAQ 8.3.@.400FAQ 8.2.@.401FAQ 8.1.@.402FAQ 7.3.@.403FAQ 7.2.@.404FAQ 7.1.@.405FAQ 6.2.@.406FAQ 6.1.@.407FAQ 5.4.@.408FAQ 5.3.@.409FAQ 5.2.@.410FAQ 5.1.@.411FAQ 4.3.@.412FAQ 4.2.@.413FAQ 4.1.@.414FAQ 3.3.@.415FAQ 3.2.@.416FAQ 3.1.@.417FAQ 2.2.@.418FAQ 2.1.@.419FAQ 1.3.@.420FAQ 1.2.@.421FAQ 1.1.@.422++North Pole

FAQ 5.2.kFAQ 5.1.nFAQ 5.1.auFAQ 4.3.beFAQ 4.3.bnFAQ 4.2.djFAQ 4.2.drFAQ 4.1.epFAQ 4.1.ewFAQ 3.3.fiFAQ 3.3.fqFAQ 3.2.glFAQ 3.2.gmFAQ 3.2.gtFAQ 3.1.gyFAQ 3.1.hgFAQ 2.2.ieFAQ 2.2.inFAQ 2.1.@.257FAQ 2.1.@.266FAQ 1.3.@.298FAQ 1.3.@.306FAQ 1.2.@.314FAQ 1.2.@.324FAQ 1.1.@.378FAQ 1.1.@.387FAQ 12.3.@.390FAQ 12.2.@.391FAQ 12.1.@.392FAQ 11.3.@.393FAQ 11.2.@.394FAQ 11.1.@.395FAQ 10.2.@.396FAQ 10.1.@.397FAQ 9.3.@.398FAQ 9.2.@.399FAQ 9.1.@.400FAQ 8.3.@.401FAQ 8.2.@.402FAQ 8.1.@.403FAQ 7.3.@.404FAQ 7.2.@.405FAQ 7.1.@.406FAQ 6.2.@.407FAQ 6.1.@.408FAQ 5.4.@.409FAQ 5.3.@.410FAQ 5.2.@.411FAQ 5.1.@.412FAQ 4.3.@.413FAQ 4.2.@.414FAQ 4.1.@.415FAQ 3.3.@.416FAQ 3.2.@.417FAQ 3.1.@.418FAQ 2.2.@.419FAQ 2.1.@.420FAQ 1.3.@.421FAQ 1.2.@.422FAQ 1.1.@.423Arctic circle

FAQ 5.2.lFAQ 5.1.oFAQ 5.1.avFAQ 4.3.bfFAQ 4.3.boFAQ 4.2.dkFAQ 4.2.dsFAQ 4.1.eqFAQ 4.1.exFAQ 3.3.fjFAQ 3.3.frFAQ 3.2.gmFAQ 3.2.gnFAQ 3.2.guFAQ 3.1.gzFAQ 3.1.hhFAQ 2.2.ifFAQ 2.2.ioFAQ 2.1.@.258FAQ 2.1.@.267FAQ 1.3.@.299FAQ 1.3.@.307FAQ 1.2.@.315FAQ 1.2.@.325FAQ 1.1.@.379FAQ 1.1.@.388FAQ 12.3.@.391FAQ 12.2.@.392FAQ 12.1.@.393FAQ 11.3.@.394FAQ 11.2.@.395FAQ 11.1.@.396FAQ 10.2.@.397FAQ 10.1.@.398FAQ 9.3.@.399FAQ 9.2.@.400FAQ 9.1.@.401FAQ 8.3.@.402FAQ 8.2.@.403FAQ 8.1.@.404FAQ 7.3.@.405FAQ 7.2.@.406FAQ 7.1.@.407FAQ 6.2.@.408FAQ 6.1.@.409FAQ 5.4.@.410FAQ 5.3.@.411FAQ 5.2.@.412FAQ 5.1.@.413FAQ 4.3.@.414FAQ 4.2.@.415FAQ 4.1.@.416FAQ 3.3.@.417FAQ 3.2.@.418FAQ 3.1.@.419FAQ 2.2.@.420FAQ 2.1.@.421FAQ 1.3.@.422FAQ 1.2.@.423FAQ 1.1.@.424North Pole

FAQ 5.2.mFAQ 5.1.pFAQ 5.1.awFAQ 4.3.bgFAQ 4.3.bpFAQ 4.2.dlFAQ 4.2.dtFAQ 4.1.erFAQ 4.1.eyFAQ 3.3.fkFAQ 3.3.fsFAQ 3.2.gnFAQ 3.2.goFAQ 3.2.gvFAQ 3.1.haFAQ 3.1.hiFAQ 2.2.igFAQ 2.2.ipFAQ 2.1.@.259FAQ 2.1.@.268FAQ 1.3.@.300FAQ 1.3.@.308FAQ 1.2.@.316FAQ 1.2.@.326FAQ 1.1.@.380FAQ 1.1.@.389FAQ 12.3.@.392FAQ 12.2.@.393FAQ 12.1.@.394FAQ 11.3.@.395FAQ 11.2.@.396FAQ 11.1.@.397FAQ 10.2.@.398FAQ 10.1.@.399FAQ 9.3.@.400FAQ 9.2.@.401FAQ 9.1.@.402FAQ 8.3.@.403FAQ 8.2.@.404FAQ 8.1.@.405FAQ 7.3.@.406FAQ 7.2.@.407FAQ 7.1.@.408FAQ 6.2.@.409FAQ 6.1.@.410FAQ 5.4.@.411FAQ 5.3.@.412FAQ 5.2.@.413FAQ 5.1.@.414FAQ 4.3.@.415FAQ 4.2.@.416FAQ 4.1.@.417FAQ 3.3.@.418FAQ 3.2.@.419FAQ 3.1.@.420FAQ 2.2.@.421FAQ 2.1.@.422FAQ 1.3.@.423FAQ 1.2.@.424FAQ 1.1.@.425Arctic circle

FAQ 5.2.nFAQ 5.1.qFAQ 5.1.axFAQ 4.3.bhFAQ 4.3.bqFAQ 4.2.dmFAQ 4.2.duFAQ 4.1.esFAQ 4.1.ezFAQ 3.3.flFAQ 3.3.ftFAQ 3.2.goFAQ 3.2.gpFAQ 3.2.gwFAQ 3.1.hbFAQ 3.1.hjFAQ 2.2.ihFAQ 2.2.iqFAQ 2.1.@.260FAQ 2.1.@.269FAQ 1.3.@.301FAQ 1.3.@.309FAQ 1.2.@.317FAQ 1.2.@.327FAQ 1.1.@.381FAQ 1.1.@.390FAQ 12.3.@.393FAQ 12.2.@.394FAQ 12.1.@.395FAQ 11.3.@.396FAQ 11.2.@.397FAQ 11.1.@.398FAQ 10.2.@.399FAQ 10.1.@.400FAQ 9.3.@.401FAQ 9.2.@.402FAQ 9.1.@.403FAQ 8.3.@.404FAQ 8.2.@.405FAQ 8.1.@.406FAQ 7.3.@.407FAQ 7.2.@.408FAQ 7.1.@.409FAQ 6.2.@.410FAQ 6.1.@.411FAQ 5.4.@.412FAQ 5.3.@.413FAQ 5.2.@.414FAQ 5.1.@.415FAQ 4.3.@.416FAQ 4.2.@.417FAQ 4.1.@.418FAQ 3.3.@.419FAQ 3.2.@.420FAQ 3.1.@.421FAQ 2.2.@.422FAQ 2.1.@.423FAQ 1.3.@.424FAQ 1.2.@.425FAQ 1.1.@.426The thawing of frozen ground in the Arcrtic will release carbon that will amplify global warming but this will not lead to runaway warming.

FAQ 5.2.oFAQ 5.1.rFAQ 5.1.ayFAQ 4.3.biFAQ 4.3.brFAQ 4.2.dnFAQ 4.2.dvFAQ 4.1.etFAQ 4.1.faFAQ 3.3.fmFAQ 3.3.fuFAQ 3.2.gpFAQ 3.2.gqFAQ 3.2.gxFAQ 3.1.hcFAQ 3.1.hkFAQ 2.2.iiFAQ 2.2.irFAQ 2.1.@.261FAQ 2.1.@.270FAQ 1.3.@.302FAQ 1.3.@.310FAQ 1.2.@.318FAQ 1.2.@.328FAQ 1.1.@.382FAQ 1.1.@.391FAQ 12.3.@.394FAQ 12.2.@.395FAQ 12.1.@.396FAQ 11.3.@.397FAQ 11.2.@.398FAQ 11.1.@.399FAQ 10.2.@.400FAQ 10.1.@.401FAQ 9.3.@.402FAQ 9.2.@.403FAQ 9.1.@.404FAQ 8.3.@.405FAQ 8.2.@.406FAQ 8.1.@.407FAQ 7.3.@.408FAQ 7.2.@.409FAQ 7.1.@.410FAQ 6.2.@.411FAQ 6.1.@.412FAQ 5.4.@.413FAQ 5.3.@.414FAQ 5.2.@.415FAQ 5.1.@.416FAQ 4.3.@.417FAQ 4.2.@.418FAQ 4.1.@.419FAQ 3.3.@.420FAQ 3.2.@.421FAQ 3.1.@.422FAQ 2.2.@.423FAQ 2.1.@.424FAQ 1.3.@.425FAQ 1.2.@.426FAQ 1.1.@.427010002000 km

FAQ 5.2.pFAQ 5.1.sFAQ 5.1.azFAQ 4.3.bjFAQ 4.3.bsFAQ 4.2.doFAQ 4.2.dwFAQ 4.1.euFAQ 4.1.fbFAQ 3.3.fnFAQ 3.3.fvFAQ 3.2.gqFAQ 3.2.grFAQ 3.2.gyFAQ 3.1.hdFAQ 3.1.hlFAQ 2.2.ijFAQ 2.2.isFAQ 2.1.@.262FAQ 2.1.@.271FAQ 1.3.@.303FAQ 1.3.@.311FAQ 1.2.@.319FAQ 1.2.@.329FAQ 1.1.@.383FAQ 1.1.@.392FAQ 12.3.@.395FAQ 12.2.@.396FAQ 12.1.@.397FAQ 11.3.@.398FAQ 11.2.@.399FAQ 11.1.@.400FAQ 10.2.@.401FAQ 10.1.@.402FAQ 9.3.@.403FAQ 9.2.@.404FAQ 9.1.@.405FAQ 8.3.@.406FAQ 8.2.@.407FAQ 8.1.@.408FAQ 7.3.@.409FAQ 7.2.@.410FAQ 7.1.@.411FAQ 6.2.@.412FAQ 6.1.@.413FAQ 5.4.@.414FAQ 5.3.@.415FAQ 5.2.@.416FAQ 5.1.@.417FAQ 4.3.@.418FAQ 4.2.@.419FAQ 4.1.@.420FAQ 3.3.@.421FAQ 3.2.@.422FAQ 3.1.@.423FAQ 2.2.@.424FAQ 2.1.@.425FAQ 1.3.@.426FAQ 1.2.@.427FAQ 1.1.@.428020406080+

FAQ 5.2.qFAQ 5.1.tFAQ 5.1.baFAQ 4.3.bkFAQ 4.3.btFAQ 4.2.dpFAQ 4.2.dxFAQ 4.1.evFAQ 4.1.fcFAQ 3.3.foFAQ 3.3.fwFAQ 3.2.grFAQ 3.2.gsFAQ 3.2.gzFAQ 3.1.heFAQ 3.1.hmFAQ 2.2.ikFAQ 2.2.itFAQ 2.1.@.263FAQ 2.1.@.272FAQ 1.3.@.304FAQ 1.3.@.312FAQ 1.2.@.320FAQ 1.2.@.330FAQ 1.1.@.384FAQ 1.1.@.393FAQ 12.3.@.396FAQ 12.2.@.397FAQ 12.1.@.398FAQ 11.3.@.399FAQ 11.2.@.400FAQ 11.1.@.401FAQ 10.2.@.402FAQ 10.1.@.403FAQ 9.3.@.404FAQ 9.2.@.405FAQ 9.1.@.406FAQ 8.3.@.407FAQ 8.2.@.408FAQ 8.1.@.409FAQ 7.3.@.410FAQ 7.2.@.411FAQ 7.1.@.412FAQ 6.2.@.413FAQ 6.1.@.414FAQ 5.4.@.415FAQ 5.3.@.416FAQ 5.2.@.417FAQ 5.1.@.418FAQ 4.3.@.419FAQ 4.2.@.420FAQ 4.1.@.421FAQ 3.3.@.422FAQ 3.2.@.423FAQ 3.1.@.424FAQ 2.2.@.425FAQ 2.1.@.426FAQ 1.3.@.427FAQ 1.2.@.428FAQ 1.1.@.429Kg of organic carbon per m2

FAQ 5.2.rFAQ 5.1.uFAQ 5.1.bbFAQ 4.3.blFAQ 4.3.buFAQ 4.2.dqFAQ 4.2.dyFAQ 4.1.ewFAQ 4.1.fdFAQ 3.3.fpFAQ 3.3.fxFAQ 3.2.gsFAQ 3.2.gtFAQ 3.2.haFAQ 3.1.hfFAQ 3.1.hnFAQ 2.2.ilFAQ 2.2.iuFAQ 2.1.@.264FAQ 2.1.@.273FAQ 1.3.@.305FAQ 1.3.@.313FAQ 1.2.@.321FAQ 1.2.@.331FAQ 1.1.@.385FAQ 1.1.@.394FAQ 12.3.@.397FAQ 12.2.@.398FAQ 12.1.@.399FAQ 11.3.@.400FAQ 11.2.@.401FAQ 11.1.@.402FAQ 10.2.@.403FAQ 10.1.@.404FAQ 9.3.@.405FAQ 9.2.@.406FAQ 9.1.@.407FAQ 8.3.@.408FAQ 8.2.@.409FAQ 8.1.@.410FAQ 7.3.@.411FAQ 7.2.@.412FAQ 7.1.@.413FAQ 6.2.@.414FAQ 6.1.@.415FAQ 5.4.@.416FAQ 5.3.@.417FAQ 5.2.@.418FAQ 5.1.@.419FAQ 4.3.@.420FAQ 4.2.@.421FAQ 4.1.@.422FAQ 3.3.@.423FAQ 3.2.@.424FAQ 3.1.@.425FAQ 2.2.@.426FAQ 2.1.@.427FAQ 1.3.@.428FAQ 1.2.@.429FAQ 1.1.@.430FAQ 5.2 (continued)

FAQ 5.2.aFAQ 5.2.sFAQ 5.1.vFAQ 5.1.bcFAQ 4.3.bmFAQ 4.3.bvFAQ 4.2.drFAQ 4.2.dzFAQ 4.1.exFAQ 4.1.feFAQ 3.3.fqFAQ 3.3.fyFAQ 3.2.gtFAQ 3.2.guFAQ 3.2.hbFAQ 3.1.hgFAQ 3.1.hoFAQ 2.2.imFAQ 2.2.ivFAQ 2.1.@.265FAQ 2.1.@.274FAQ 1.3.@.306FAQ 1.3.@.314FAQ 1.2.@.322FAQ 1.2.@.332FAQ 1.1.@.386FAQ 1.1.@.395FAQ 12.3.@.398FAQ 12.2.@.399FAQ 12.1.@.400FAQ 11.3.@.401FAQ 11.2.@.402FAQ 11.1.@.403FAQ 10.2.@.404FAQ 10.1.@.405FAQ 9.3.@.406FAQ 9.2.@.407FAQ 9.1.@.408FAQ 8.3.@.409FAQ 8.2.@.410FAQ 8.1.@.411FAQ 7.3.@.412FAQ 7.2.@.413FAQ 7.1.@.414FAQ 6.2.@.415FAQ 6.1.@.416FAQ 5.4.@.417FAQ 5.3.@.418FAQ 5.2.@.419FAQ 5.1.@.420FAQ 4.3.@.421FAQ 4.2.@.422FAQ 4.1.@.423FAQ 3.3.@.424FAQ 3.2.@.425FAQ 3.1.@.426FAQ 2.2.@.427FAQ 2.1.@.428FAQ 1.3.@.429FAQ 1.2.@.430FAQ 1.1.@.431FAQ

FAQ 5.2.bFAQ 5.2.tFAQ 5.1.wFAQ 5.1.bdFAQ 4.3.bnFAQ 4.3.bwFAQ 4.2.dsFAQ 4.2.eaFAQ 4.1.eyFAQ 4.1.ffFAQ 3.3.frFAQ 3.3.fzFAQ 3.2.guFAQ 3.2.gvFAQ 3.2.hcFAQ 3.1.hhFAQ 3.1.hpFAQ 2.2.inFAQ 2.2.@.256FAQ 2.1.@.266FAQ 2.1.@.275FAQ 1.3.@.307FAQ 1.3.@.315FAQ 1.2.@.323FAQ 1.2.@.333FAQ 1.1.@.387FAQ 1.1.@.396FAQ 12.3.@.399FAQ 12.2.@.400FAQ 12.1.@.401FAQ 11.3.@.402FAQ 11.2.@.403FAQ 11.1.@.404FAQ 10.2.@.405FAQ 10.1.@.406FAQ 9.3.@.407FAQ 9.2.@.408FAQ 9.1.@.409FAQ 8.3.@.410FAQ 8.2.@.411FAQ 8.1.@.412FAQ 7.3.@.413FAQ 7.2.@.414FAQ 7.1.@.415FAQ 6.2.@.416FAQ 6.1.@.417FAQ 5.4.@.418FAQ 5.3.@.419FAQ 5.2.@.420FAQ 5.1.@.421FAQ 4.3.@.422FAQ 4.2.@.423FAQ 4.1.@.424FAQ 3.3.@.425FAQ 3.2.@.426FAQ 3.1.@.427FAQ 2.2.@.428FAQ 2.1.@.429FAQ 1.3.@.430FAQ 1.2.@.431FAQ 1.1.@.432Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 5.2.cFAQ 5.2.uFAQ 5.1.xFAQ 5.1.beFAQ 4.3.boFAQ 4.3.bxFAQ 4.2.dtFAQ 4.2.ebFAQ 4.1.ezFAQ 4.1.fgFAQ 3.3.fsFAQ 3.3.gaFAQ 3.2.gvFAQ 3.2.gwFAQ 3.2.hdFAQ 3.1.hiFAQ 3.1.hqFAQ 2.2.ioFAQ 2.2.@.257FAQ 2.1.@.267FAQ 2.1.@.276FAQ 1.3.@.308FAQ 1.3.@.316FAQ 1.2.@.324FAQ 1.2.@.334FAQ 1.1.@.388FAQ 1.1.@.397FAQ 12.3.@.400FAQ 12.2.@.401FAQ 12.1.@.402FAQ 11.3.@.403FAQ 11.2.@.404FAQ 11.1.@.405FAQ 10.2.@.406FAQ 10.1.@.407FAQ 9.3.@.408FAQ 9.2.@.409FAQ 9.1.@.410FAQ 8.3.@.411FAQ 8.2.@.412FAQ 8.1.@.413FAQ 7.3.@.414FAQ 7.2.@.415FAQ 7.1.@.416FAQ 6.2.@.417FAQ 6.1.@.418FAQ 5.4.@.419FAQ 5.3.@.420FAQ 5.2.@.421FAQ 5.1.@.422FAQ 4.3.@.423FAQ 4.2.@.424FAQ 4.1.@.425FAQ 3.3.@.426FAQ 3.2.@.427FAQ 3.1.@.428FAQ 2.2.@.429FAQ 2.1.@.430FAQ 1.3.@.431FAQ 1.2.@.432FAQ 1.1.@.433FAQ 5.3 | Could Climate Change Be Reversed By Removing Carbon Dioxide From the Atmosphere?

FAQ 5.3.aFAQ 5.2.dFAQ 5.2.vFAQ 5.1.yFAQ 5.1.bfFAQ 4.3.bpFAQ 4.3.byFAQ 4.2.duFAQ 4.2.ecFAQ 4.1.faFAQ 4.1.fhFAQ 3.3.ftFAQ 3.3.gbFAQ 3.2.gwFAQ 3.2.gxFAQ 3.2.heFAQ 3.1.hjFAQ 3.1.hrFAQ 2.2.ipFAQ 2.2.@.258FAQ 2.1.@.268FAQ 2.1.@.277FAQ 1.3.@.309FAQ 1.3.@.317FAQ 1.2.@.325FAQ 1.2.@.335FAQ 1.1.@.389FAQ 1.1.@.398FAQ 12.3.@.401FAQ 12.2.@.402FAQ 12.1.@.403FAQ 11.3.@.404FAQ 11.2.@.405FAQ 11.1.@.406FAQ 10.2.@.407FAQ 10.1.@.408FAQ 9.3.@.409FAQ 9.2.@.410FAQ 9.1.@.411FAQ 8.3.@.412FAQ 8.2.@.413FAQ 8.1.@.414FAQ 7.3.@.415FAQ 7.2.@.416FAQ 7.1.@.417FAQ 6.2.@.418FAQ 6.1.@.419FAQ 5.4.@.420FAQ 5.3.@.421FAQ 5.2.@.422FAQ 5.1.@.423FAQ 4.3.@.424FAQ 4.2.@.425FAQ 4.1.@.426FAQ 3.3.@.427FAQ 3.2.@.428FAQ 3.1.@.429FAQ 2.2.@.430FAQ 2.1.@.431FAQ 1.3.@.432FAQ 1.2.@.433FAQ 1.1.@.434Deliberate removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere could reverse (i.e., change the direction of) some aspects of climate change. However, this will only happen if it results in a net reduction in the total amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, that is, if deliberate removals are larger than emissions. Some climate change trends, such as the increase in global surface temperature, would start to reverse within a few years. Other aspects of climate change would take decades (e.g., permafrost thawing) or centuries (e.g., acidification of the deep ocean) to reverse, and some, such as sea level rise, would take centuries to millennia to change direction.

FAQ 5.3.bFAQ 5.2.eFAQ 5.2.wFAQ 5.1.zFAQ 5.1.bgFAQ 4.3.bqFAQ 4.3.bzFAQ 4.2.dvFAQ 4.2.edFAQ 4.1.fbFAQ 4.1.fiFAQ 3.3.fuFAQ 3.3.gcFAQ 3.2.gxFAQ 3.2.gyFAQ 3.2.hfFAQ 3.1.hkFAQ 3.1.hsFAQ 2.2.iqFAQ 2.2.@.259FAQ 2.1.@.269FAQ 2.1.@.278FAQ 1.3.@.310FAQ 1.3.@.318FAQ 1.2.@.326FAQ 1.2.@.336FAQ 1.1.@.390FAQ 1.1.@.399FAQ 12.3.@.402FAQ 12.2.@.403FAQ 12.1.@.404FAQ 11.3.@.405FAQ 11.2.@.406FAQ 11.1.@.407FAQ 10.2.@.408FAQ 10.1.@.409FAQ 9.3.@.410FAQ 9.2.@.411FAQ 9.1.@.412FAQ 8.3.@.413FAQ 8.2.@.414FAQ 8.1.@.415FAQ 7.3.@.416FAQ 7.2.@.417FAQ 7.1.@.418FAQ 6.2.@.419FAQ 6.1.@.420FAQ 5.4.@.421FAQ 5.3.@.422FAQ 5.2.@.423FAQ 5.1.@.424FAQ 4.3.@.425FAQ 4.2.@.426FAQ 4.1.@.427FAQ 3.3.@.428FAQ 3.2.@.429FAQ 3.1.@.430FAQ 2.2.@.431FAQ 2.1.@.432FAQ 1.3.@.433FAQ 1.2.@.434FAQ 1.1.@.435The term negative carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions refers to the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities, in addition to removals that occur naturally, and is often used as synonymous with carbon dioxide removal. Negative CO2 emissions can compensate for the release of CO2 into the atmosphere by human activities. They could be achieved by strengthening natural CO2 sequestration processes on land (e.g., by planting trees or through agricultural practices that increase the carbon content of soils) and/or in the ocean (e.g., by restoration of coastal ecosystems) or by removing CO2 directly from the atmosphere. If CO2 removals are greater than human-caused CO2 emissions globally, emissions are said to be net negative. It should be noted that CO2 removal technologies are unable, or not yet ready, to achieve the scale of removal that would be required to compensate for current levels of emissions, and most have undesired side effects.

FAQ 5.3.cFAQ 5.2.fFAQ 5.2.xFAQ 5.1.aaFAQ 5.1.bhFAQ 4.3.brFAQ 4.3.caFAQ 4.2.dwFAQ 4.2.eeFAQ 4.1.fcFAQ 4.1.fjFAQ 3.3.fvFAQ 3.3.gdFAQ 3.2.gyFAQ 3.2.gzFAQ 3.2.hgFAQ 3.1.hlFAQ 3.1.htFAQ 2.2.irFAQ 2.2.@.260FAQ 2.1.@.270FAQ 2.1.@.279FAQ 1.3.@.311FAQ 1.3.@.319FAQ 1.2.@.327FAQ 1.2.@.337FAQ 1.1.@.391FAQ 1.1.@.400FAQ 12.3.@.403FAQ 12.2.@.404FAQ 12.1.@.405FAQ 11.3.@.406FAQ 11.2.@.407FAQ 11.1.@.408FAQ 10.2.@.409FAQ 10.1.@.410FAQ 9.3.@.411FAQ 9.2.@.412FAQ 9.1.@.413FAQ 8.3.@.414FAQ 8.2.@.415FAQ 8.1.@.416FAQ 7.3.@.417FAQ 7.2.@.418FAQ 7.1.@.419FAQ 6.2.@.420FAQ 6.1.@.421FAQ 5.4.@.422FAQ 5.3.@.423FAQ 5.2.@.424FAQ 5.1.@.425FAQ 4.3.@.426FAQ 4.2.@.427FAQ 4.1.@.428FAQ 3.3.@.429FAQ 3.2.@.430FAQ 3.1.@.431FAQ 2.2.@.432FAQ 2.1.@.433FAQ 1.3.@.434FAQ 1.2.@.435FAQ 1.1.@.436In the absence of deliberate CO2 removal, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere (a measure of the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere) results from a balance between human-caused CO2 release and the removal of CO2 by natural processes on land and in the ocean (natural ‘carbon sinks’; see FAQ 5.1). If CO2 release exceeds removal by carbon sinks, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere would increase;

FAQ 5.3.dFAQ 5.2.gFAQ 5.2.yFAQ 5.1.abFAQ 5.1.biFAQ 4.3.bsFAQ 4.3.cbFAQ 4.2.dxFAQ 4.2.efFAQ 4.1.fdFAQ 4.1.fkFAQ 3.3.fwFAQ 3.3.geFAQ 3.2.gzFAQ 3.2.haFAQ 3.2.hhFAQ 3.1.hmFAQ 3.1.huFAQ 2.2.isFAQ 2.2.@.261FAQ 2.1.@.271FAQ 2.1.@.280FAQ 1.3.@.312FAQ 1.3.@.320FAQ 1.2.@.328FAQ 1.2.@.338FAQ 1.1.@.392FAQ 1.1.@.401FAQ 12.3.@.404FAQ 12.2.@.405FAQ 12.1.@.406FAQ 11.3.@.407FAQ 11.2.@.408FAQ 11.1.@.409FAQ 10.2.@.410FAQ 10.1.@.411FAQ 9.3.@.412FAQ 9.2.@.413FAQ 9.1.@.414FAQ 8.3.@.415FAQ 8.2.@.416FAQ 8.1.@.417FAQ 7.3.@.418FAQ 7.2.@.419FAQ 7.1.@.420FAQ 6.2.@.421FAQ 6.1.@.422FAQ 5.4.@.423FAQ 5.3.@.424FAQ 5.2.@.425FAQ 5.1.@.426FAQ 4.3.@.427FAQ 4.2.@.428FAQ 4.1.@.429FAQ 3.3.@.430FAQ 3.2.@.431FAQ 3.1.@.432FAQ 2.2.@.433FAQ 2.1.@.434FAQ 1.3.@.435FAQ 1.2.@.436FAQ 1.1.@.437FAQ 5.3: Could climate change be reversed by removing CO2from the atmosphere?

FAQ 5.3.eFAQ 5.2.hFAQ 5.2.zFAQ 5.1.acFAQ 5.1.bjFAQ 4.3.btFAQ 4.3.ccFAQ 4.2.dyFAQ 4.2.egFAQ 4.1.feFAQ 4.1.flFAQ 3.3.fxFAQ 3.3.gfFAQ 3.2.haFAQ 3.2.hbFAQ 3.2.hiFAQ 3.1.hnFAQ 3.1.hvFAQ 2.2.itFAQ 2.2.@.262FAQ 2.1.@.272FAQ 2.1.@.281FAQ 1.3.@.313FAQ 1.3.@.321FAQ 1.2.@.329FAQ 1.2.@.339FAQ 1.1.@.393FAQ 1.1.@.402FAQ 12.3.@.405FAQ 12.2.@.406FAQ 12.1.@.407FAQ 11.3.@.408FAQ 11.2.@.409FAQ 11.1.@.410FAQ 10.2.@.411FAQ 10.1.@.412FAQ 9.3.@.413FAQ 9.2.@.414FAQ 9.1.@.415FAQ 8.3.@.416FAQ 8.2.@.417FAQ 8.1.@.418FAQ 7.3.@.419FAQ 7.2.@.420FAQ 7.1.@.421FAQ 6.2.@.422FAQ 6.1.@.423FAQ 5.4.@.424FAQ 5.3.@.425FAQ 5.2.@.426FAQ 5.1.@.427FAQ 4.3.@.428FAQ 4.2.@.429FAQ 4.1.@.430FAQ 3.3.@.431FAQ 3.2.@.432FAQ 3.1.@.433FAQ 2.2.@.434FAQ 2.1.@.435FAQ 1.3.@.436FAQ 1.2.@.437FAQ 1.1.@.438Removing more carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere than is emitted into it could reverse some aspects of climate change, but some changes would continue in their current direction for decades to millennia.

FAQ 5.3.fFAQ 5.2.iFAQ 5.2.aaFAQ 5.1.adFAQ 5.1.bkFAQ 4.3.buFAQ 4.3.cdFAQ 4.2.dzFAQ 4.2.ehFAQ 4.1.ffFAQ 4.1.fmFAQ 3.3.fyFAQ 3.3.ggFAQ 3.2.hbFAQ 3.2.hcFAQ 3.2.hjFAQ 3.1.hoFAQ 3.1.hwFAQ 2.2.iuFAQ 2.2.@.263FAQ 2.1.@.273FAQ 2.1.@.282FAQ 1.3.@.314FAQ 1.3.@.322FAQ 1.2.@.330FAQ 1.2.@.340FAQ 1.1.@.394FAQ 1.1.@.403FAQ 12.3.@.406FAQ 12.2.@.407FAQ 12.1.@.408FAQ 11.3.@.409FAQ 11.2.@.410FAQ 11.1.@.411FAQ 10.2.@.412FAQ 10.1.@.413FAQ 9.3.@.414FAQ 9.2.@.415FAQ 9.1.@.416FAQ 8.3.@.417FAQ 8.2.@.418FAQ 8.1.@.419FAQ 7.3.@.420FAQ 7.2.@.421FAQ 7.1.@.422FAQ 6.2.@.423FAQ 6.1.@.424FAQ 5.4.@.425FAQ 5.3.@.426FAQ 5.2.@.427FAQ 5.1.@.428FAQ 4.3.@.429FAQ 4.2.@.430FAQ 4.1.@.431FAQ 3.3.@.432FAQ 3.2.@.433FAQ 3.1.@.434FAQ 2.2.@.435FAQ 2.1.@.436FAQ 1.3.@.437FAQ 1.2.@.438FAQ 1.1.@.439Atmospheric CO2(ppm)

FAQ 5.3.gFAQ 5.2.jFAQ 5.2.abFAQ 5.1.aeFAQ 5.1.blFAQ 4.3.bvFAQ 4.3.ceFAQ 4.2.eaFAQ 4.2.eiFAQ 4.1.fgFAQ 4.1.fnFAQ 3.3.fzFAQ 3.3.ghFAQ 3.2.hcFAQ 3.2.hdFAQ 3.2.hkFAQ 3.1.hpFAQ 3.1.hxFAQ 2.2.ivFAQ 2.2.@.264FAQ 2.1.@.274FAQ 2.1.@.283FAQ 1.3.@.315FAQ 1.3.@.323FAQ 1.2.@.331FAQ 1.2.@.341FAQ 1.1.@.395FAQ 1.1.@.404FAQ 12.3.@.407FAQ 12.2.@.408FAQ 12.1.@.409FAQ 11.3.@.410FAQ 11.2.@.411FAQ 11.1.@.412FAQ 10.2.@.413FAQ 10.1.@.414FAQ 9.3.@.415FAQ 9.2.@.416FAQ 9.1.@.417FAQ 8.3.@.418FAQ 8.2.@.419FAQ 8.1.@.420FAQ 7.3.@.421FAQ 7.2.@.422FAQ 7.1.@.423FAQ 6.2.@.424FAQ 6.1.@.425FAQ 5.4.@.426FAQ 5.3.@.427FAQ 5.2.@.428FAQ 5.1.@.429FAQ 4.3.@.430FAQ 4.2.@.431FAQ 4.1.@.432FAQ 3.3.@.433FAQ 3.2.@.434FAQ 3.1.@.435FAQ 2.2.@.436FAQ 2.1.@.437FAQ 1.3.@.438FAQ 1.2.@.439FAQ 1.1.@.440CO2peak600

FAQ 5.3.hFAQ 5.2.kFAQ 5.2.acFAQ 5.1.afFAQ 5.1.bmFAQ 4.3.bwFAQ 4.3.cfFAQ 4.2.ebFAQ 4.2.ejFAQ 4.1.fhFAQ 4.1.foFAQ 3.3.gaFAQ 3.3.giFAQ 3.2.hdFAQ 3.2.heFAQ 3.2.hlFAQ 3.1.hqFAQ 3.1.hyFAQ 2.2.@.256FAQ 2.2.@.265FAQ 2.1.@.275FAQ 2.1.@.284FAQ 1.3.@.316FAQ 1.3.@.324FAQ 1.2.@.332FAQ 1.2.@.342FAQ 1.1.@.396FAQ 1.1.@.405FAQ 12.3.@.408FAQ 12.2.@.409FAQ 12.1.@.410FAQ 11.3.@.411FAQ 11.2.@.412FAQ 11.1.@.413FAQ 10.2.@.414FAQ 10.1.@.415FAQ 9.3.@.416FAQ 9.2.@.417FAQ 9.1.@.418FAQ 8.3.@.419FAQ 8.2.@.420FAQ 8.1.@.421FAQ 7.3.@.422FAQ 7.2.@.423FAQ 7.1.@.424FAQ 6.2.@.425FAQ 6.1.@.426FAQ 5.4.@.427FAQ 5.3.@.428FAQ 5.2.@.429FAQ 5.1.@.430FAQ 4.3.@.431FAQ 4.2.@.432FAQ 4.1.@.433FAQ 3.3.@.434FAQ 3.2.@.435FAQ 3.1.@.436FAQ 2.2.@.437FAQ 2.1.@.438FAQ 1.3.@.439FAQ 1.2.@.440FAQ 1.1.@.441550

FAQ 5.3.iFAQ 5.2.lFAQ 5.2.adFAQ 5.1.agFAQ 5.1.bnFAQ 4.3.bxFAQ 4.3.cgFAQ 4.2.ecFAQ 4.2.ekFAQ 4.1.fiFAQ 4.1.fpFAQ 3.3.gbFAQ 3.3.gjFAQ 3.2.heFAQ 3.2.hfFAQ 3.2.hmFAQ 3.1.hrFAQ 3.1.hzFAQ 2.2.@.257FAQ 2.2.@.266FAQ 2.1.@.276FAQ 2.1.@.285FAQ 1.3.@.317FAQ 1.3.@.325FAQ 1.2.@.333FAQ 1.2.@.343FAQ 1.1.@.397FAQ 1.1.@.406FAQ 12.3.@.409FAQ 12.2.@.410FAQ 12.1.@.411FAQ 11.3.@.412FAQ 11.2.@.413FAQ 11.1.@.414FAQ 10.2.@.415FAQ 10.1.@.416FAQ 9.3.@.417FAQ 9.2.@.418FAQ 9.1.@.419FAQ 8.3.@.420FAQ 8.2.@.421FAQ 8.1.@.422FAQ 7.3.@.423FAQ 7.2.@.424FAQ 7.1.@.425FAQ 6.2.@.426FAQ 6.1.@.427FAQ 5.4.@.428FAQ 5.3.@.429FAQ 5.2.@.430FAQ 5.1.@.431FAQ 4.3.@.432FAQ 4.2.@.433FAQ 4.1.@.434FAQ 3.3.@.435FAQ 3.2.@.436FAQ 3.1.@.437FAQ 2.2.@.438FAQ 2.1.@.439FAQ 1.3.@.440FAQ 1.2.@.441FAQ 1.1.@.442500

FAQ 5.3.jFAQ 5.2.mFAQ 5.2.aeFAQ 5.1.ahFAQ 5.1.boFAQ 4.3.byFAQ 4.3.chFAQ 4.2.edFAQ 4.2.elFAQ 4.1.fjFAQ 4.1.fqFAQ 3.3.gcFAQ 3.3.gkFAQ 3.2.hfFAQ 3.2.hgFAQ 3.2.hnFAQ 3.1.hsFAQ 3.1.iaFAQ 2.2.@.258FAQ 2.2.@.267FAQ 2.1.@.277FAQ 2.1.@.286FAQ 1.3.@.318FAQ 1.3.@.326FAQ 1.2.@.334FAQ 1.2.@.344FAQ 1.1.@.398FAQ 1.1.@.407FAQ 12.3.@.410FAQ 12.2.@.411FAQ 12.1.@.412FAQ 11.3.@.413FAQ 11.2.@.414FAQ 11.1.@.415FAQ 10.2.@.416FAQ 10.1.@.417FAQ 9.3.@.418FAQ 9.2.@.419FAQ 9.1.@.420FAQ 8.3.@.421FAQ 8.2.@.422FAQ 8.1.@.423FAQ 7.3.@.424FAQ 7.2.@.425FAQ 7.1.@.426FAQ 6.2.@.427FAQ 6.1.@.428FAQ 5.4.@.429FAQ 5.3.@.430FAQ 5.2.@.431FAQ 5.1.@.432FAQ 4.3.@.433FAQ 4.2.@.434FAQ 4.1.@.435FAQ 3.3.@.436FAQ 3.2.@.437FAQ 3.1.@.438FAQ 2.2.@.439FAQ 2.1.@.440FAQ 1.3.@.441FAQ 1.2.@.442FAQ 1.1.@.443450

FAQ 5.3.kFAQ 5.2.nFAQ 5.2.afFAQ 5.1.aiFAQ 5.1.bpFAQ 4.3.bzFAQ 4.3.ciFAQ 4.2.eeFAQ 4.2.emFAQ 4.1.fkFAQ 4.1.frFAQ 3.3.gdFAQ 3.3.glFAQ 3.2.hgFAQ 3.2.hhFAQ 3.2.hoFAQ 3.1.htFAQ 3.1.ibFAQ 2.2.@.259FAQ 2.2.@.268FAQ 2.1.@.278FAQ 2.1.@.287FAQ 1.3.@.319FAQ 1.3.@.327FAQ 1.2.@.335FAQ 1.2.@.345FAQ 1.1.@.399FAQ 1.1.@.408FAQ 12.3.@.411FAQ 12.2.@.412FAQ 12.1.@.413FAQ 11.3.@.414FAQ 11.2.@.415FAQ 11.1.@.416FAQ 10.2.@.417FAQ 10.1.@.418FAQ 9.3.@.419FAQ 9.2.@.420FAQ 9.1.@.421FAQ 8.3.@.422FAQ 8.2.@.423FAQ 8.1.@.424FAQ 7.3.@.425FAQ 7.2.@.426FAQ 7.1.@.427FAQ 6.2.@.428FAQ 6.1.@.429FAQ 5.4.@.430FAQ 5.3.@.431FAQ 5.2.@.432FAQ 5.1.@.433FAQ 4.3.@.434FAQ 4.2.@.435FAQ 4.1.@.436FAQ 3.3.@.437FAQ 3.2.@.438FAQ 3.1.@.439FAQ 2.2.@.440FAQ 2.1.@.441FAQ 1.3.@.442FAQ 1.2.@.443FAQ 1.1.@.444400

FAQ 5.3.lFAQ 5.2.oFAQ 5.2.agFAQ 5.1.ajFAQ 5.1.bqFAQ 4.3.caFAQ 4.3.cjFAQ 4.2.efFAQ 4.2.enFAQ 4.1.flFAQ 4.1.fsFAQ 3.3.geFAQ 3.3.gmFAQ 3.2.hhFAQ 3.2.hiFAQ 3.2.hpFAQ 3.1.huFAQ 3.1.icFAQ 2.2.@.260FAQ 2.2.@.269FAQ 2.1.@.279FAQ 2.1.@.288FAQ 1.3.@.320FAQ 1.3.@.328FAQ 1.2.@.336FAQ 1.2.@.346FAQ 1.1.@.400FAQ 1.1.@.409FAQ 12.3.@.412FAQ 12.2.@.413FAQ 12.1.@.414FAQ 11.3.@.415FAQ 11.2.@.416FAQ 11.1.@.417FAQ 10.2.@.418FAQ 10.1.@.419FAQ 9.3.@.420FAQ 9.2.@.421FAQ 9.1.@.422FAQ 8.3.@.423FAQ 8.2.@.424FAQ 8.1.@.425FAQ 7.3.@.426FAQ 7.2.@.427FAQ 7.1.@.428FAQ 6.2.@.429FAQ 6.1.@.430FAQ 5.4.@.431FAQ 5.3.@.432FAQ 5.2.@.433FAQ 5.1.@.434FAQ 4.3.@.435FAQ 4.2.@.436FAQ 4.1.@.437FAQ 3.3.@.438FAQ 3.2.@.439FAQ 3.1.@.440FAQ 2.2.@.441FAQ 2.1.@.442FAQ 1.3.@.443FAQ 1.2.@.444FAQ 1.1.@.445350

FAQ 5.3.mFAQ 5.2.pFAQ 5.2.ahFAQ 5.1.akFAQ 5.1.brFAQ 4.3.cbFAQ 4.3.ckFAQ 4.2.egFAQ 4.2.eoFAQ 4.1.fmFAQ 4.1.ftFAQ 3.3.gfFAQ 3.3.gnFAQ 3.2.hiFAQ 3.2.hjFAQ 3.2.hqFAQ 3.1.hvFAQ 3.1.idFAQ 2.2.@.261FAQ 2.2.@.270FAQ 2.1.@.280FAQ 2.1.@.289FAQ 1.3.@.321FAQ 1.3.@.329FAQ 1.2.@.337FAQ 1.2.@.347FAQ 1.1.@.401FAQ 1.1.@.410FAQ 12.3.@.413FAQ 12.2.@.414FAQ 12.1.@.415FAQ 11.3.@.416FAQ 11.2.@.417FAQ 11.1.@.418FAQ 10.2.@.419FAQ 10.1.@.420FAQ 9.3.@.421FAQ 9.2.@.422FAQ 9.1.@.423FAQ 8.3.@.424FAQ 8.2.@.425FAQ 8.1.@.426FAQ 7.3.@.427FAQ 7.2.@.428FAQ 7.1.@.429FAQ 6.2.@.430FAQ 6.1.@.431FAQ 5.4.@.432FAQ 5.3.@.433FAQ 5.2.@.434FAQ 5.1.@.435FAQ 4.3.@.436FAQ 4.2.@.437FAQ 4.1.@.438FAQ 3.3.@.439FAQ 3.2.@.440FAQ 3.1.@.441FAQ 2.2.@.442FAQ 2.1.@.443FAQ 1.3.@.444FAQ 1.2.@.445FAQ 1.1.@.446300

FAQ 5.3.nFAQ 5.2.qFAQ 5.2.aiFAQ 5.1.alFAQ 5.1.bsFAQ 4.3.ccFAQ 4.3.clFAQ 4.2.ehFAQ 4.2.epFAQ 4.1.fnFAQ 4.1.fuFAQ 3.3.ggFAQ 3.3.goFAQ 3.2.hjFAQ 3.2.hkFAQ 3.2.hrFAQ 3.1.hwFAQ 3.1.ieFAQ 2.2.@.262FAQ 2.2.@.271FAQ 2.1.@.281FAQ 2.1.@.290FAQ 1.3.@.322FAQ 1.3.@.330FAQ 1.2.@.338FAQ 1.2.@.348FAQ 1.1.@.402FAQ 1.1.@.411FAQ 12.3.@.414FAQ 12.2.@.415FAQ 12.1.@.416FAQ 11.3.@.417FAQ 11.2.@.418FAQ 11.1.@.419FAQ 10.2.@.420FAQ 10.1.@.421FAQ 9.3.@.422FAQ 9.2.@.423FAQ 9.1.@.424FAQ 8.3.@.425FAQ 8.2.@.426FAQ 8.1.@.427FAQ 7.3.@.428FAQ 7.2.@.429FAQ 7.1.@.430FAQ 6.2.@.431FAQ 6.1.@.432FAQ 5.4.@.433FAQ 5.3.@.434FAQ 5.2.@.435FAQ 5.1.@.436FAQ 4.3.@.437FAQ 4.2.@.438FAQ 4.1.@.439FAQ 3.3.@.440FAQ 3.2.@.441FAQ 3.1.@.442FAQ 2.2.@.443FAQ 2.1.@.444FAQ 1.3.@.445FAQ 1.2.@.446FAQ 1.1.@.447250

FAQ 5.3.oFAQ 5.2.rFAQ 5.2.ajFAQ 5.1.amFAQ 5.1.btFAQ 4.3.cdFAQ 4.3.cmFAQ 4.2.eiFAQ 4.2.eqFAQ 4.1.foFAQ 4.1.fvFAQ 3.3.ghFAQ 3.3.gpFAQ 3.2.hkFAQ 3.2.hlFAQ 3.2.hsFAQ 3.1.hxFAQ 3.1.ifFAQ 2.2.@.263FAQ 2.2.@.272FAQ 2.1.@.282FAQ 2.1.@.291FAQ 1.3.@.323FAQ 1.3.@.331FAQ 1.2.@.339FAQ 1.2.@.349FAQ 1.1.@.403FAQ 1.1.@.412FAQ 12.3.@.415FAQ 12.2.@.416FAQ 12.1.@.417FAQ 11.3.@.418FAQ 11.2.@.419FAQ 11.1.@.420FAQ 10.2.@.421FAQ 10.1.@.422FAQ 9.3.@.423FAQ 9.2.@.424FAQ 9.1.@.425FAQ 8.3.@.426FAQ 8.2.@.427FAQ 8.1.@.428FAQ 7.3.@.429FAQ 7.2.@.430FAQ 7.1.@.431FAQ 6.2.@.432FAQ 6.1.@.433FAQ 5.4.@.434FAQ 5.3.@.435FAQ 5.2.@.436FAQ 5.1.@.437FAQ 4.3.@.438FAQ 4.2.@.439FAQ 4.1.@.440FAQ 3.3.@.441FAQ 3.2.@.442FAQ 3.1.@.443FAQ 2.2.@.444FAQ 2.1.@.445FAQ 1.3.@.446FAQ 1.2.@.447FAQ 1.1.@.44819002000210022002300

FAQ 5.3.pFAQ 5.2.sFAQ 5.2.akFAQ 5.1.anFAQ 5.1.buFAQ 4.3.ceFAQ 4.3.cnFAQ 4.2.ejFAQ 4.2.erFAQ 4.1.fpFAQ 4.1.fwFAQ 3.3.giFAQ 3.3.gqFAQ 3.2.hlFAQ 3.2.hmFAQ 3.2.htFAQ 3.1.hyFAQ 3.1.igFAQ 2.2.@.264FAQ 2.2.@.273FAQ 2.1.@.283FAQ 2.1.@.292FAQ 1.3.@.324FAQ 1.3.@.332FAQ 1.2.@.340FAQ 1.2.@.350FAQ 1.1.@.404FAQ 1.1.@.413FAQ 12.3.@.416FAQ 12.2.@.417FAQ 12.1.@.418FAQ 11.3.@.419FAQ 11.2.@.420FAQ 11.1.@.421FAQ 10.2.@.422FAQ 10.1.@.423FAQ 9.3.@.424FAQ 9.2.@.425FAQ 9.1.@.426FAQ 8.3.@.427FAQ 8.2.@.428FAQ 8.1.@.429FAQ 7.3.@.430FAQ 7.2.@.431FAQ 7.1.@.432FAQ 6.2.@.433FAQ 6.1.@.434FAQ 5.4.@.435FAQ 5.3.@.436FAQ 5.2.@.437FAQ 5.1.@.438FAQ 4.3.@.439FAQ 4.2.@.440FAQ 4.1.@.441FAQ 3.3.@.442FAQ 3.2.@.443FAQ 3.1.@.444FAQ 2.2.@.445FAQ 2.1.@.446FAQ 1.3.@.447FAQ 1.2.@.448FAQ 1.1.@.449YES, BUT YEARSGlobal surface temperature change (°C)

FAQ 5.3.qFAQ 5.2.tFAQ 5.2.alFAQ 5.1.aoFAQ 5.1.bvFAQ 4.3.cfFAQ 4.3.coFAQ 4.2.ekFAQ 4.2.esFAQ 4.1.fqFAQ 4.1.fxFAQ 3.3.gjFAQ 3.3.grFAQ 3.2.hmFAQ 3.2.hnFAQ 3.2.huFAQ 3.1.hzFAQ 3.1.ihFAQ 2.2.@.265FAQ 2.2.@.274FAQ 2.1.@.284FAQ 2.1.@.293FAQ 1.3.@.325FAQ 1.3.@.333FAQ 1.2.@.341FAQ 1.2.@.351FAQ 1.1.@.405FAQ 1.1.@.414FAQ 12.3.@.417FAQ 12.2.@.418FAQ 12.1.@.419FAQ 11.3.@.420FAQ 11.2.@.421FAQ 11.1.@.422FAQ 10.2.@.423FAQ 10.1.@.424FAQ 9.3.@.425FAQ 9.2.@.426FAQ 9.1.@.427FAQ 8.3.@.428FAQ 8.2.@.429FAQ 8.1.@.430FAQ 7.3.@.431FAQ 7.2.@.432FAQ 7.1.@.433FAQ 6.2.@.434FAQ 6.1.@.435FAQ 5.4.@.436FAQ 5.3.@.437FAQ 5.2.@.438FAQ 5.1.@.439FAQ 4.3.@.440FAQ 4.2.@.441FAQ 4.1.@.442FAQ 3.3.@.443FAQ 3.2.@.444FAQ 3.1.@.445FAQ 2.2.@.446FAQ 2.1.@.447FAQ 1.3.@.448FAQ 1.2.@.449FAQ 1.1.@.4502.5

FAQ 5.3.rFAQ 5.2.uFAQ 5.2.amFAQ 5.1.apFAQ 5.1.bwFAQ 4.3.cgFAQ 4.3.cpFAQ 4.2.elFAQ 4.2.etFAQ 4.1.frFAQ 4.1.fyFAQ 3.3.gkFAQ 3.3.gsFAQ 3.2.hnFAQ 3.2.hoFAQ 3.2.hvFAQ 3.1.iaFAQ 3.1.iiFAQ 2.2.@.266FAQ 2.2.@.275FAQ 2.1.@.285FAQ 2.1.@.294FAQ 1.3.@.326FAQ 1.3.@.334FAQ 1.2.@.342FAQ 1.2.@.352FAQ 1.1.@.406FAQ 1.1.@.415FAQ 12.3.@.418FAQ 12.2.@.419FAQ 12.1.@.420FAQ 11.3.@.421FAQ 11.2.@.422FAQ 11.1.@.423FAQ 10.2.@.424FAQ 10.1.@.425FAQ 9.3.@.426FAQ 9.2.@.427FAQ 9.1.@.428FAQ 8.3.@.429FAQ 8.2.@.430FAQ 8.1.@.431FAQ 7.3.@.432FAQ 7.2.@.433FAQ 7.1.@.434FAQ 6.2.@.435FAQ 6.1.@.436FAQ 5.4.@.437FAQ 5.3.@.438FAQ 5.2.@.439FAQ 5.1.@.440FAQ 4.3.@.441FAQ 4.2.@.442FAQ 4.1.@.443FAQ 3.3.@.444FAQ 3.2.@.445FAQ 3.1.@.446FAQ 2.2.@.447FAQ 2.1.@.448FAQ 1.3.@.449FAQ 1.2.@.450FAQ 1.1.@.4512.0

FAQ 5.3.sFAQ 5.2.vFAQ 5.2.anFAQ 5.1.aqFAQ 5.1.bxFAQ 4.3.chFAQ 4.3.cqFAQ 4.2.emFAQ 4.2.euFAQ 4.1.fsFAQ 4.1.fzFAQ 3.3.glFAQ 3.3.gtFAQ 3.2.hoFAQ 3.2.hpFAQ 3.2.hwFAQ 3.1.ibFAQ 3.1.ijFAQ 2.2.@.267FAQ 2.2.@.276FAQ 2.1.@.286FAQ 2.1.@.295FAQ 1.3.@.327FAQ 1.3.@.335FAQ 1.2.@.343FAQ 1.2.@.353FAQ 1.1.@.407FAQ 1.1.@.416FAQ 12.3.@.419FAQ 12.2.@.420FAQ 12.1.@.421FAQ 11.3.@.422FAQ 11.2.@.423FAQ 11.1.@.424FAQ 10.2.@.425FAQ 10.1.@.426FAQ 9.3.@.427FAQ 9.2.@.428FAQ 9.1.@.429FAQ 8.3.@.430FAQ 8.2.@.431FAQ 8.1.@.432FAQ 7.3.@.433FAQ 7.2.@.434FAQ 7.1.@.435FAQ 6.2.@.436FAQ 6.1.@.437FAQ 5.4.@.438FAQ 5.3.@.439FAQ 5.2.@.440FAQ 5.1.@.441FAQ 4.3.@.442FAQ 4.2.@.443FAQ 4.1.@.444FAQ 3.3.@.445FAQ 3.2.@.446FAQ 3.1.@.447FAQ 2.2.@.448FAQ 2.1.@.449FAQ 1.3.@.450FAQ 1.2.@.451FAQ 1.1.@.4521.5

FAQ 5.3.tFAQ 5.2.wFAQ 5.2.aoFAQ 5.1.arFAQ 5.1.byFAQ 4.3.ciFAQ 4.3.crFAQ 4.2.enFAQ 4.2.evFAQ 4.1.ftFAQ 4.1.gaFAQ 3.3.gmFAQ 3.3.guFAQ 3.2.hpFAQ 3.2.hqFAQ 3.2.hxFAQ 3.1.icFAQ 3.1.ikFAQ 2.2.@.268FAQ 2.2.@.277FAQ 2.1.@.287FAQ 2.1.@.296FAQ 1.3.@.328FAQ 1.3.@.336FAQ 1.2.@.344FAQ 1.2.@.354FAQ 1.1.@.408FAQ 1.1.@.417FAQ 12.3.@.420FAQ 12.2.@.421FAQ 12.1.@.422FAQ 11.3.@.423FAQ 11.2.@.424FAQ 11.1.@.425FAQ 10.2.@.426FAQ 10.1.@.427FAQ 9.3.@.428FAQ 9.2.@.429FAQ 9.1.@.430FAQ 8.3.@.431FAQ 8.2.@.432FAQ 8.1.@.433FAQ 7.3.@.434FAQ 7.2.@.435FAQ 7.1.@.436FAQ 6.2.@.437FAQ 6.1.@.438FAQ 5.4.@.439FAQ 5.3.@.440FAQ 5.2.@.441FAQ 5.1.@.442FAQ 4.3.@.443FAQ 4.2.@.444FAQ 4.1.@.445FAQ 3.3.@.446FAQ 3.2.@.447FAQ 3.1.@.448FAQ 2.2.@.449FAQ 2.1.@.450FAQ 1.3.@.451FAQ 1.2.@.452FAQ 1.1.@.4531.0

FAQ 5.3.uFAQ 5.2.xFAQ 5.2.apFAQ 5.1.asFAQ 5.1.bzFAQ 4.3.cjFAQ 4.3.csFAQ 4.2.eoFAQ 4.2.ewFAQ 4.1.fuFAQ 4.1.gbFAQ 3.3.gnFAQ 3.3.gvFAQ 3.2.hqFAQ 3.2.hrFAQ 3.2.hyFAQ 3.1.idFAQ 3.1.ilFAQ 2.2.@.269FAQ 2.2.@.278FAQ 2.1.@.288FAQ 2.1.@.297FAQ 1.3.@.329FAQ 1.3.@.337FAQ 1.2.@.345FAQ 1.2.@.355FAQ 1.1.@.409FAQ 1.1.@.418FAQ 12.3.@.421FAQ 12.2.@.422FAQ 12.1.@.423FAQ 11.3.@.424FAQ 11.2.@.425FAQ 11.1.@.426FAQ 10.2.@.427FAQ 10.1.@.428FAQ 9.3.@.429FAQ 9.2.@.430FAQ 9.1.@.431FAQ 8.3.@.432FAQ 8.2.@.433FAQ 8.1.@.434FAQ 7.3.@.435FAQ 7.2.@.436FAQ 7.1.@.437FAQ 6.2.@.438FAQ 6.1.@.439FAQ 5.4.@.440FAQ 5.3.@.441FAQ 5.2.@.442FAQ 5.1.@.443FAQ 4.3.@.444FAQ 4.2.@.445FAQ 4.1.@.446FAQ 3.3.@.447FAQ 3.2.@.448FAQ 3.1.@.449FAQ 2.2.@.450FAQ 2.1.@.451FAQ 1.3.@.452FAQ 1.2.@.453FAQ 1.1.@.4540.5

FAQ 5.3.vFAQ 5.2.yFAQ 5.2.aqFAQ 5.1.atFAQ 5.1.caFAQ 4.3.ckFAQ 4.3.ctFAQ 4.2.epFAQ 4.2.exFAQ 4.1.fvFAQ 4.1.gcFAQ 3.3.goFAQ 3.3.gwFAQ 3.2.hrFAQ 3.2.hsFAQ 3.2.hzFAQ 3.1.ieFAQ 3.1.imFAQ 2.2.@.270FAQ 2.2.@.279FAQ 2.1.@.289FAQ 2.1.@.298FAQ 1.3.@.330FAQ 1.3.@.338FAQ 1.2.@.346FAQ 1.2.@.356FAQ 1.1.@.410FAQ 1.1.@.419FAQ 12.3.@.422FAQ 12.2.@.423FAQ 12.1.@.424FAQ 11.3.@.425FAQ 11.2.@.426FAQ 11.1.@.427FAQ 10.2.@.428FAQ 10.1.@.429FAQ 9.3.@.430FAQ 9.2.@.431FAQ 9.1.@.432FAQ 8.3.@.433FAQ 8.2.@.434FAQ 8.1.@.435FAQ 7.3.@.436FAQ 7.2.@.437FAQ 7.1.@.438FAQ 6.2.@.439FAQ 6.1.@.440FAQ 5.4.@.441FAQ 5.3.@.442FAQ 5.2.@.443FAQ 5.1.@.444FAQ 4.3.@.445FAQ 4.2.@.446FAQ 4.1.@.447FAQ 3.3.@.448FAQ 3.2.@.449FAQ 3.1.@.450FAQ 2.2.@.451FAQ 2.1.@.452FAQ 1.3.@.453FAQ 1.2.@.454FAQ 1.1.@.4550.0

FAQ 5.3.wFAQ 5.2.zFAQ 5.2.arFAQ 5.1.auFAQ 5.1.cbFAQ 4.3.clFAQ 4.3.cuFAQ 4.2.eqFAQ 4.2.eyFAQ 4.1.fwFAQ 4.1.gdFAQ 3.3.gpFAQ 3.3.gxFAQ 3.2.hsFAQ 3.2.htFAQ 3.2.iaFAQ 3.1.ifFAQ 3.1.inFAQ 2.2.@.271FAQ 2.2.@.280FAQ 2.1.@.290FAQ 2.1.@.299FAQ 1.3.@.331FAQ 1.3.@.339FAQ 1.2.@.347FAQ 1.2.@.357FAQ 1.1.@.411FAQ 1.1.@.420FAQ 12.3.@.423FAQ 12.2.@.424FAQ 12.1.@.425FAQ 11.3.@.426FAQ 11.2.@.427FAQ 11.1.@.428FAQ 10.2.@.429FAQ 10.1.@.430FAQ 9.3.@.431FAQ 9.2.@.432FAQ 9.1.@.433FAQ 8.3.@.434FAQ 8.2.@.435FAQ 8.1.@.436FAQ 7.3.@.437FAQ 7.2.@.438FAQ 7.1.@.439FAQ 6.2.@.440FAQ 6.1.@.441FAQ 5.4.@.442FAQ 5.3.@.443FAQ 5.2.@.444FAQ 5.1.@.445FAQ 4.3.@.446FAQ 4.2.@.447FAQ 4.1.@.448FAQ 3.3.@.449FAQ 3.2.@.450FAQ 3.1.@.451FAQ 2.2.@.452FAQ 2.1.@.453FAQ 1.3.@.454FAQ 1.2.@.455FAQ 1.1.@.456-0.5

FAQ 5.3.xFAQ 5.2.aaFAQ 5.2.asFAQ 5.1.avFAQ 5.1.ccFAQ 4.3.cmFAQ 4.3.cvFAQ 4.2.erFAQ 4.2.ezFAQ 4.1.fxFAQ 4.1.geFAQ 3.3.gqFAQ 3.3.gyFAQ 3.2.htFAQ 3.2.huFAQ 3.2.ibFAQ 3.1.igFAQ 3.1.ioFAQ 2.2.@.272FAQ 2.2.@.281FAQ 2.1.@.291FAQ 2.1.@.300FAQ 1.3.@.332FAQ 1.3.@.340FAQ 1.2.@.348FAQ 1.2.@.358FAQ 1.1.@.412FAQ 1.1.@.421FAQ 12.3.@.424FAQ 12.2.@.425FAQ 12.1.@.426FAQ 11.3.@.427FAQ 11.2.@.428FAQ 11.1.@.429FAQ 10.2.@.430FAQ 10.1.@.431FAQ 9.3.@.432FAQ 9.2.@.433FAQ 9.1.@.434FAQ 8.3.@.435FAQ 8.2.@.436FAQ 8.1.@.437FAQ 7.3.@.438FAQ 7.2.@.439FAQ 7.1.@.440FAQ 6.2.@.441FAQ 6.1.@.442FAQ 5.4.@.443FAQ 5.3.@.444FAQ 5.2.@.445FAQ 5.1.@.446FAQ 4.3.@.447FAQ 4.2.@.448FAQ 4.1.@.449FAQ 3.3.@.450FAQ 3.2.@.451FAQ 3.1.@.452FAQ 2.2.@.453FAQ 2.1.@.454FAQ 1.3.@.455FAQ 1.2.@.456FAQ 1.1.@.45719002000210022002300

FAQ 5.3.yFAQ 5.2.abFAQ 5.2.atFAQ 5.1.awFAQ 5.1.cdFAQ 4.3.cnFAQ 4.3.cwFAQ 4.2.esFAQ 4.2.faFAQ 4.1.fyFAQ 4.1.gfFAQ 3.3.grFAQ 3.3.gzFAQ 3.2.huFAQ 3.2.hvFAQ 3.2.icFAQ 3.1.ihFAQ 3.1.ipFAQ 2.2.@.273FAQ 2.2.@.282FAQ 2.1.@.292FAQ 2.1.@.301FAQ 1.3.@.333FAQ 1.3.@.341FAQ 1.2.@.349FAQ 1.2.@.359FAQ 1.1.@.413FAQ 1.1.@.422FAQ 12.3.@.425FAQ 12.2.@.426FAQ 12.1.@.427FAQ 11.3.@.428FAQ 11.2.@.429FAQ 11.1.@.430FAQ 10.2.@.431FAQ 10.1.@.432FAQ 9.3.@.433FAQ 9.2.@.434FAQ 9.1.@.435FAQ 8.3.@.436FAQ 8.2.@.437FAQ 8.1.@.438FAQ 7.3.@.439FAQ 7.2.@.440FAQ 7.1.@.441FAQ 6.2.@.442FAQ 6.1.@.443FAQ 5.4.@.444FAQ 5.3.@.445FAQ 5.2.@.446FAQ 5.1.@.447FAQ 4.3.@.448FAQ 4.2.@.449FAQ 4.1.@.450FAQ 3.3.@.451FAQ 3.2.@.452FAQ 3.1.@.453FAQ 2.2.@.454FAQ 2.1.@.455FAQ 1.3.@.456FAQ 1.2.@.457FAQ 1.1.@.458YES, BUT DECADES

FAQ 5.3.zFAQ 5.2.acFAQ 5.2.auFAQ 5.1.axFAQ 5.1.ceFAQ 4.3.coFAQ 4.3.cxFAQ 4.2.etFAQ 4.2.fbFAQ 4.1.fzFAQ 4.1.ggFAQ 3.3.gsFAQ 3.3.haFAQ 3.2.hvFAQ 3.2.hwFAQ 3.2.idFAQ 3.1.iiFAQ 3.1.iqFAQ 2.2.@.274FAQ 2.2.@.283FAQ 2.1.@.293FAQ 2.1.@.302FAQ 1.3.@.334FAQ 1.3.@.342FAQ 1.2.@.350FAQ 1.2.@.360FAQ 1.1.@.414FAQ 1.1.@.423FAQ 12.3.@.426FAQ 12.2.@.427FAQ 12.1.@.428FAQ 11.3.@.429FAQ 11.2.@.430FAQ 11.1.@.431FAQ 10.2.@.432FAQ 10.1.@.433FAQ 9.3.@.434FAQ 9.2.@.435FAQ 9.1.@.436FAQ 8.3.@.437FAQ 8.2.@.438FAQ 8.1.@.439FAQ 7.3.@.440FAQ 7.2.@.441FAQ 7.1.@.442FAQ 6.2.@.443FAQ 6.1.@.444FAQ 5.4.@.445FAQ 5.3.@.446FAQ 5.2.@.447FAQ 5.1.@.448FAQ 4.3.@.449FAQ 4.2.@.450FAQ 4.1.@.451FAQ 3.3.@.452FAQ 3.2.@.453FAQ 3.1.@.454FAQ 2.2.@.455FAQ 2.1.@.456FAQ 1.3.@.457FAQ 1.2.@.458FAQ 1.1.@.459Permafrost area change (millions of km2 )

FAQ 5.3.aaFAQ 5.2.adFAQ 5.2.avFAQ 5.1.ayFAQ 5.1.cfFAQ 4.3.cpFAQ 4.3.cyFAQ 4.2.euFAQ 4.2.fcFAQ 4.1.gaFAQ 4.1.ghFAQ 3.3.gtFAQ 3.3.hbFAQ 3.2.hwFAQ 3.2.hxFAQ 3.2.ieFAQ 3.1.ijFAQ 3.1.irFAQ 2.2.@.275FAQ 2.2.@.284FAQ 2.1.@.294FAQ 2.1.@.303FAQ 1.3.@.335FAQ 1.3.@.343FAQ 1.2.@.351FAQ 1.2.@.361FAQ 1.1.@.415FAQ 1.1.@.424FAQ 12.3.@.427FAQ 12.2.@.428FAQ 12.1.@.429FAQ 11.3.@.430FAQ 11.2.@.431FAQ 11.1.@.432FAQ 10.2.@.433FAQ 10.1.@.434FAQ 9.3.@.435FAQ 9.2.@.436FAQ 9.1.@.437FAQ 8.3.@.438FAQ 8.2.@.439FAQ 8.1.@.440FAQ 7.3.@.441FAQ 7.2.@.442FAQ 7.1.@.443FAQ 6.2.@.444FAQ 6.1.@.445FAQ 5.4.@.446FAQ 5.3.@.447FAQ 5.2.@.448FAQ 5.1.@.449FAQ 4.3.@.450FAQ 4.2.@.451FAQ 4.1.@.452FAQ 3.3.@.453FAQ 3.2.@.454FAQ 3.1.@.455FAQ 2.2.@.456FAQ 2.1.@.457FAQ 1.3.@.458FAQ 1.2.@.459FAQ 1.1.@.460Ocean thermal expansion (m)

FAQ 5.3.abFAQ 5.2.aeFAQ 5.2.awFAQ 5.1.azFAQ 5.1.cgFAQ 4.3.cqFAQ 4.3.czFAQ 4.2.evFAQ 4.2.fdFAQ 4.1.gbFAQ 4.1.giFAQ 3.3.guFAQ 3.3.hcFAQ 3.2.hxFAQ 3.2.hyFAQ 3.2.ifFAQ 3.1.ikFAQ 3.1.isFAQ 2.2.@.276FAQ 2.2.@.285FAQ 2.1.@.295FAQ 2.1.@.304FAQ 1.3.@.336FAQ 1.3.@.344FAQ 1.2.@.352FAQ 1.2.@.362FAQ 1.1.@.416FAQ 1.1.@.425FAQ 12.3.@.428FAQ 12.2.@.429FAQ 12.1.@.430FAQ 11.3.@.431FAQ 11.2.@.432FAQ 11.1.@.433FAQ 10.2.@.434FAQ 10.1.@.435FAQ 9.3.@.436FAQ 9.2.@.437FAQ 9.1.@.438FAQ 8.3.@.439FAQ 8.2.@.440FAQ 8.1.@.441FAQ 7.3.@.442FAQ 7.2.@.443FAQ 7.1.@.444FAQ 6.2.@.445FAQ 6.1.@.446FAQ 5.4.@.447FAQ 5.3.@.448FAQ 5.2.@.449FAQ 5.1.@.450FAQ 4.3.@.451FAQ 4.2.@.452FAQ 4.1.@.453FAQ 3.3.@.454FAQ 3.2.@.455FAQ 3.1.@.456FAQ 2.2.@.457FAQ 2.1.@.458FAQ 1.3.@.459FAQ 1.2.@.460FAQ 1.1.@.4611

FAQ 5.3.acFAQ 5.2.afFAQ 5.2.axFAQ 5.1.baFAQ 5.1.chFAQ 4.3.crFAQ 4.3.daFAQ 4.2.ewFAQ 4.2.feFAQ 4.1.gcFAQ 4.1.gjFAQ 3.3.gvFAQ 3.3.hdFAQ 3.2.hyFAQ 3.2.hzFAQ 3.2.igFAQ 3.1.ilFAQ 3.1.itFAQ 2.2.@.277FAQ 2.2.@.286FAQ 2.1.@.296FAQ 2.1.@.305FAQ 1.3.@.337FAQ 1.3.@.345FAQ 1.2.@.353FAQ 1.2.@.363FAQ 1.1.@.417FAQ 1.1.@.426FAQ 12.3.@.429FAQ 12.2.@.430FAQ 12.1.@.431FAQ 11.3.@.432FAQ 11.2.@.433FAQ 11.1.@.434FAQ 10.2.@.435FAQ 10.1.@.436FAQ 9.3.@.437FAQ 9.2.@.438FAQ 9.1.@.439FAQ 8.3.@.440FAQ 8.2.@.441FAQ 8.1.@.442FAQ 7.3.@.443FAQ 7.2.@.444FAQ 7.1.@.445FAQ 6.2.@.446FAQ 6.1.@.447FAQ 5.4.@.448FAQ 5.3.@.449FAQ 5.2.@.450FAQ 5.1.@.451FAQ 4.3.@.452FAQ 4.2.@.453FAQ 4.1.@.454FAQ 3.3.@.455FAQ 3.2.@.456FAQ 3.1.@.457FAQ 2.2.@.458FAQ 2.1.@.459FAQ 1.3.@.460FAQ 1.2.@.461FAQ 1.1.@.4620

FAQ 5.3.adFAQ 5.2.agFAQ 5.2.ayFAQ 5.1.bbFAQ 5.1.ciFAQ 4.3.csFAQ 4.3.dbFAQ 4.2.exFAQ 4.2.ffFAQ 4.1.gdFAQ 4.1.gkFAQ 3.3.gwFAQ 3.3.heFAQ 3.2.hzFAQ 3.2.iaFAQ 3.2.ihFAQ 3.1.imFAQ 3.1.iuFAQ 2.2.@.278FAQ 2.2.@.287FAQ 2.1.@.297FAQ 2.1.@.306FAQ 1.3.@.338FAQ 1.3.@.346FAQ 1.2.@.354FAQ 1.2.@.364FAQ 1.1.@.418FAQ 1.1.@.427FAQ 12.3.@.430FAQ 12.2.@.431FAQ 12.1.@.432FAQ 11.3.@.433FAQ 11.2.@.434FAQ 11.1.@.435FAQ 10.2.@.436FAQ 10.1.@.437FAQ 9.3.@.438FAQ 9.2.@.439FAQ 9.1.@.440FAQ 8.3.@.441FAQ 8.2.@.442FAQ 8.1.@.443FAQ 7.3.@.444FAQ 7.2.@.445FAQ 7.1.@.446FAQ 6.2.@.447FAQ 6.1.@.448FAQ 5.4.@.449FAQ 5.3.@.450FAQ 5.2.@.451FAQ 5.1.@.452FAQ 4.3.@.453FAQ 4.2.@.454FAQ 4.1.@.455FAQ 3.3.@.456FAQ 3.2.@.457FAQ 3.1.@.458FAQ 2.2.@.459FAQ 2.1.@.460FAQ 1.3.@.461FAQ 1.2.@.462FAQ 1.1.@.463-1

FAQ 5.3.aeFAQ 5.2.ahFAQ 5.2.azFAQ 5.1.bcFAQ 5.1.cjFAQ 4.3.ctFAQ 4.3.dcFAQ 4.2.eyFAQ 4.2.fgFAQ 4.1.geFAQ 4.1.glFAQ 3.3.gxFAQ 3.3.hfFAQ 3.2.iaFAQ 3.2.ibFAQ 3.2.iiFAQ 3.1.inFAQ 3.1.ivFAQ 2.2.@.279FAQ 2.2.@.288FAQ 2.1.@.298FAQ 2.1.@.307FAQ 1.3.@.339FAQ 1.3.@.347FAQ 1.2.@.355FAQ 1.2.@.365FAQ 1.1.@.419FAQ 1.1.@.428FAQ 12.3.@.431FAQ 12.2.@.432FAQ 12.1.@.433FAQ 11.3.@.434FAQ 11.2.@.435FAQ 11.1.@.436FAQ 10.2.@.437FAQ 10.1.@.438FAQ 9.3.@.439FAQ 9.2.@.440FAQ 9.1.@.441FAQ 8.3.@.442FAQ 8.2.@.443FAQ 8.1.@.444FAQ 7.3.@.445FAQ 7.2.@.446FAQ 7.1.@.447FAQ 6.2.@.448FAQ 6.1.@.449FAQ 5.4.@.450FAQ 5.3.@.451FAQ 5.2.@.452FAQ 5.1.@.453FAQ 4.3.@.454FAQ 4.2.@.455FAQ 4.1.@.456FAQ 3.3.@.457FAQ 3.2.@.458FAQ 3.1.@.459FAQ 2.2.@.460FAQ 2.1.@.461FAQ 1.3.@.462FAQ 1.2.@.463FAQ 1.1.@.464-2

FAQ 5.3.afFAQ 5.2.aiFAQ 5.2.baFAQ 5.1.bdFAQ 5.1.ckFAQ 4.3.cuFAQ 4.3.ddFAQ 4.2.ezFAQ 4.2.fhFAQ 4.1.gfFAQ 4.1.gmFAQ 3.3.gyFAQ 3.3.hgFAQ 3.2.ibFAQ 3.2.icFAQ 3.2.ijFAQ 3.1.ioFAQ 3.1.@.256FAQ 2.2.@.280FAQ 2.2.@.289FAQ 2.1.@.299FAQ 2.1.@.308FAQ 1.3.@.340FAQ 1.3.@.348FAQ 1.2.@.356FAQ 1.2.@.366FAQ 1.1.@.420FAQ 1.1.@.429FAQ 12.3.@.432FAQ 12.2.@.433FAQ 12.1.@.434FAQ 11.3.@.435FAQ 11.2.@.436FAQ 11.1.@.437FAQ 10.2.@.438FAQ 10.1.@.439FAQ 9.3.@.440FAQ 9.2.@.441FAQ 9.1.@.442FAQ 8.3.@.443FAQ 8.2.@.444FAQ 8.1.@.445FAQ 7.3.@.446FAQ 7.2.@.447FAQ 7.1.@.448FAQ 6.2.@.449FAQ 6.1.@.450FAQ 5.4.@.451FAQ 5.3.@.452FAQ 5.2.@.453FAQ 5.1.@.454FAQ 4.3.@.455FAQ 4.2.@.456FAQ 4.1.@.457FAQ 3.3.@.458FAQ 3.2.@.459FAQ 3.1.@.460FAQ 2.2.@.461FAQ 2.1.@.462FAQ 1.3.@.463FAQ 1.2.@.464FAQ 1.1.@.465-3

FAQ 5.3.agFAQ 5.2.ajFAQ 5.2.bbFAQ 5.1.beFAQ 5.1.clFAQ 4.3.cvFAQ 4.3.deFAQ 4.2.faFAQ 4.2.fiFAQ 4.1.ggFAQ 4.1.gnFAQ 3.3.gzFAQ 3.3.hhFAQ 3.2.icFAQ 3.2.idFAQ 3.2.ikFAQ 3.1.ipFAQ 3.1.@.257FAQ 2.2.@.281FAQ 2.2.@.290FAQ 2.1.@.300FAQ 2.1.@.309FAQ 1.3.@.341FAQ 1.3.@.349FAQ 1.2.@.357FAQ 1.2.@.367FAQ 1.1.@.421FAQ 1.1.@.430FAQ 12.3.@.433FAQ 12.2.@.434FAQ 12.1.@.435FAQ 11.3.@.436FAQ 11.2.@.437FAQ 11.1.@.438FAQ 10.2.@.439FAQ 10.1.@.440FAQ 9.3.@.441FAQ 9.2.@.442FAQ 9.1.@.443FAQ 8.3.@.444FAQ 8.2.@.445FAQ 8.1.@.446FAQ 7.3.@.447FAQ 7.2.@.448FAQ 7.1.@.449FAQ 6.2.@.450FAQ 6.1.@.451FAQ 5.4.@.452FAQ 5.3.@.453FAQ 5.2.@.454FAQ 5.1.@.455FAQ 4.3.@.456FAQ 4.2.@.457FAQ 4.1.@.458FAQ 3.3.@.459FAQ 3.2.@.460FAQ 3.1.@.461FAQ 2.2.@.462FAQ 2.1.@.463FAQ 1.3.@.464FAQ 1.2.@.465FAQ 1.1.@.466-4

FAQ 5.3.ahFAQ 5.2.akFAQ 5.2.bcFAQ 5.1.bfFAQ 5.1.cmFAQ 4.3.cwFAQ 4.3.dfFAQ 4.2.fbFAQ 4.2.fjFAQ 4.1.ghFAQ 4.1.goFAQ 3.3.haFAQ 3.3.hiFAQ 3.2.idFAQ 3.2.ieFAQ 3.2.ilFAQ 3.1.iqFAQ 3.1.@.258FAQ 2.2.@.282FAQ 2.2.@.291FAQ 2.1.@.301FAQ 2.1.@.310FAQ 1.3.@.342FAQ 1.3.@.350FAQ 1.2.@.358FAQ 1.2.@.368FAQ 1.1.@.422FAQ 1.1.@.431FAQ 12.3.@.434FAQ 12.2.@.435FAQ 12.1.@.436FAQ 11.3.@.437FAQ 11.2.@.438FAQ 11.1.@.439FAQ 10.2.@.440FAQ 10.1.@.441FAQ 9.3.@.442FAQ 9.2.@.443FAQ 9.1.@.444FAQ 8.3.@.445FAQ 8.2.@.446FAQ 8.1.@.447FAQ 7.3.@.448FAQ 7.2.@.449FAQ 7.1.@.450FAQ 6.2.@.451FAQ 6.1.@.452FAQ 5.4.@.453FAQ 5.3.@.454FAQ 5.2.@.455FAQ 5.1.@.456FAQ 4.3.@.457FAQ 4.2.@.458FAQ 4.1.@.459FAQ 3.3.@.460FAQ 3.2.@.461FAQ 3.1.@.462FAQ 2.2.@.463FAQ 2.1.@.464FAQ 1.3.@.465FAQ 1.2.@.466FAQ 1.1.@.467-5

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FAQ 5.3.atFAQ 5.2.awFAQ 5.2.boFAQ 5.1.brFAQ 5.1.cyFAQ 4.3.diFAQ 4.3.drFAQ 4.2.fnFAQ 4.2.fvFAQ 4.1.gtFAQ 4.1.haFAQ 3.3.hmFAQ 3.3.huFAQ 3.2.ipFAQ 3.2.iqFAQ 3.2.@.257FAQ 3.1.@.262FAQ 3.1.@.270FAQ 2.2.@.294FAQ 2.2.@.303FAQ 2.1.@.313FAQ 2.1.@.322FAQ 1.3.@.354FAQ 1.3.@.362FAQ 1.2.@.370FAQ 1.2.@.380FAQ 1.1.@.434FAQ 1.1.@.443FAQ 12.3.@.446FAQ 12.2.@.447FAQ 12.1.@.448FAQ 11.3.@.449FAQ 11.2.@.450FAQ 11.1.@.451FAQ 10.2.@.452FAQ 10.1.@.453FAQ 9.3.@.454FAQ 9.2.@.455FAQ 9.1.@.456FAQ 8.3.@.457FAQ 8.2.@.458FAQ 8.1.@.459FAQ 7.3.@.460FAQ 7.2.@.461FAQ 7.1.@.462FAQ 6.2.@.463FAQ 6.1.@.464FAQ 5.4.@.465FAQ 5.3.@.466FAQ 5.2.@.467FAQ 5.1.@.468FAQ 4.3.@.469FAQ 4.2.@.470FAQ 4.1.@.471FAQ 3.3.@.472FAQ 3.2.@.473FAQ 3.1.@.474FAQ 2.2.@.475FAQ 2.1.@.476FAQ 1.3.@.477FAQ 1.2.@.478FAQ 1.1.@.47919002000210022002300

FAQ 5.3.auFAQ 5.2.axFAQ 5.2.bpFAQ 5.1.bsFAQ 5.1.czFAQ 4.3.djFAQ 4.3.dsFAQ 4.2.foFAQ 4.2.fwFAQ 4.1.guFAQ 4.1.hbFAQ 3.3.hnFAQ 3.3.hvFAQ 3.2.iqFAQ 3.2.irFAQ 3.2.@.258FAQ 3.1.@.263FAQ 3.1.@.271FAQ 2.2.@.295FAQ 2.2.@.304FAQ 2.1.@.314FAQ 2.1.@.323FAQ 1.3.@.355FAQ 1.3.@.363FAQ 1.2.@.371FAQ 1.2.@.381FAQ 1.1.@.435FAQ 1.1.@.444FAQ 12.3.@.447FAQ 12.2.@.448FAQ 12.1.@.449FAQ 11.3.@.450FAQ 11.2.@.451FAQ 11.1.@.452FAQ 10.2.@.453FAQ 10.1.@.454FAQ 9.3.@.455FAQ 9.2.@.456FAQ 9.1.@.457FAQ 8.3.@.458FAQ 8.2.@.459FAQ 8.1.@.460FAQ 7.3.@.461FAQ 7.2.@.462FAQ 7.1.@.463FAQ 6.2.@.464FAQ 6.1.@.465FAQ 5.4.@.466FAQ 5.3.@.467FAQ 5.2.@.468FAQ 5.1.@.469FAQ 4.3.@.470FAQ 4.2.@.471FAQ 4.1.@.472FAQ 3.3.@.473FAQ 3.2.@.474FAQ 3.1.@.475FAQ 2.2.@.476FAQ 2.1.@.477FAQ 1.3.@.478FAQ 1.2.@.479FAQ 1.1.@.480FAQ 5.3, Figure 1 | Changes in aspects of climate change in response to a peak and decline in the atmospheric CO2concentration (top panel). The vertical grey dashed line indicates the time of peak CO2concentration in all panels. It shows that the reversal of global surface warming lags the decrease in the atmospheric CO2concentration by a few years, the reversal of permafrost area decline lags the decrease in atmospheric CO2by decades, and ocean thermal expansion continues for several centuries. The quantitative information in the figure (i.e., numbers on vertical axes) is not to be emphasized as it results from simulations with just one model and will be different for other

FAQ 5.3.avFAQ 5.2.ayFAQ 5.2.bqFAQ 5.1.btFAQ 5.1.daFAQ 4.3.dkFAQ 4.3.dtFAQ 4.2.fpFAQ 4.2.fxFAQ 4.1.gvFAQ 4.1.hcFAQ 3.3.hoFAQ 3.3.hwFAQ 3.2.irFAQ 3.2.isFAQ 3.2.@.259FAQ 3.1.@.264FAQ 3.1.@.272FAQ 2.2.@.296FAQ 2.2.@.305FAQ 2.1.@.315FAQ 2.1.@.324FAQ 1.3.@.356FAQ 1.3.@.364FAQ 1.2.@.372FAQ 1.2.@.382FAQ 1.1.@.436FAQ 1.1.@.445FAQ 12.3.@.448FAQ 12.2.@.449FAQ 12.1.@.450FAQ 11.3.@.451FAQ 11.2.@.452FAQ 11.1.@.453FAQ 10.2.@.454FAQ 10.1.@.455FAQ 9.3.@.456FAQ 9.2.@.457FAQ 9.1.@.458FAQ 8.3.@.459FAQ 8.2.@.460FAQ 8.1.@.461FAQ 7.3.@.462FAQ 7.2.@.463FAQ 7.1.@.464FAQ 6.2.@.465FAQ 6.1.@.466FAQ 5.4.@.467FAQ 5.3.@.468FAQ 5.2.@.469FAQ 5.1.@.470FAQ 4.3.@.471FAQ 4.2.@.472FAQ 4.1.@.473FAQ 3.3.@.474FAQ 3.2.@.475FAQ 3.1.@.476FAQ 2.2.@.477FAQ 2.1.@.478FAQ 1.3.@.479FAQ 1.2.@.480FAQ 1.1.@.481FAQif CO2 release equals removal, the atmospheric CO2 concentration would stabilize; and if CO2 removal exceeds release, the CO2 concentration would decline. This applies in the same way to net CO2 emissions – that is, the sum of human-caused releases and deliberate removals.

FAQ 5.3.awFAQ 5.2.azFAQ 5.2.brFAQ 5.1.buFAQ 5.1.dbFAQ 4.3.dlFAQ 4.3.duFAQ 4.2.fqFAQ 4.2.fyFAQ 4.1.gwFAQ 4.1.hdFAQ 3.3.hpFAQ 3.3.hxFAQ 3.2.isFAQ 3.2.itFAQ 3.2.@.260FAQ 3.1.@.265FAQ 3.1.@.273FAQ 2.2.@.297FAQ 2.2.@.306FAQ 2.1.@.316FAQ 2.1.@.325FAQ 1.3.@.357FAQ 1.3.@.365FAQ 1.2.@.373FAQ 1.2.@.383FAQ 1.1.@.437FAQ 1.1.@.446FAQ 12.3.@.449FAQ 12.2.@.450FAQ 12.1.@.451FAQ 11.3.@.452FAQ 11.2.@.453FAQ 11.1.@.454FAQ 10.2.@.455FAQ 10.1.@.456FAQ 9.3.@.457FAQ 9.2.@.458FAQ 9.1.@.459FAQ 8.3.@.460FAQ 8.2.@.461FAQ 8.1.@.462FAQ 7.3.@.463FAQ 7.2.@.464FAQ 7.1.@.465FAQ 6.2.@.466FAQ 6.1.@.467FAQ 5.4.@.468FAQ 5.3.@.469FAQ 5.2.@.470FAQ 5.1.@.471FAQ 4.3.@.472FAQ 4.2.@.473FAQ 4.1.@.474FAQ 3.3.@.475FAQ 3.2.@.476FAQ 3.1.@.477FAQ 2.2.@.478FAQ 2.1.@.479FAQ 1.3.@.480FAQ 1.2.@.481FAQ 1.1.@.482If the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere starts to go down, the Earth’s climate would respond to this change (FAQ 5.3, Figure 1). Some parts of the climate system take time to react to a change in CO2 concentration, so a decline in atmospheric CO2 as a result of net negative emissions would not lead to immediate reversal of all climate change trends. Recent studies have shown that global surface temperature starts to decline within a few years following a decline in atmospheric CO2, although the decline would not be detectable for decades due to natural climate variability (see FAQ 4.2). Other consequences of human-induced climate change, such as reduction in permafrost area, would take decades; yet others, such as warming, acidification and oxygen loss of the deep ocean, would take centuries to reverse following a decline in the atmospheric CO2 concentration. Sea level would continue to rise for many centuries to millennia, even if large deliberate CO2 removals were successfully implemented.

FAQ 5.3.axFAQ 5.2.baFAQ 5.2.bsFAQ 5.1.bvFAQ 5.1.dcFAQ 4.3.dmFAQ 4.3.dvFAQ 4.2.frFAQ 4.2.fzFAQ 4.1.gxFAQ 4.1.heFAQ 3.3.hqFAQ 3.3.hyFAQ 3.2.itFAQ 3.2.iuFAQ 3.2.@.261FAQ 3.1.@.266FAQ 3.1.@.274FAQ 2.2.@.298FAQ 2.2.@.307FAQ 2.1.@.317FAQ 2.1.@.326FAQ 1.3.@.358FAQ 1.3.@.366FAQ 1.2.@.374FAQ 1.2.@.384FAQ 1.1.@.438FAQ 1.1.@.447FAQ 12.3.@.450FAQ 12.2.@.451FAQ 12.1.@.452FAQ 11.3.@.453FAQ 11.2.@.454FAQ 11.1.@.455FAQ 10.2.@.456FAQ 10.1.@.457FAQ 9.3.@.458FAQ 9.2.@.459FAQ 9.1.@.460FAQ 8.3.@.461FAQ 8.2.@.462FAQ 8.1.@.463FAQ 7.3.@.464FAQ 7.2.@.465FAQ 7.1.@.466FAQ 6.2.@.467FAQ 6.1.@.468FAQ 5.4.@.469FAQ 5.3.@.470FAQ 5.2.@.471FAQ 5.1.@.472FAQ 4.3.@.473FAQ 4.2.@.474FAQ 4.1.@.475FAQ 3.3.@.476FAQ 3.2.@.477FAQ 3.1.@.478FAQ 2.2.@.479FAQ 2.1.@.480FAQ 1.3.@.481FAQ 1.2.@.482FAQ 1.1.@.483‘Overshoot’ scenarios are a class of future scenarios that are receiving increasing attention, particularly in the context of ambitious climate goals, such as the global warming limits of 1.5°C or 2°C included in the Paris Agreement. In these scenarios, a slow rate of reduction in emissions in the near term is compensated by net negative CO2 emissions in the later part of this century, which results in a temporary breach or ‘overshoot’ of a given warming level. Due to the delayed reaction of several climate system components, it follows that the temporary overshoot would result in additional climate changes compared to a scenario that reaches the goal without overshoot. These changes would take decades to many centuries to reverse, with the reversal taking longer for scenarios with larger overshoot.

FAQ 5.3.ayFAQ 5.2.bbFAQ 5.2.btFAQ 5.1.bwFAQ 5.1.ddFAQ 4.3.dnFAQ 4.3.dwFAQ 4.2.fsFAQ 4.2.gaFAQ 4.1.gyFAQ 4.1.hfFAQ 3.3.hrFAQ 3.3.hzFAQ 3.2.iuFAQ 3.2.ivFAQ 3.2.@.262FAQ 3.1.@.267FAQ 3.1.@.275FAQ 2.2.@.299FAQ 2.2.@.308FAQ 2.1.@.318FAQ 2.1.@.327FAQ 1.3.@.359FAQ 1.3.@.367FAQ 1.2.@.375FAQ 1.2.@.385FAQ 1.1.@.439FAQ 1.1.@.448FAQ 12.3.@.451FAQ 12.2.@.452FAQ 12.1.@.453FAQ 11.3.@.454FAQ 11.2.@.455FAQ 11.1.@.456FAQ 10.2.@.457FAQ 10.1.@.458FAQ 9.3.@.459FAQ 9.2.@.460FAQ 9.1.@.461FAQ 8.3.@.462FAQ 8.2.@.463FAQ 8.1.@.464FAQ 7.3.@.465FAQ 7.2.@.466FAQ 7.1.@.467FAQ 6.2.@.468FAQ 6.1.@.469FAQ 5.4.@.470FAQ 5.3.@.471FAQ 5.2.@.472FAQ 5.1.@.473FAQ 4.3.@.474FAQ 4.2.@.475FAQ 4.1.@.476FAQ 3.3.@.477FAQ 3.2.@.478FAQ 3.1.@.479FAQ 2.2.@.480FAQ 2.1.@.481FAQ 1.3.@.482FAQ 1.2.@.483FAQ 1.1.@.484Removing more CO2 from the atmosphere than is emitted into it would indeed begin to reverse some aspects of climate change, but some changes would still continue in their current direction for decades to millennia. Approaches capable of large-scale removal of CO2 are still in the state of research and development or unproven at the scales of deployment necessary to achieve a net reduction in atmospheric CO2 levels. CO2 removal approaches, particularly those deployed on land, can have undesired side effects on water, food production and biodiversity.

FAQ 5.3.azFAQ 5.2.bcFAQ 5.2.buFAQ 5.1.bxFAQ 5.1.deFAQ 4.3.doFAQ 4.3.dxFAQ 4.2.ftFAQ 4.2.gbFAQ 4.1.gzFAQ 4.1.hgFAQ 3.3.hsFAQ 3.3.iaFAQ 3.2.ivFAQ 3.2.@.256FAQ 3.2.@.263FAQ 3.1.@.268FAQ 3.1.@.276FAQ 2.2.@.300FAQ 2.2.@.309FAQ 2.1.@.319FAQ 2.1.@.328FAQ 1.3.@.360FAQ 1.3.@.368FAQ 1.2.@.376FAQ 1.2.@.386FAQ 1.1.@.440FAQ 1.1.@.449FAQ 12.3.@.452FAQ 12.2.@.453FAQ 12.1.@.454FAQ 11.3.@.455FAQ 11.2.@.456FAQ 11.1.@.457FAQ 10.2.@.458FAQ 10.1.@.459FAQ 9.3.@.460FAQ 9.2.@.461FAQ 9.1.@.462FAQ 8.3.@.463FAQ 8.2.@.464FAQ 8.1.@.465FAQ 7.3.@.466FAQ 7.2.@.467FAQ 7.1.@.468FAQ 6.2.@.469FAQ 6.1.@.470FAQ 5.4.@.471FAQ 5.3.@.472FAQ 5.2.@.473FAQ 5.1.@.474FAQ 4.3.@.475FAQ 4.2.@.476FAQ 4.1.@.477FAQ 3.3.@.478FAQ 3.2.@.479FAQ 3.1.@.480FAQ 2.2.@.481FAQ 2.1.@.482FAQ 1.3.@.483FAQ 1.2.@.484FAQ 1.1.@.485FAQ 5.3 (continued)

FAQ 5.3.aFAQ 5.3.baFAQ 5.2.bdFAQ 5.2.bvFAQ 5.1.byFAQ 5.1.dfFAQ 4.3.dpFAQ 4.3.dyFAQ 4.2.fuFAQ 4.2.gcFAQ 4.1.haFAQ 4.1.hhFAQ 3.3.htFAQ 3.3.ibFAQ 3.2.@.256FAQ 3.2.@.257FAQ 3.2.@.264FAQ 3.1.@.269FAQ 3.1.@.277FAQ 2.2.@.301FAQ 2.2.@.310FAQ 2.1.@.320FAQ 2.1.@.329FAQ 1.3.@.361FAQ 1.3.@.369FAQ 1.2.@.377FAQ 1.2.@.387FAQ 1.1.@.441FAQ 1.1.@.450FAQ 12.3.@.453FAQ 12.2.@.454FAQ 12.1.@.455FAQ 11.3.@.456FAQ 11.2.@.457FAQ 11.1.@.458FAQ 10.2.@.459FAQ 10.1.@.460FAQ 9.3.@.461FAQ 9.2.@.462FAQ 9.1.@.463FAQ 8.3.@.464FAQ 8.2.@.465FAQ 8.1.@.466FAQ 7.3.@.467FAQ 7.2.@.468FAQ 7.1.@.469FAQ 6.2.@.470FAQ 6.1.@.471FAQ 5.4.@.472FAQ 5.3.@.473FAQ 5.2.@.474FAQ 5.1.@.475FAQ 4.3.@.476FAQ 4.2.@.477FAQ 4.1.@.478FAQ 3.3.@.479FAQ 3.2.@.480FAQ 3.1.@.481FAQ 2.2.@.482FAQ 2.1.@.483FAQ 1.3.@.484FAQ 1.2.@.485FAQ 1.1.@.486FAQ

FAQ 5.3.bFAQ 5.3.bbFAQ 5.2.beFAQ 5.2.bwFAQ 5.1.bzFAQ 5.1.dgFAQ 4.3.dqFAQ 4.3.dzFAQ 4.2.fvFAQ 4.2.gdFAQ 4.1.hbFAQ 4.1.hiFAQ 3.3.huFAQ 3.3.icFAQ 3.2.@.257FAQ 3.2.@.258FAQ 3.2.@.265FAQ 3.1.@.270FAQ 3.1.@.278FAQ 2.2.@.302FAQ 2.2.@.311FAQ 2.1.@.321FAQ 2.1.@.330FAQ 1.3.@.362FAQ 1.3.@.370FAQ 1.2.@.378FAQ 1.2.@.388FAQ 1.1.@.442FAQ 1.1.@.451FAQ 12.3.@.454FAQ 12.2.@.455FAQ 12.1.@.456FAQ 11.3.@.457FAQ 11.2.@.458FAQ 11.1.@.459FAQ 10.2.@.460FAQ 10.1.@.461FAQ 9.3.@.462FAQ 9.2.@.463FAQ 9.1.@.464FAQ 8.3.@.465FAQ 8.2.@.466FAQ 8.1.@.467FAQ 7.3.@.468FAQ 7.2.@.469FAQ 7.1.@.470FAQ 6.2.@.471FAQ 6.1.@.472FAQ 5.4.@.473FAQ 5.3.@.474FAQ 5.2.@.475FAQ 5.1.@.476FAQ 4.3.@.477FAQ 4.2.@.478FAQ 4.1.@.479FAQ 3.3.@.480FAQ 3.2.@.481FAQ 3.1.@.482FAQ 2.2.@.483FAQ 2.1.@.484FAQ 1.3.@.485FAQ 1.2.@.486FAQ 1.1.@.487Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 5.3.cFAQ 5.3.bcFAQ 5.2.bfFAQ 5.2.bxFAQ 5.1.caFAQ 5.1.dhFAQ 4.3.drFAQ 4.3.eaFAQ 4.2.fwFAQ 4.2.geFAQ 4.1.hcFAQ 4.1.hjFAQ 3.3.hvFAQ 3.3.idFAQ 3.2.@.258FAQ 3.2.@.259FAQ 3.2.@.266FAQ 3.1.@.271FAQ 3.1.@.279FAQ 2.2.@.303FAQ 2.2.@.312FAQ 2.1.@.322FAQ 2.1.@.331FAQ 1.3.@.363FAQ 1.3.@.371FAQ 1.2.@.379FAQ 1.2.@.389FAQ 1.1.@.443FAQ 1.1.@.452FAQ 12.3.@.455FAQ 12.2.@.456FAQ 12.1.@.457FAQ 11.3.@.458FAQ 11.2.@.459FAQ 11.1.@.460FAQ 10.2.@.461FAQ 10.1.@.462FAQ 9.3.@.463FAQ 9.2.@.464FAQ 9.1.@.465FAQ 8.3.@.466FAQ 8.2.@.467FAQ 8.1.@.468FAQ 7.3.@.469FAQ 7.2.@.470FAQ 7.1.@.471FAQ 6.2.@.472FAQ 6.1.@.473FAQ 5.4.@.474FAQ 5.3.@.475FAQ 5.2.@.476FAQ 5.1.@.477FAQ 4.3.@.478FAQ 4.2.@.479FAQ 4.1.@.480FAQ 3.3.@.481FAQ 3.2.@.482FAQ 3.1.@.483FAQ 2.2.@.484FAQ 2.1.@.485FAQ 1.3.@.486FAQ 1.2.@.487FAQ 1.1.@.488FAQ 5.4 | What Are Carbon Budgets?

FAQ 5.4.aFAQ 5.3.dFAQ 5.3.bdFAQ 5.2.bgFAQ 5.2.byFAQ 5.1.cbFAQ 5.1.diFAQ 4.3.dsFAQ 4.3.ebFAQ 4.2.fxFAQ 4.2.gfFAQ 4.1.hdFAQ 4.1.hkFAQ 3.3.hwFAQ 3.3.ieFAQ 3.2.@.259FAQ 3.2.@.260FAQ 3.2.@.267FAQ 3.1.@.272FAQ 3.1.@.280FAQ 2.2.@.304FAQ 2.2.@.313FAQ 2.1.@.323FAQ 2.1.@.332FAQ 1.3.@.364FAQ 1.3.@.372FAQ 1.2.@.380FAQ 1.2.@.390FAQ 1.1.@.444FAQ 1.1.@.453FAQ 12.3.@.456FAQ 12.2.@.457FAQ 12.1.@.458FAQ 11.3.@.459FAQ 11.2.@.460FAQ 11.1.@.461FAQ 10.2.@.462FAQ 10.1.@.463FAQ 9.3.@.464FAQ 9.2.@.465FAQ 9.1.@.466FAQ 8.3.@.467FAQ 8.2.@.468FAQ 8.1.@.469FAQ 7.3.@.470FAQ 7.2.@.471FAQ 7.1.@.472FAQ 6.2.@.473FAQ 6.1.@.474FAQ 5.4.@.475FAQ 5.3.@.476FAQ 5.2.@.477FAQ 5.1.@.478FAQ 4.3.@.479FAQ 4.2.@.480FAQ 4.1.@.481FAQ 3.3.@.482FAQ 3.2.@.483FAQ 3.1.@.484FAQ 2.2.@.485FAQ 2.1.@.486FAQ 1.3.@.487FAQ 1.2.@.488FAQ 1.1.@.489There are several types of carbon budgets. Most often, the term refers to the total net amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that can still be emitted by human activities while limiting global warming to a specified level (e.g., 1.5°C or 2°C above pre-industrial levels). This is referred to as the ‘remaining carbon budget’. Several choices and value judgements have to be made before it can be unambiguously estimated. When the remaining carbon budget is combined with all past CO2 emissions to date, a ‘total carbon budget’ compatible with a specific global warming limit can also be defined. A third type of carbon budget is the ‘historical carbon budget’, which is a scientific way to describe all past and present sources and sinks of CO2.

FAQ 5.4.bFAQ 5.3.eFAQ 5.3.beFAQ 5.2.bhFAQ 5.2.bzFAQ 5.1.ccFAQ 5.1.djFAQ 4.3.dtFAQ 4.3.ecFAQ 4.2.fyFAQ 4.2.ggFAQ 4.1.heFAQ 4.1.hlFAQ 3.3.hxFAQ 3.3.ifFAQ 3.2.@.260FAQ 3.2.@.261FAQ 3.2.@.268FAQ 3.1.@.273FAQ 3.1.@.281FAQ 2.2.@.305FAQ 2.2.@.314FAQ 2.1.@.324FAQ 2.1.@.333FAQ 1.3.@.365FAQ 1.3.@.373FAQ 1.2.@.381FAQ 1.2.@.391FAQ 1.1.@.445FAQ 1.1.@.454FAQ 12.3.@.457FAQ 12.2.@.458FAQ 12.1.@.459FAQ 11.3.@.460FAQ 11.2.@.461FAQ 11.1.@.462FAQ 10.2.@.463FAQ 10.1.@.464FAQ 9.3.@.465FAQ 9.2.@.466FAQ 9.1.@.467FAQ 8.3.@.468FAQ 8.2.@.469FAQ 8.1.@.470FAQ 7.3.@.471FAQ 7.2.@.472FAQ 7.1.@.473FAQ 6.2.@.474FAQ 6.1.@.475FAQ 5.4.@.476FAQ 5.3.@.477FAQ 5.2.@.478FAQ 5.1.@.479FAQ 4.3.@.480FAQ 4.2.@.481FAQ 4.1.@.482FAQ 3.3.@.483FAQ 3.2.@.484FAQ 3.1.@.485FAQ 2.2.@.486FAQ 2.1.@.487FAQ 1.3.@.488FAQ 1.2.@.489FAQ 1.1.@.490The term remaining carbon budget is used to describe the total net amount of CO2 that human activities can still release into the atmosphere while keeping global warming to a specified level, like 1.5°C or 2°C relative to pre-industrial temperatures. Emissions of CO2 from human activities are the main cause of global warming. A remaining carbon budget can be defined because of the specific way CO2 behaves in the Earth system. That is, global warming is roughly linearly proportional to the total net amount of CO2 emissions that are released into the atmosphere by human activities – also referred to as cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Other greenhouse gases behave differently and have to be accounted for separately.

FAQ 5.4.cFAQ 5.3.fFAQ 5.3.bfFAQ 5.2.biFAQ 5.2.caFAQ 5.1.cdFAQ 5.1.dkFAQ 4.3.duFAQ 4.3.edFAQ 4.2.fzFAQ 4.2.ghFAQ 4.1.hfFAQ 4.1.hmFAQ 3.3.hyFAQ 3.3.igFAQ 3.2.@.261FAQ 3.2.@.262FAQ 3.2.@.269FAQ 3.1.@.274FAQ 3.1.@.282FAQ 2.2.@.306FAQ 2.2.@.315FAQ 2.1.@.325FAQ 2.1.@.334FAQ 1.3.@.366FAQ 1.3.@.374FAQ 1.2.@.382FAQ 1.2.@.392FAQ 1.1.@.446FAQ 1.1.@.455FAQ 12.3.@.458FAQ 12.2.@.459FAQ 12.1.@.460FAQ 11.3.@.461FAQ 11.2.@.462FAQ 11.1.@.463FAQ 10.2.@.464FAQ 10.1.@.465FAQ 9.3.@.466FAQ 9.2.@.467FAQ 9.1.@.468FAQ 8.3.@.469FAQ 8.2.@.470FAQ 8.1.@.471FAQ 7.3.@.472FAQ 7.2.@.473FAQ 7.1.@.474FAQ 6.2.@.475FAQ 6.1.@.476FAQ 5.4.@.477FAQ 5.3.@.478FAQ 5.2.@.479FAQ 5.1.@.480FAQ 4.3.@.481FAQ 4.2.@.482FAQ 4.1.@.483FAQ 3.3.@.484FAQ 3.2.@.485FAQ 3.1.@.486FAQ 2.2.@.487FAQ 2.1.@.488FAQ 1.3.@.489FAQ 1.2.@.490FAQ 1.1.@.491The concept of a remaining carbon budget implies that, to stabilize global warming at any particular level, global emissions of CO2 need to be reduced to net zero levels at some point. ‘Net zero CO2 emissions’ describes a situation where all the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 are counterbalanced by deliberate anthropogenic removals so that, on average, no CO2 is added or removed from the atmosphere by human activities. Atmospheric CO2 concentrations in such a situation would gradually decline to a long-term stable level as excess CO2 in the atmosphere is taken up by ocean and land sinks (see FAQ 5.1). The concept of a remaining carbon budget also means that, if CO2 emissions reductions are delayed, deeper and faster reductions are needed later to stay within the same budget. If the remaining carbon budget is exceeded, this will result in either higher global warming or a need to actively remove CO2 from the atmosphere to reduce global temperatures back down to the desired level (see FAQ 5.3).

FAQ 5.4.dFAQ 5.3.gFAQ 5.3.bgFAQ 5.2.bjFAQ 5.2.cbFAQ 5.1.ceFAQ 5.1.dlFAQ 4.3.dvFAQ 4.3.eeFAQ 4.2.gaFAQ 4.2.giFAQ 4.1.hgFAQ 4.1.hnFAQ 3.3.hzFAQ 3.3.ihFAQ 3.2.@.262FAQ 3.2.@.263FAQ 3.2.@.270FAQ 3.1.@.275FAQ 3.1.@.283FAQ 2.2.@.307FAQ 2.2.@.316FAQ 2.1.@.326FAQ 2.1.@.335FAQ 1.3.@.367FAQ 1.3.@.375FAQ 1.2.@.383FAQ 1.2.@.393FAQ 1.1.@.447FAQ 1.1.@.456FAQ 12.3.@.459FAQ 12.2.@.460FAQ 12.1.@.461FAQ 11.3.@.462FAQ 11.2.@.463FAQ 11.1.@.464FAQ 10.2.@.465FAQ 10.1.@.466FAQ 9.3.@.467FAQ 9.2.@.468FAQ 9.1.@.469FAQ 8.3.@.470FAQ 8.2.@.471FAQ 8.1.@.472FAQ 7.3.@.473FAQ 7.2.@.474FAQ 7.1.@.475FAQ 6.2.@.476FAQ 6.1.@.477FAQ 5.4.@.478FAQ 5.3.@.479FAQ 5.2.@.480FAQ 5.1.@.481FAQ 4.3.@.482FAQ 4.2.@.483FAQ 4.1.@.484FAQ 3.3.@.485FAQ 3.2.@.486FAQ 3.1.@.487FAQ 2.2.@.488FAQ 2.1.@.489FAQ 1.3.@.490FAQ 1.2.@.491FAQ 1.1.@.492Estimating the size of remaining carbon budgets depends on a set of choices. These choices include: (1) the global warming level that is chosen as a limit (for example, 1.5°C or 2°C relative to pre-industrial levels); (2) the probability with which we want to ensure that warming is held below that limit (for example, a one-in-two, two-in-three, or higher chance), and (3) how successful we are in limiting emissions of other greenhouse gases that affect the climate, such as methane or nitrous oxide. These choices can be informed by science, but ultimately represent subjective choices. Once these choices have been made, to estimate the remaining carbon budget for a given temperature goal, we can combine knowledge about: how much our planet has warmed already; the amount of warming per cumulative tonne of CO2; and the amount of warming that is still expected once global net CO2 emissions are brought down to zero. For example, to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels with either a one-in-two (50%) or two-in-three (67%) chance, the remaining carbon budgets amount to 500 and 400 billion tonnes of CO2, respectively, from 1 January 2020 onward (FAQ 5.4, Figure 1). Currently, human activities are emitting around 40 billion tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere in a single year.

FAQ 5.4.eFAQ 5.3.hFAQ 5.3.bhFAQ 5.2.bkFAQ 5.2.ccFAQ 5.1.cfFAQ 5.1.dmFAQ 4.3.dwFAQ 4.3.efFAQ 4.2.gbFAQ 4.2.gjFAQ 4.1.hhFAQ 4.1.hoFAQ 3.3.iaFAQ 3.3.iiFAQ 3.2.@.263FAQ 3.2.@.264FAQ 3.2.@.271FAQ 3.1.@.276FAQ 3.1.@.284FAQ 2.2.@.308FAQ 2.2.@.317FAQ 2.1.@.327FAQ 2.1.@.336FAQ 1.3.@.368FAQ 1.3.@.376FAQ 1.2.@.384FAQ 1.2.@.394FAQ 1.1.@.448FAQ 1.1.@.457FAQ 12.3.@.460FAQ 12.2.@.461FAQ 12.1.@.462FAQ 11.3.@.463FAQ 11.2.@.464FAQ 11.1.@.465FAQ 10.2.@.466FAQ 10.1.@.467FAQ 9.3.@.468FAQ 9.2.@.469FAQ 9.1.@.470FAQ 8.3.@.471FAQ 8.2.@.472FAQ 8.1.@.473FAQ 7.3.@.474FAQ 7.2.@.475FAQ 7.1.@.476FAQ 6.2.@.477FAQ 6.1.@.478FAQ 5.4.@.479FAQ 5.3.@.480FAQ 5.2.@.481FAQ 5.1.@.482FAQ 4.3.@.483FAQ 4.2.@.484FAQ 4.1.@.485FAQ 3.3.@.486FAQ 3.2.@.487FAQ 3.1.@.488FAQ 2.2.@.489FAQ 2.1.@.490FAQ 1.3.@.491FAQ 1.2.@.492FAQ 1.1.@.493The remaining carbon budget depends on how much the world has already warmed to date. This past warming is caused by historical emissions, which are estimated by looking at the historical carbon budget – a scientific way to describe all past and present sources and sinks of CO2. It describes how the CO2 emissions from human activities have redistributed across the various CO2 reservoirs of the Earth system. These reservoirs are the ocean, the land vegetation, and the atmosphere (into which CO2 was emitted). The share of CO2 that is not taken up by the ocean or the land, and that thus increases the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, causes global warming. The historical carbon budget tells us that, of the about 2560 billion tonnes of CO2 that were released into the atmosphere by human activities between the years 1750 and 2019, about a quarter were absorbed by the ocean (causing ocean acidification) and about a third by the land vegetation. About 45% of these emissions remain in the atmosphere (see FAQ 5.1). Adding these historical CO2 emissions to estimates of remaining carbon budgets allows an estimate of the total carbon budget consistent with a specific global warming level.

FAQ 5.4.fFAQ 5.3.iFAQ 5.3.biFAQ 5.2.blFAQ 5.2.cdFAQ 5.1.cgFAQ 5.1.dnFAQ 4.3.dxFAQ 4.3.egFAQ 4.2.gcFAQ 4.2.gkFAQ 4.1.hiFAQ 4.1.hpFAQ 3.3.ibFAQ 3.3.ijFAQ 3.2.@.264FAQ 3.2.@.265FAQ 3.2.@.272FAQ 3.1.@.277FAQ 3.1.@.285FAQ 2.2.@.309FAQ 2.2.@.318FAQ 2.1.@.328FAQ 2.1.@.337FAQ 1.3.@.369FAQ 1.3.@.377FAQ 1.2.@.385FAQ 1.2.@.395FAQ 1.1.@.449FAQ 1.1.@.458FAQ 12.3.@.461FAQ 12.2.@.462FAQ 12.1.@.463FAQ 11.3.@.464FAQ 11.2.@.465FAQ 11.1.@.466FAQ 10.2.@.467FAQ 10.1.@.468FAQ 9.3.@.469FAQ 9.2.@.470FAQ 9.1.@.471FAQ 8.3.@.472FAQ 8.2.@.473FAQ 8.1.@.474FAQ 7.3.@.475FAQ 7.2.@.476FAQ 7.1.@.477FAQ 6.2.@.478FAQ 6.1.@.479FAQ 5.4.@.480FAQ 5.3.@.481FAQ 5.2.@.482FAQ 5.1.@.483FAQ 4.3.@.484FAQ 4.2.@.485FAQ 4.1.@.486FAQ 3.3.@.487FAQ 3.2.@.488FAQ 3.1.@.489FAQ 2.2.@.490FAQ 2.1.@.491FAQ 1.3.@.492FAQ 1.2.@.493FAQ 1.1.@.494FAQ

FAQ 5.4.gFAQ 5.3.jFAQ 5.3.bjFAQ 5.2.bmFAQ 5.2.ceFAQ 5.1.chFAQ 5.1.doFAQ 4.3.dyFAQ 4.3.ehFAQ 4.2.gdFAQ 4.2.glFAQ 4.1.hjFAQ 4.1.hqFAQ 3.3.icFAQ 3.3.ikFAQ 3.2.@.265FAQ 3.2.@.266FAQ 3.2.@.273FAQ 3.1.@.278FAQ 3.1.@.286FAQ 2.2.@.310FAQ 2.2.@.319FAQ 2.1.@.329FAQ 2.1.@.338FAQ 1.3.@.370FAQ 1.3.@.378FAQ 1.2.@.386FAQ 1.2.@.396FAQ 1.1.@.450FAQ 1.1.@.459FAQ 12.3.@.462FAQ 12.2.@.463FAQ 12.1.@.464FAQ 11.3.@.465FAQ 11.2.@.466FAQ 11.1.@.467FAQ 10.2.@.468FAQ 10.1.@.469FAQ 9.3.@.470FAQ 9.2.@.471FAQ 9.1.@.472FAQ 8.3.@.473FAQ 8.2.@.474FAQ 8.1.@.475FAQ 7.3.@.476FAQ 7.2.@.477FAQ 7.1.@.478FAQ 6.2.@.479FAQ 6.1.@.480FAQ 5.4.@.481FAQ 5.3.@.482FAQ 5.2.@.483FAQ 5.1.@.484FAQ 4.3.@.485FAQ 4.2.@.486FAQ 4.1.@.487FAQ 3.3.@.488FAQ 3.2.@.489FAQ 3.1.@.490FAQ 2.2.@.491FAQ 2.1.@.492FAQ 1.3.@.493FAQ 1.2.@.494FAQ 1.1.@.495In summary, determining a remaining carbon budget – that is, how much CO2 can be released into the atmosphere while stabilizing global temperature below a chosen level – is well understood but relies on a set of choices. However, it is clear that, for limiting warming below 1.5°C or 2°C, the remaining carbon budget from 2020 onwards is much smaller than the total CO2 emissions released to date.

FAQ 5.4.hFAQ 5.3.kFAQ 5.3.bkFAQ 5.2.bnFAQ 5.2.cfFAQ 5.1.ciFAQ 5.1.dpFAQ 4.3.dzFAQ 4.3.eiFAQ 4.2.geFAQ 4.2.gmFAQ 4.1.hkFAQ 4.1.hrFAQ 3.3.idFAQ 3.3.ilFAQ 3.2.@.266FAQ 3.2.@.267FAQ 3.2.@.274FAQ 3.1.@.279FAQ 3.1.@.287FAQ 2.2.@.311FAQ 2.2.@.320FAQ 2.1.@.330FAQ 2.1.@.339FAQ 1.3.@.371FAQ 1.3.@.379FAQ 1.2.@.387FAQ 1.2.@.397FAQ 1.1.@.451FAQ 1.1.@.460FAQ 12.3.@.463FAQ 12.2.@.464FAQ 12.1.@.465FAQ 11.3.@.466FAQ 11.2.@.467FAQ 11.1.@.468FAQ 10.2.@.469FAQ 10.1.@.470FAQ 9.3.@.471FAQ 9.2.@.472FAQ 9.1.@.473FAQ 8.3.@.474FAQ 8.2.@.475FAQ 8.1.@.476FAQ 7.3.@.477FAQ 7.2.@.478FAQ 7.1.@.479FAQ 6.2.@.480FAQ 6.1.@.481FAQ 5.4.@.482FAQ 5.3.@.483FAQ 5.2.@.484FAQ 5.1.@.485FAQ 4.3.@.486FAQ 4.2.@.487FAQ 4.1.@.488FAQ 3.3.@.489FAQ 3.2.@.490FAQ 3.1.@.491FAQ 2.2.@.492FAQ 2.1.@.493FAQ 1.3.@.494FAQ 1.2.@.495FAQ 1.1.@.496FAQ 5.4, Figure 1 | Various types of carbon budgets. Historical cumulative carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions determine to a large degree how much the world has warmed to date, while the remaining carbon budget indicates how much CO2could still be emitted while keeping warming below specific temperature thresholds. Several factors limit the precision with which the remaining carbon budget can be estimated. Therefore, estimates need to specify the probability with which they aim at limiting warming to the intended target level (e.g., limiting warming to 1.5°C with a 67% probability).

FAQ 5.4.iFAQ 5.3.lFAQ 5.3.blFAQ 5.2.boFAQ 5.2.cgFAQ 5.1.cjFAQ 5.1.dqFAQ 4.3.eaFAQ 4.3.ejFAQ 4.2.gfFAQ 4.2.gnFAQ 4.1.hlFAQ 4.1.hsFAQ 3.3.ieFAQ 3.3.imFAQ 3.2.@.267FAQ 3.2.@.268FAQ 3.2.@.275FAQ 3.1.@.280FAQ 3.1.@.288FAQ 2.2.@.312FAQ 2.2.@.321FAQ 2.1.@.331FAQ 2.1.@.340FAQ 1.3.@.372FAQ 1.3.@.380FAQ 1.2.@.388FAQ 1.2.@.398FAQ 1.1.@.452FAQ 1.1.@.461FAQ 12.3.@.464FAQ 12.2.@.465FAQ 12.1.@.466FAQ 11.3.@.467FAQ 11.2.@.468FAQ 11.1.@.469FAQ 10.2.@.470FAQ 10.1.@.471FAQ 9.3.@.472FAQ 9.2.@.473FAQ 9.1.@.474FAQ 8.3.@.475FAQ 8.2.@.476FAQ 8.1.@.477FAQ 7.3.@.478FAQ 7.2.@.479FAQ 7.1.@.480FAQ 6.2.@.481FAQ 6.1.@.482FAQ 5.4.@.483FAQ 5.3.@.484FAQ 5.2.@.485FAQ 5.1.@.486FAQ 4.3.@.487FAQ 4.2.@.488FAQ 4.1.@.489FAQ 3.3.@.490FAQ 3.2.@.491FAQ 3.1.@.492FAQ 2.2.@.493FAQ 2.1.@.494FAQ 1.3.@.495FAQ 1.2.@.496FAQ 1.1.@.497This remaining carbon budget can increase or decrease depending on how deeply we reduce greenhouse gases other than CO2

FAQ 5.4.jFAQ 5.3.mFAQ 5.3.bmFAQ 5.2.bpFAQ 5.2.chFAQ 5.1.ckFAQ 5.1.drFAQ 4.3.ebFAQ 4.3.ekFAQ 4.2.ggFAQ 4.2.goFAQ 4.1.hmFAQ 4.1.htFAQ 3.3.ifFAQ 3.3.inFAQ 3.2.@.268FAQ 3.2.@.269FAQ 3.2.@.276FAQ 3.1.@.281FAQ 3.1.@.289FAQ 2.2.@.313FAQ 2.2.@.322FAQ 2.1.@.332FAQ 2.1.@.341FAQ 1.3.@.373FAQ 1.3.@.381FAQ 1.2.@.389FAQ 1.2.@.399FAQ 1.1.@.453FAQ 1.1.@.462FAQ 12.3.@.465FAQ 12.2.@.466FAQ 12.1.@.467FAQ 11.3.@.468FAQ 11.2.@.469FAQ 11.1.@.470FAQ 10.2.@.471FAQ 10.1.@.472FAQ 9.3.@.473FAQ 9.2.@.474FAQ 9.1.@.475FAQ 8.3.@.476FAQ 8.2.@.477FAQ 8.1.@.478FAQ 7.3.@.479FAQ 7.2.@.480FAQ 7.1.@.481FAQ 6.2.@.482FAQ 6.1.@.483FAQ 5.4.@.484FAQ 5.3.@.485FAQ 5.2.@.486FAQ 5.1.@.487FAQ 4.3.@.488FAQ 4.2.@.489FAQ 4.1.@.490FAQ 3.3.@.491FAQ 3.2.@.492FAQ 3.1.@.493FAQ 2.2.@.494FAQ 2.1.@.495FAQ 1.3.@.496FAQ 1.2.@.497FAQ 1.1.@.498FAQ 5.4: What are Carbon Budgets?The term carbon budget is used in several ways. Most often the term refers to the total net amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that can still be emitted by human activities while limiting global warming to a specified level.

FAQ 5.4.kFAQ 5.3.nFAQ 5.3.bnFAQ 5.2.bqFAQ 5.2.ciFAQ 5.1.clFAQ 5.1.dsFAQ 4.3.ecFAQ 4.3.elFAQ 4.2.ghFAQ 4.2.gpFAQ 4.1.hnFAQ 4.1.huFAQ 3.3.igFAQ 3.3.ioFAQ 3.2.@.269FAQ 3.2.@.270FAQ 3.2.@.277FAQ 3.1.@.282FAQ 3.1.@.290FAQ 2.2.@.314FAQ 2.2.@.323FAQ 2.1.@.333FAQ 2.1.@.342FAQ 1.3.@.374FAQ 1.3.@.382FAQ 1.2.@.390FAQ 1.2.@.400FAQ 1.1.@.454FAQ 1.1.@.463FAQ 12.3.@.466FAQ 12.2.@.467FAQ 12.1.@.468FAQ 11.3.@.469FAQ 11.2.@.470FAQ 11.1.@.471FAQ 10.2.@.472FAQ 10.1.@.473FAQ 9.3.@.474FAQ 9.2.@.475FAQ 9.1.@.476FAQ 8.3.@.477FAQ 8.2.@.478FAQ 8.1.@.479FAQ 7.3.@.480FAQ 7.2.@.481FAQ 7.1.@.482FAQ 6.2.@.483FAQ 6.1.@.484FAQ 5.4.@.485FAQ 5.3.@.486FAQ 5.2.@.487FAQ 5.1.@.488FAQ 4.3.@.489FAQ 4.2.@.490FAQ 4.1.@.491FAQ 3.3.@.492FAQ 3.2.@.493FAQ 3.1.@.494FAQ 2.2.@.495FAQ 2.1.@.496FAQ 1.3.@.497FAQ 1.2.@.498FAQ 1.1.@.499Historical budgetGtCO2already emitted between 1750–2019

FAQ 5.4.lFAQ 5.3.oFAQ 5.3.boFAQ 5.2.brFAQ 5.2.cjFAQ 5.1.cmFAQ 5.1.dtFAQ 4.3.edFAQ 4.3.emFAQ 4.2.giFAQ 4.2.gqFAQ 4.1.hoFAQ 4.1.hvFAQ 3.3.ihFAQ 3.3.ipFAQ 3.2.@.270FAQ 3.2.@.271FAQ 3.2.@.278FAQ 3.1.@.283FAQ 3.1.@.291FAQ 2.2.@.315FAQ 2.2.@.324FAQ 2.1.@.334FAQ 2.1.@.343FAQ 1.3.@.375FAQ 1.3.@.383FAQ 1.2.@.391FAQ 1.2.@.401FAQ 1.1.@.455FAQ 1.1.@.464FAQ 12.3.@.467FAQ 12.2.@.468FAQ 12.1.@.469FAQ 11.3.@.470FAQ 11.2.@.471FAQ 11.1.@.472FAQ 10.2.@.473FAQ 10.1.@.474FAQ 9.3.@.475FAQ 9.2.@.476FAQ 9.1.@.477FAQ 8.3.@.478FAQ 8.2.@.479FAQ 8.1.@.480FAQ 7.3.@.481FAQ 7.2.@.482FAQ 7.1.@.483FAQ 6.2.@.484FAQ 6.1.@.485FAQ 5.4.@.486FAQ 5.3.@.487FAQ 5.2.@.488FAQ 5.1.@.489FAQ 4.3.@.490FAQ 4.2.@.491FAQ 4.1.@.492FAQ 3.3.@.493FAQ 3.2.@.494FAQ 3.1.@.495FAQ 2.2.@.496FAQ 2.1.@.497FAQ 1.3.@.498FAQ 1.2.@.499FAQ 1.1.@.500Remaining carbon budgetGtCO2in line with keeping global warming to 1.5°Cor 2°C

FAQ 5.4.mFAQ 5.3.pFAQ 5.3.bpFAQ 5.2.bsFAQ 5.2.ckFAQ 5.1.cnFAQ 5.1.duFAQ 4.3.eeFAQ 4.3.enFAQ 4.2.gjFAQ 4.2.grFAQ 4.1.hpFAQ 4.1.hwFAQ 3.3.iiFAQ 3.3.iqFAQ 3.2.@.271FAQ 3.2.@.272FAQ 3.2.@.279FAQ 3.1.@.284FAQ 3.1.@.292FAQ 2.2.@.316FAQ 2.2.@.325FAQ 2.1.@.335FAQ 2.1.@.344FAQ 1.3.@.376FAQ 1.3.@.384FAQ 1.2.@.392FAQ 1.2.@.402FAQ 1.1.@.456FAQ 1.1.@.465FAQ 12.3.@.468FAQ 12.2.@.469FAQ 12.1.@.470FAQ 11.3.@.471FAQ 11.2.@.472FAQ 11.1.@.473FAQ 10.2.@.474FAQ 10.1.@.475FAQ 9.3.@.476FAQ 9.2.@.477FAQ 9.1.@.478FAQ 8.3.@.479FAQ 8.2.@.480FAQ 8.1.@.481FAQ 7.3.@.482FAQ 7.2.@.483FAQ 7.1.@.484FAQ 6.2.@.485FAQ 6.1.@.486FAQ 5.4.@.487FAQ 5.3.@.488FAQ 5.2.@.489FAQ 5.1.@.490FAQ 4.3.@.491FAQ 4.2.@.492FAQ 4.1.@.493FAQ 3.3.@.494FAQ 3.2.@.495FAQ 3.1.@.496FAQ 2.2.@.497FAQ 2.1.@.498FAQ 1.3.@.499FAQ 1.2.@.500FAQ 1.1.@.5011.5°C

FAQ 5.4.nFAQ 5.3.qFAQ 5.3.bqFAQ 5.2.btFAQ 5.2.clFAQ 5.1.coFAQ 5.1.dvFAQ 4.3.efFAQ 4.3.eoFAQ 4.2.gkFAQ 4.2.gsFAQ 4.1.hqFAQ 4.1.hxFAQ 3.3.ijFAQ 3.3.irFAQ 3.2.@.272FAQ 3.2.@.273FAQ 3.2.@.280FAQ 3.1.@.285FAQ 3.1.@.293FAQ 2.2.@.317FAQ 2.2.@.326FAQ 2.1.@.336FAQ 2.1.@.345FAQ 1.3.@.377FAQ 1.3.@.385FAQ 1.2.@.393FAQ 1.2.@.403FAQ 1.1.@.457FAQ 1.1.@.466FAQ 12.3.@.469FAQ 12.2.@.470FAQ 12.1.@.471FAQ 11.3.@.472FAQ 11.2.@.473FAQ 11.1.@.474FAQ 10.2.@.475FAQ 10.1.@.476FAQ 9.3.@.477FAQ 9.2.@.478FAQ 9.1.@.479FAQ 8.3.@.480FAQ 8.2.@.481FAQ 8.1.@.482FAQ 7.3.@.483FAQ 7.2.@.484FAQ 7.1.@.485FAQ 6.2.@.486FAQ 6.1.@.487FAQ 5.4.@.488FAQ 5.3.@.489FAQ 5.2.@.490FAQ 5.1.@.491FAQ 4.3.@.492FAQ 4.2.@.493FAQ 4.1.@.494FAQ 3.3.@.495FAQ 3.2.@.496FAQ 3.1.@.497FAQ 2.2.@.498FAQ 2.1.@.499FAQ 1.3.@.500FAQ 1.2.@.501FAQ 1.1.@.5022°C

FAQ 5.4.oFAQ 5.3.rFAQ 5.3.brFAQ 5.2.buFAQ 5.2.cmFAQ 5.1.cpFAQ 5.1.dwFAQ 4.3.egFAQ 4.3.epFAQ 4.2.glFAQ 4.2.gtFAQ 4.1.hrFAQ 4.1.hyFAQ 3.3.ikFAQ 3.3.isFAQ 3.2.@.273FAQ 3.2.@.274FAQ 3.2.@.281FAQ 3.1.@.286FAQ 3.1.@.294FAQ 2.2.@.318FAQ 2.2.@.327FAQ 2.1.@.337FAQ 2.1.@.346FAQ 1.3.@.378FAQ 1.3.@.386FAQ 1.2.@.394FAQ 1.2.@.404FAQ 1.1.@.458FAQ 1.1.@.467FAQ 12.3.@.470FAQ 12.2.@.471FAQ 12.1.@.472FAQ 11.3.@.473FAQ 11.2.@.474FAQ 11.1.@.475FAQ 10.2.@.476FAQ 10.1.@.477FAQ 9.3.@.478FAQ 9.2.@.479FAQ 9.1.@.480FAQ 8.3.@.481FAQ 8.2.@.482FAQ 8.1.@.483FAQ 7.3.@.484FAQ 7.2.@.485FAQ 7.1.@.486FAQ 6.2.@.487FAQ 6.1.@.488FAQ 5.4.@.489FAQ 5.3.@.490FAQ 5.2.@.491FAQ 5.1.@.492FAQ 4.3.@.493FAQ 4.2.@.494FAQ 4.1.@.495FAQ 3.3.@.496FAQ 3.2.@.497FAQ 3.1.@.498FAQ 2.2.@.499FAQ 2.1.@.500FAQ 1.3.@.501FAQ 1.2.@.502FAQ 1.1.@.5032560GtCO2

FAQ 5.4.pFAQ 5.3.sFAQ 5.3.bsFAQ 5.2.bvFAQ 5.2.cnFAQ 5.1.cqFAQ 5.1.dxFAQ 4.3.ehFAQ 4.3.eqFAQ 4.2.gmFAQ 4.2.guFAQ 4.1.hsFAQ 4.1.hzFAQ 3.3.ilFAQ 3.3.itFAQ 3.2.@.274FAQ 3.2.@.275FAQ 3.2.@.282FAQ 3.1.@.287FAQ 3.1.@.295FAQ 2.2.@.319FAQ 2.2.@.328FAQ 2.1.@.338FAQ 2.1.@.347FAQ 1.3.@.379FAQ 1.3.@.387FAQ 1.2.@.395FAQ 1.2.@.405FAQ 1.1.@.459FAQ 1.1.@.468FAQ 12.3.@.471FAQ 12.2.@.472FAQ 12.1.@.473FAQ 11.3.@.474FAQ 11.2.@.475FAQ 11.1.@.476FAQ 10.2.@.477FAQ 10.1.@.478FAQ 9.3.@.479FAQ 9.2.@.480FAQ 9.1.@.481FAQ 8.3.@.482FAQ 8.2.@.483FAQ 8.1.@.484FAQ 7.3.@.485FAQ 7.2.@.486FAQ 7.1.@.487FAQ 6.2.@.488FAQ 6.1.@.489FAQ 5.4.@.490FAQ 5.3.@.491FAQ 5.2.@.492FAQ 5.1.@.493FAQ 4.3.@.494FAQ 4.2.@.495FAQ 4.1.@.496FAQ 3.3.@.497FAQ 3.2.@.498FAQ 3.1.@.499FAQ 2.2.@.500FAQ 2.1.@.501FAQ 1.3.@.502FAQ 1.2.@.503FAQ 1.1.@.504+/-220GtCO2

FAQ 5.4.qFAQ 5.3.tFAQ 5.3.btFAQ 5.2.bwFAQ 5.2.coFAQ 5.1.crFAQ 5.1.dyFAQ 4.3.eiFAQ 4.3.erFAQ 4.2.gnFAQ 4.2.gvFAQ 4.1.htFAQ 4.1.iaFAQ 3.3.imFAQ 3.3.iuFAQ 3.2.@.275FAQ 3.2.@.276FAQ 3.2.@.283FAQ 3.1.@.288FAQ 3.1.@.296FAQ 2.2.@.320FAQ 2.2.@.329FAQ 2.1.@.339FAQ 2.1.@.348FAQ 1.3.@.380FAQ 1.3.@.388FAQ 1.2.@.396FAQ 1.2.@.406FAQ 1.1.@.460FAQ 1.1.@.469FAQ 12.3.@.472FAQ 12.2.@.473FAQ 12.1.@.474FAQ 11.3.@.475FAQ 11.2.@.476FAQ 11.1.@.477FAQ 10.2.@.478FAQ 10.1.@.479FAQ 9.3.@.480FAQ 9.2.@.481FAQ 9.1.@.482FAQ 8.3.@.483FAQ 8.2.@.484FAQ 8.1.@.485FAQ 7.3.@.486FAQ 7.2.@.487FAQ 7.1.@.488FAQ 6.2.@.489FAQ 6.1.@.490FAQ 5.4.@.491FAQ 5.3.@.492FAQ 5.2.@.493FAQ 5.1.@.494FAQ 4.3.@.495FAQ 4.2.@.496FAQ 4.1.@.497FAQ 3.3.@.498FAQ 3.2.@.499FAQ 3.1.@.500FAQ 2.2.@.501FAQ 2.1.@.502FAQ 1.3.@.503FAQ 1.2.@.504FAQ 1.1.@.505(500) GtCO2

FAQ 5.4.rFAQ 5.3.uFAQ 5.3.buFAQ 5.2.bxFAQ 5.2.cpFAQ 5.1.csFAQ 5.1.dzFAQ 4.3.ejFAQ 4.3.esFAQ 4.2.goFAQ 4.2.gwFAQ 4.1.huFAQ 4.1.ibFAQ 3.3.inFAQ 3.3.ivFAQ 3.2.@.276FAQ 3.2.@.277FAQ 3.2.@.284FAQ 3.1.@.289FAQ 3.1.@.297FAQ 2.2.@.321FAQ 2.2.@.330FAQ 2.1.@.340FAQ 2.1.@.349FAQ 1.3.@.381FAQ 1.3.@.389FAQ 1.2.@.397FAQ 1.2.@.407FAQ 1.1.@.461FAQ 1.1.@.470FAQ 12.3.@.473FAQ 12.2.@.474FAQ 12.1.@.475FAQ 11.3.@.476FAQ 11.2.@.477FAQ 11.1.@.478FAQ 10.2.@.479FAQ 10.1.@.480FAQ 9.3.@.481FAQ 9.2.@.482FAQ 9.1.@.483FAQ 8.3.@.484FAQ 8.2.@.485FAQ 8.1.@.486FAQ 7.3.@.487FAQ 7.2.@.488FAQ 7.1.@.489FAQ 6.2.@.490FAQ 6.1.@.491FAQ 5.4.@.492FAQ 5.3.@.493FAQ 5.2.@.494FAQ 5.1.@.495FAQ 4.3.@.496FAQ 4.2.@.497FAQ 4.1.@.498FAQ 3.3.@.499FAQ 3.2.@.500FAQ 3.1.@.501FAQ 2.2.@.502FAQ 2.1.@.503FAQ 1.3.@.504FAQ 1.2.@.505FAQ 1.1.@.50650%Probability67%

FAQ 5.4.sFAQ 5.3.vFAQ 5.3.bvFAQ 5.2.byFAQ 5.2.cqFAQ 5.1.ctFAQ 5.1.eaFAQ 4.3.ekFAQ 4.3.etFAQ 4.2.gpFAQ 4.2.gxFAQ 4.1.hvFAQ 4.1.icFAQ 3.3.ioFAQ 3.3.@.256FAQ 3.2.@.277FAQ 3.2.@.278FAQ 3.2.@.285FAQ 3.1.@.290FAQ 3.1.@.298FAQ 2.2.@.322FAQ 2.2.@.331FAQ 2.1.@.341FAQ 2.1.@.350FAQ 1.3.@.382FAQ 1.3.@.390FAQ 1.2.@.398FAQ 1.2.@.408FAQ 1.1.@.462FAQ 1.1.@.471FAQ 12.3.@.474FAQ 12.2.@.475FAQ 12.1.@.476FAQ 11.3.@.477FAQ 11.2.@.478FAQ 11.1.@.479FAQ 10.2.@.480FAQ 10.1.@.481FAQ 9.3.@.482FAQ 9.2.@.483FAQ 9.1.@.484FAQ 8.3.@.485FAQ 8.2.@.486FAQ 8.1.@.487FAQ 7.3.@.488FAQ 7.2.@.489FAQ 7.1.@.490FAQ 6.2.@.491FAQ 6.1.@.492FAQ 5.4.@.493FAQ 5.3.@.494FAQ 5.2.@.495FAQ 5.1.@.496FAQ 4.3.@.497FAQ 4.2.@.498FAQ 4.1.@.499FAQ 3.3.@.500FAQ 3.2.@.501FAQ 3.1.@.502FAQ 2.2.@.503FAQ 2.1.@.504FAQ 1.3.@.505FAQ 1.2.@.506FAQ 1.1.@.507(1350) GtCO21150(Gt = billion tonnes)

FAQ 5.4.tFAQ 5.3.wFAQ 5.3.bwFAQ 5.2.bzFAQ 5.2.crFAQ 5.1.cuFAQ 5.1.ebFAQ 4.3.elFAQ 4.3.euFAQ 4.2.gqFAQ 4.2.gyFAQ 4.1.hwFAQ 4.1.idFAQ 3.3.ipFAQ 3.3.@.257FAQ 3.2.@.278FAQ 3.2.@.279FAQ 3.2.@.286FAQ 3.1.@.291FAQ 3.1.@.299FAQ 2.2.@.323FAQ 2.2.@.332FAQ 2.1.@.342FAQ 2.1.@.351FAQ 1.3.@.383FAQ 1.3.@.391FAQ 1.2.@.399FAQ 1.2.@.409FAQ 1.1.@.463FAQ 1.1.@.472FAQ 12.3.@.475FAQ 12.2.@.476FAQ 12.1.@.477FAQ 11.3.@.478FAQ 11.2.@.479FAQ 11.1.@.480FAQ 10.2.@.481FAQ 10.1.@.482FAQ 9.3.@.483FAQ 9.2.@.484FAQ 9.1.@.485FAQ 8.3.@.486FAQ 8.2.@.487FAQ 8.1.@.488FAQ 7.3.@.489FAQ 7.2.@.490FAQ 7.1.@.491FAQ 6.2.@.492FAQ 6.1.@.493FAQ 5.4.@.494FAQ 5.3.@.495FAQ 5.2.@.496FAQ 5.1.@.497FAQ 4.3.@.498FAQ 4.2.@.499FAQ 4.1.@.500FAQ 3.3.@.501FAQ 3.2.@.502FAQ 3.1.@.503FAQ 2.2.@.504FAQ 2.1.@.505FAQ 1.3.@.506FAQ 1.2.@.507FAQ 1.1.@.508400

FAQ 5.4.uFAQ 5.3.xFAQ 5.3.bxFAQ 5.2.caFAQ 5.2.csFAQ 5.1.cvFAQ 5.1.ecFAQ 4.3.emFAQ 4.3.evFAQ 4.2.grFAQ 4.2.gzFAQ 4.1.hxFAQ 4.1.ieFAQ 3.3.iqFAQ 3.3.@.258FAQ 3.2.@.279FAQ 3.2.@.280FAQ 3.2.@.287FAQ 3.1.@.292FAQ 3.1.@.300FAQ 2.2.@.324FAQ 2.2.@.333FAQ 2.1.@.343FAQ 2.1.@.352FAQ 1.3.@.384FAQ 1.3.@.392FAQ 1.2.@.400FAQ 1.2.@.410FAQ 1.1.@.464FAQ 1.1.@.473FAQ 12.3.@.476FAQ 12.2.@.477FAQ 12.1.@.478FAQ 11.3.@.479FAQ 11.2.@.480FAQ 11.1.@.481FAQ 10.2.@.482FAQ 10.1.@.483FAQ 9.3.@.484FAQ 9.2.@.485FAQ 9.1.@.486FAQ 8.3.@.487FAQ 8.2.@.488FAQ 8.1.@.489FAQ 7.3.@.490FAQ 7.2.@.491FAQ 7.1.@.492FAQ 6.2.@.493FAQ 6.1.@.494FAQ 5.4.@.495FAQ 5.3.@.496FAQ 5.2.@.497FAQ 5.1.@.498FAQ 4.3.@.499FAQ 4.2.@.500FAQ 4.1.@.501FAQ 3.3.@.502FAQ 3.2.@.503FAQ 3.1.@.504FAQ 2.2.@.505FAQ 2.1.@.506FAQ 1.3.@.507FAQ 1.2.@.508FAQ 1.1.@.509FAQ 5.4 (continued)

FAQ 5.4.aFAQ 5.4.vFAQ 5.3.yFAQ 5.3.byFAQ 5.2.cbFAQ 5.2.ctFAQ 5.1.cwFAQ 5.1.edFAQ 4.3.enFAQ 4.3.ewFAQ 4.2.gsFAQ 4.2.haFAQ 4.1.hyFAQ 4.1.ifFAQ 3.3.irFAQ 3.3.@.259FAQ 3.2.@.280FAQ 3.2.@.281FAQ 3.2.@.288FAQ 3.1.@.293FAQ 3.1.@.301FAQ 2.2.@.325FAQ 2.2.@.334FAQ 2.1.@.344FAQ 2.1.@.353FAQ 1.3.@.385FAQ 1.3.@.393FAQ 1.2.@.401FAQ 1.2.@.411FAQ 1.1.@.465FAQ 1.1.@.474FAQ 12.3.@.477FAQ 12.2.@.478FAQ 12.1.@.479FAQ 11.3.@.480FAQ 11.2.@.481FAQ 11.1.@.482FAQ 10.2.@.483FAQ 10.1.@.484FAQ 9.3.@.485FAQ 9.2.@.486FAQ 9.1.@.487FAQ 8.3.@.488FAQ 8.2.@.489FAQ 8.1.@.490FAQ 7.3.@.491FAQ 7.2.@.492FAQ 7.1.@.493FAQ 6.2.@.494FAQ 6.1.@.495FAQ 5.4.@.496FAQ 5.3.@.497FAQ 5.2.@.498FAQ 5.1.@.499FAQ 4.3.@.500FAQ 4.2.@.501FAQ 4.1.@.502FAQ 3.3.@.503FAQ 3.2.@.504FAQ 3.1.@.505FAQ 2.2.@.506FAQ 2.1.@.507FAQ 1.3.@.508FAQ 1.2.@.509FAQ 1.1.@.510FAQ

FAQ 5.4.bFAQ 5.4.wFAQ 5.3.zFAQ 5.3.bzFAQ 5.2.ccFAQ 5.2.cuFAQ 5.1.cxFAQ 5.1.eeFAQ 4.3.eoFAQ 4.3.exFAQ 4.2.gtFAQ 4.2.hbFAQ 4.1.hzFAQ 4.1.igFAQ 3.3.isFAQ 3.3.@.260FAQ 3.2.@.281FAQ 3.2.@.282FAQ 3.2.@.289FAQ 3.1.@.294FAQ 3.1.@.302FAQ 2.2.@.326FAQ 2.2.@.335FAQ 2.1.@.345FAQ 2.1.@.354FAQ 1.3.@.386FAQ 1.3.@.394FAQ 1.2.@.402FAQ 1.2.@.412FAQ 1.1.@.466FAQ 1.1.@.475FAQ 12.3.@.478FAQ 12.2.@.479FAQ 12.1.@.480FAQ 11.3.@.481FAQ 11.2.@.482FAQ 11.1.@.483FAQ 10.2.@.484FAQ 10.1.@.485FAQ 9.3.@.486FAQ 9.2.@.487FAQ 9.1.@.488FAQ 8.3.@.489FAQ 8.2.@.490FAQ 8.1.@.491FAQ 7.3.@.492FAQ 7.2.@.493FAQ 7.1.@.494FAQ 6.2.@.495FAQ 6.1.@.496FAQ 5.4.@.497FAQ 5.3.@.498FAQ 5.2.@.499FAQ 5.1.@.500FAQ 4.3.@.501FAQ 4.2.@.502FAQ 4.1.@.503FAQ 3.3.@.504FAQ 3.2.@.505FAQ 3.1.@.506FAQ 2.2.@.507FAQ 2.1.@.508FAQ 1.3.@.509FAQ 1.2.@.510FAQ 1.1.@.511Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 5.4.cFAQ 5.4.xFAQ 5.3.aaFAQ 5.3.caFAQ 5.2.cdFAQ 5.2.cvFAQ 5.1.cyFAQ 5.1.efFAQ 4.3.epFAQ 4.3.eyFAQ 4.2.guFAQ 4.2.hcFAQ 4.1.iaFAQ 4.1.ihFAQ 3.3.itFAQ 3.3.@.261FAQ 3.2.@.282FAQ 3.2.@.283FAQ 3.2.@.290FAQ 3.1.@.295FAQ 3.1.@.303FAQ 2.2.@.327FAQ 2.2.@.336FAQ 2.1.@.346FAQ 2.1.@.355FAQ 1.3.@.387FAQ 1.3.@.395FAQ 1.2.@.403FAQ 1.2.@.413FAQ 1.1.@.467FAQ 1.1.@.476FAQ 12.3.@.479FAQ 12.2.@.480FAQ 12.1.@.481FAQ 11.3.@.482FAQ 11.2.@.483FAQ 11.1.@.484FAQ 10.2.@.485FAQ 10.1.@.486FAQ 9.3.@.487FAQ 9.2.@.488FAQ 9.1.@.489FAQ 8.3.@.490FAQ 8.2.@.491FAQ 8.1.@.492FAQ 7.3.@.493FAQ 7.2.@.494FAQ 7.1.@.495FAQ 6.2.@.496FAQ 6.1.@.497FAQ 5.4.@.498FAQ 5.3.@.499FAQ 5.2.@.500FAQ 5.1.@.501FAQ 4.3.@.502FAQ 4.2.@.503FAQ 4.1.@.504FAQ 3.3.@.505FAQ 3.2.@.506FAQ 3.1.@.507FAQ 2.2.@.508FAQ 2.1.@.509FAQ 1.3.@.510FAQ 1.2.@.511FAQ 1.1.@.512FAQ 6.1 | What Are Short-lived Climate Forcers and How Do They Affect the Climate?

FAQ 6.1.aFAQ 5.4.dFAQ 5.4.yFAQ 5.3.abFAQ 5.3.cbFAQ 5.2.ceFAQ 5.2.cwFAQ 5.1.czFAQ 5.1.egFAQ 4.3.eqFAQ 4.3.ezFAQ 4.2.gvFAQ 4.2.hdFAQ 4.1.ibFAQ 4.1.iiFAQ 3.3.iuFAQ 3.3.@.262FAQ 3.2.@.283FAQ 3.2.@.284FAQ 3.2.@.291FAQ 3.1.@.296FAQ 3.1.@.304FAQ 2.2.@.328FAQ 2.2.@.337FAQ 2.1.@.347FAQ 2.1.@.356FAQ 1.3.@.388FAQ 1.3.@.396FAQ 1.2.@.404FAQ 1.2.@.414FAQ 1.1.@.468FAQ 1.1.@.477FAQ 12.3.@.480FAQ 12.2.@.481FAQ 12.1.@.482FAQ 11.3.@.483FAQ 11.2.@.484FAQ 11.1.@.485FAQ 10.2.@.486FAQ 10.1.@.487FAQ 9.3.@.488FAQ 9.2.@.489FAQ 9.1.@.490FAQ 8.3.@.491FAQ 8.2.@.492FAQ 8.1.@.493FAQ 7.3.@.494FAQ 7.2.@.495FAQ 7.1.@.496FAQ 6.2.@.497FAQ 6.1.@.498FAQ 5.4.@.499FAQ 5.3.@.500FAQ 5.2.@.501FAQ 5.1.@.502FAQ 4.3.@.503FAQ 4.2.@.504FAQ 4.1.@.505FAQ 3.3.@.506FAQ 3.2.@.507FAQ 3.1.@.508FAQ 2.2.@.509FAQ 2.1.@.510FAQ 1.3.@.511FAQ 1.2.@.512FAQ 1.1.@.513Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs) are compounds such as methane and sulphate aerosols that warm or cool the Earth’s climate over shorter time scales – from days to years – than greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, whose climatic effect lasts for decades, centuries or more. Because SLCFs do not remain in the atmosphere for very long, their effects on the climate are different from one region to another and can change rapidly in response to changes in SLCF emissions. As some SLCFs also negatively affect air quality, measures to improve air quality have resulted in sharp reductions in emissions and concentrations of those SLCFs in many regions over the few last decades.

FAQ 6.1.bFAQ 5.4.eFAQ 5.4.zFAQ 5.3.acFAQ 5.3.ccFAQ 5.2.cfFAQ 5.2.cxFAQ 5.1.daFAQ 5.1.ehFAQ 4.3.erFAQ 4.3.faFAQ 4.2.gwFAQ 4.2.heFAQ 4.1.icFAQ 4.1.ijFAQ 3.3.ivFAQ 3.3.@.263FAQ 3.2.@.284FAQ 3.2.@.285FAQ 3.2.@.292FAQ 3.1.@.297FAQ 3.1.@.305FAQ 2.2.@.329FAQ 2.2.@.338FAQ 2.1.@.348FAQ 2.1.@.357FAQ 1.3.@.389FAQ 1.3.@.397FAQ 1.2.@.405FAQ 1.2.@.415FAQ 1.1.@.469FAQ 1.1.@.478FAQ 12.3.@.481FAQ 12.2.@.482FAQ 12.1.@.483FAQ 11.3.@.484FAQ 11.2.@.485FAQ 11.1.@.486FAQ 10.2.@.487FAQ 10.1.@.488FAQ 9.3.@.489FAQ 9.2.@.490FAQ 9.1.@.491FAQ 8.3.@.492FAQ 8.2.@.493FAQ 8.1.@.494FAQ 7.3.@.495FAQ 7.2.@.496FAQ 7.1.@.497FAQ 6.2.@.498FAQ 6.1.@.499FAQ 5.4.@.500FAQ 5.3.@.501FAQ 5.2.@.502FAQ 5.1.@.503FAQ 4.3.@.504FAQ 4.2.@.505FAQ 4.1.@.506FAQ 3.3.@.507FAQ 3.2.@.508FAQ 3.1.@.509FAQ 2.2.@.510FAQ 2.1.@.511FAQ 1.3.@.512FAQ 1.2.@.513FAQ 1.1.@.514The SLCFs include gases as well as tiny particles called aerosols, and they can have a warming or cooling effect on the climate (FAQ 6.1, Figure 1). Warming SLCFs are either greenhouse gases (e.g., ozone or methane) or particles like black carbon (also known as soot), which warm the climate by absorbing energy and are sometimes referred to as short-lived climate pollutants. Cooling SLCFs, on the other hand, are mostly made of aerosol particles (e.g., sulphate, nitrate and organic aerosols) that cool down the climate by reflecting away more incoming sunlight.

FAQ 6.1.cFAQ 5.4.fFAQ 5.4.aaFAQ 5.3.adFAQ 5.3.cdFAQ 5.2.cgFAQ 5.2.cyFAQ 5.1.dbFAQ 5.1.eiFAQ 4.3.esFAQ 4.3.fbFAQ 4.2.gxFAQ 4.2.hfFAQ 4.1.idFAQ 4.1.ikFAQ 3.3.@.256FAQ 3.3.@.264FAQ 3.2.@.285FAQ 3.2.@.286FAQ 3.2.@.293FAQ 3.1.@.298FAQ 3.1.@.306FAQ 2.2.@.330FAQ 2.2.@.339FAQ 2.1.@.349FAQ 2.1.@.358FAQ 1.3.@.390FAQ 1.3.@.398FAQ 1.2.@.406FAQ 1.2.@.416FAQ 1.1.@.470FAQ 1.1.@.479FAQ 12.3.@.482FAQ 12.2.@.483FAQ 12.1.@.484FAQ 11.3.@.485FAQ 11.2.@.486FAQ 11.1.@.487FAQ 10.2.@.488FAQ 10.1.@.489FAQ 9.3.@.490FAQ 9.2.@.491FAQ 9.1.@.492FAQ 8.3.@.493FAQ 8.2.@.494FAQ 8.1.@.495FAQ 7.3.@.496FAQ 7.2.@.497FAQ 7.1.@.498FAQ 6.2.@.499FAQ 6.1.@.500FAQ 5.4.@.501FAQ 5.3.@.502FAQ 5.2.@.503FAQ 5.1.@.504FAQ 4.3.@.505FAQ 4.2.@.506FAQ 4.1.@.507FAQ 3.3.@.508FAQ 3.2.@.509FAQ 3.1.@.510FAQ 2.2.@.511FAQ 2.1.@.512FAQ 1.3.@.513FAQ 1.2.@.514FAQ 1.1.@.515Some SLCFs do not directly affect the climate but produce climate-active compounds and are referred to as precursors. SLCFs are emitted both naturally and as a result of human activities, such as agriculture or extraction of fossil fuels. Many of the human sources, particularly those involving combustion, produce SLCFs at the same time as carbon dioxide and other long-lived greenhouse gases. Emissions have increased since the start of industrialization, and humans are now the dominant source for several SLCFs and SLCF precursors, such as sulphur dioxide (which produces sulphate aerosols) and nitrogen oxides (which produce nitrate aerosols and ozone), despite strong reductions over the last few decades in some regions due to efforts to improve air quality.

FAQ 6.1.dFAQ 5.4.gFAQ 5.4.abFAQ 5.3.aeFAQ 5.3.ceFAQ 5.2.chFAQ 5.2.czFAQ 5.1.dcFAQ 5.1.ejFAQ 4.3.etFAQ 4.3.fcFAQ 4.2.gyFAQ 4.2.hgFAQ 4.1.ieFAQ 4.1.ilFAQ 3.3.@.257FAQ 3.3.@.265FAQ 3.2.@.286FAQ 3.2.@.287FAQ 3.2.@.294FAQ 3.1.@.299FAQ 3.1.@.307FAQ 2.2.@.331FAQ 2.2.@.340FAQ 2.1.@.350FAQ 2.1.@.359FAQ 1.3.@.391FAQ 1.3.@.399FAQ 1.2.@.407FAQ 1.2.@.417FAQ 1.1.@.471FAQ 1.1.@.480FAQ 12.3.@.483FAQ 12.2.@.484FAQ 12.1.@.485FAQ 11.3.@.486FAQ 11.2.@.487FAQ 11.1.@.488FAQ 10.2.@.489FAQ 10.1.@.490FAQ 9.3.@.491FAQ 9.2.@.492FAQ 9.1.@.493FAQ 8.3.@.494FAQ 8.2.@.495FAQ 8.1.@.496FAQ 7.3.@.497FAQ 7.2.@.498FAQ 7.1.@.499FAQ 6.2.@.500FAQ 6.1.@.501FAQ 5.4.@.502FAQ 5.3.@.503FAQ 5.2.@.504FAQ 5.1.@.505FAQ 4.3.@.506FAQ 4.2.@.507FAQ 4.1.@.508FAQ 3.3.@.509FAQ 3.2.@.510FAQ 3.1.@.511FAQ 2.2.@.512FAQ 2.1.@.513FAQ 1.3.@.514FAQ 1.2.@.515FAQ 1.1.@.516The climatic effect of a chemical compound in the atmosphere depends on two things: (i) how effective it is at cooling or warming the climate (its radiative efficiency) and (ii) how long it remains in the atmosphere (its lifetime). Because they have high radiative efficiencies, SLCFs can have a strong effect on the climate even though they have relatively short lifetimes of up to about two decades after emission. Today, there is a balance between warming and cooling from SLCFs, but this can change in the future.

FAQ 6.1.eFAQ 5.4.hFAQ 5.4.acFAQ 5.3.afFAQ 5.3.cfFAQ 5.2.ciFAQ 5.2.daFAQ 5.1.ddFAQ 5.1.ekFAQ 4.3.euFAQ 4.3.fdFAQ 4.2.gzFAQ 4.2.hhFAQ 4.1.ifFAQ 4.1.imFAQ 3.3.@.258FAQ 3.3.@.266FAQ 3.2.@.287FAQ 3.2.@.288FAQ 3.2.@.295FAQ 3.1.@.300FAQ 3.1.@.308FAQ 2.2.@.332FAQ 2.2.@.341FAQ 2.1.@.351FAQ 2.1.@.360FAQ 1.3.@.392FAQ 1.3.@.400FAQ 1.2.@.408FAQ 1.2.@.418FAQ 1.1.@.472FAQ 1.1.@.481FAQ 12.3.@.484FAQ 12.2.@.485FAQ 12.1.@.486FAQ 11.3.@.487FAQ 11.2.@.488FAQ 11.1.@.489FAQ 10.2.@.490FAQ 10.1.@.491FAQ 9.3.@.492FAQ 9.2.@.493FAQ 9.1.@.494FAQ 8.3.@.495FAQ 8.2.@.496FAQ 8.1.@.497FAQ 7.3.@.498FAQ 7.2.@.499FAQ 7.1.@.500FAQ 6.2.@.501FAQ 6.1.@.502FAQ 5.4.@.503FAQ 5.3.@.504FAQ 5.2.@.505FAQ 5.1.@.506FAQ 4.3.@.507FAQ 4.2.@.508FAQ 4.1.@.509FAQ 3.3.@.510FAQ 3.2.@.511FAQ 3.1.@.512FAQ 2.2.@.513FAQ 2.1.@.514FAQ 1.3.@.515FAQ 1.2.@.516FAQ 1.1.@.517The short lifetime of SLCFs constrains their effects in both space and time. First, of all the SLCFs, methane and the short-lived halocarbons persist the longest in the atmosphere: up to two decades (FAQ 6.1, Figure 1). This is long enough to mix in the atmosphere and to spread globally. Most other SLCFs only remain in the atmosphere for a few days to weeks, which is generally too short for mixing in the atmosphere, sometimes even regionally. As a result, the SLCFs are unevenly distributed and their effects on the climate are more regional than those of longer-lived gases. Second, rapid (but sustained) changes in emissions of SLCFs can result in rapid climatic effects.

FAQ 6.1.fFAQ 5.4.iFAQ 5.4.adFAQ 5.3.agFAQ 5.3.cgFAQ 5.2.cjFAQ 5.2.dbFAQ 5.1.deFAQ 5.1.elFAQ 4.3.evFAQ 4.3.feFAQ 4.2.haFAQ 4.2.hiFAQ 4.1.igFAQ 4.1.inFAQ 3.3.@.259FAQ 3.3.@.267FAQ 3.2.@.288FAQ 3.2.@.289FAQ 3.2.@.296FAQ 3.1.@.301FAQ 3.1.@.309FAQ 2.2.@.333FAQ 2.2.@.342FAQ 2.1.@.352FAQ 2.1.@.361FAQ 1.3.@.393FAQ 1.3.@.401FAQ 1.2.@.409FAQ 1.2.@.419FAQ 1.1.@.473FAQ 1.1.@.482FAQ 12.3.@.485FAQ 12.2.@.486FAQ 12.1.@.487FAQ 11.3.@.488FAQ 11.2.@.489FAQ 11.1.@.490FAQ 10.2.@.491FAQ 10.1.@.492FAQ 9.3.@.493FAQ 9.2.@.494FAQ 9.1.@.495FAQ 8.3.@.496FAQ 8.2.@.497FAQ 8.1.@.498FAQ 7.3.@.499FAQ 7.2.@.500FAQ 7.1.@.501FAQ 6.2.@.502FAQ 6.1.@.503FAQ 5.4.@.504FAQ 5.3.@.505FAQ 5.2.@.506FAQ 5.1.@.507FAQ 4.3.@.508FAQ 4.2.@.509FAQ 4.1.@.510FAQ 3.3.@.511FAQ 3.2.@.512FAQ 3.1.@.513FAQ 2.2.@.514FAQ 2.1.@.515FAQ 1.3.@.516FAQ 1.2.@.517FAQ 1.1.@.518In addition to the direct warming and cooling effects, SLCFs have many other consequences for the climate system and for air quality (see FAQ 6.2). For instance, deposition of black carbon on snow darkens its surface, which subsequently absorbs more solar energy, leading to more melting and more warming. Aerosols also modify the properties of clouds, which has indirect cooling effects on the climate and causes changes in local rainfall (see FAQ 7.2). Climate models indicate that SLCFs have altered atmospheric circulation on local and even hemispheric scales (e.g., monsoons) as well as regional precipitation. For instance, recent observations show that regional weather is influenced by strong regional contrasts in the evolution of aerosol concentrations, particularly over South and East Asia.

FAQ 6.1.gFAQ 5.4.jFAQ 5.4.aeFAQ 5.3.ahFAQ 5.3.chFAQ 5.2.ckFAQ 5.2.dcFAQ 5.1.dfFAQ 5.1.emFAQ 4.3.ewFAQ 4.3.ffFAQ 4.2.hbFAQ 4.2.hjFAQ 4.1.ihFAQ 4.1.ioFAQ 3.3.@.260FAQ 3.3.@.268FAQ 3.2.@.289FAQ 3.2.@.290FAQ 3.2.@.297FAQ 3.1.@.302FAQ 3.1.@.310FAQ 2.2.@.334FAQ 2.2.@.343FAQ 2.1.@.353FAQ 2.1.@.362FAQ 1.3.@.394FAQ 1.3.@.402FAQ 1.2.@.410FAQ 1.2.@.420FAQ 1.1.@.474FAQ 1.1.@.483FAQ 12.3.@.486FAQ 12.2.@.487FAQ 12.1.@.488FAQ 11.3.@.489FAQ 11.2.@.490FAQ 11.1.@.491FAQ 10.2.@.492FAQ 10.1.@.493FAQ 9.3.@.494FAQ 9.2.@.495FAQ 9.1.@.496FAQ 8.3.@.497FAQ 8.2.@.498FAQ 8.1.@.499FAQ 7.3.@.500FAQ 7.2.@.501FAQ 7.1.@.502FAQ 6.2.@.503FAQ 6.1.@.504FAQ 5.4.@.505FAQ 5.3.@.506FAQ 5.2.@.507FAQ 5.1.@.508FAQ 4.3.@.509FAQ 4.2.@.510FAQ 4.1.@.511FAQ 3.3.@.512FAQ 3.2.@.513FAQ 3.1.@.514FAQ 2.2.@.515FAQ 2.1.@.516FAQ 1.3.@.517FAQ 1.2.@.518FAQ 1.1.@.519Although policies to limit climate change and discussions of the so-called remaining carbon budgets primarily focus on carbon dioxide (see FAQ 5.4), SLCFs can significantly affect temperature changes. It is therefore important to understand how SLCFs work and to quantify their effects. Because reducing some of the SLCF emissions, such as methane, can simultaneously reduce warming effects and adverse effects on air quality as well as help attaining Sustainable Development Goals, mitigation of SLCFs is often viewed as a favourable ‘win-win’ policy option.

FAQ 6.1.hFAQ 5.4.kFAQ 5.4.afFAQ 5.3.aiFAQ 5.3.ciFAQ 5.2.clFAQ 5.2.ddFAQ 5.1.dgFAQ 5.1.enFAQ 4.3.exFAQ 4.3.fgFAQ 4.2.hcFAQ 4.2.hkFAQ 4.1.iiFAQ 4.1.ipFAQ 3.3.@.261FAQ 3.3.@.269FAQ 3.2.@.290FAQ 3.2.@.291FAQ 3.2.@.298FAQ 3.1.@.303FAQ 3.1.@.311FAQ 2.2.@.335FAQ 2.2.@.344FAQ 2.1.@.354FAQ 2.1.@.363FAQ 1.3.@.395FAQ 1.3.@.403FAQ 1.2.@.411FAQ 1.2.@.421FAQ 1.1.@.475FAQ 1.1.@.484FAQ 12.3.@.487FAQ 12.2.@.488FAQ 12.1.@.489FAQ 11.3.@.490FAQ 11.2.@.491FAQ 11.1.@.492FAQ 10.2.@.493FAQ 10.1.@.494FAQ 9.3.@.495FAQ 9.2.@.496FAQ 9.1.@.497FAQ 8.3.@.498FAQ 8.2.@.499FAQ 8.1.@.500FAQ 7.3.@.501FAQ 7.2.@.502FAQ 7.1.@.503FAQ 6.2.@.504FAQ 6.1.@.505FAQ 5.4.@.506FAQ 5.3.@.507FAQ 5.2.@.508FAQ 5.1.@.509FAQ 4.3.@.510FAQ 4.2.@.511FAQ 4.1.@.512FAQ 3.3.@.513FAQ 3.2.@.514FAQ 3.1.@.515FAQ 2.2.@.516FAQ 2.1.@.517FAQ 1.3.@.518FAQ 1.2.@.519FAQ 1.1.@.520FAQ

FAQ 6.1.iFAQ 5.4.lFAQ 5.4.agFAQ 5.3.ajFAQ 5.3.cjFAQ 5.2.cmFAQ 5.2.deFAQ 5.1.dhFAQ 5.1.eoFAQ 4.3.eyFAQ 4.3.fhFAQ 4.2.hdFAQ 4.2.hlFAQ 4.1.ijFAQ 4.1.iqFAQ 3.3.@.262FAQ 3.3.@.270FAQ 3.2.@.291FAQ 3.2.@.292FAQ 3.2.@.299FAQ 3.1.@.304FAQ 3.1.@.312FAQ 2.2.@.336FAQ 2.2.@.345FAQ 2.1.@.355FAQ 2.1.@.364FAQ 1.3.@.396FAQ 1.3.@.404FAQ 1.2.@.412FAQ 1.2.@.422FAQ 1.1.@.476FAQ 1.1.@.485FAQ 12.3.@.488FAQ 12.2.@.489FAQ 12.1.@.490FAQ 11.3.@.491FAQ 11.2.@.492FAQ 11.1.@.493FAQ 10.2.@.494FAQ 10.1.@.495FAQ 9.3.@.496FAQ 9.2.@.497FAQ 9.1.@.498FAQ 8.3.@.499FAQ 8.2.@.500FAQ 8.1.@.501FAQ 7.3.@.502FAQ 7.2.@.503FAQ 7.1.@.504FAQ 6.2.@.505FAQ 6.1.@.506FAQ 5.4.@.507FAQ 5.3.@.508FAQ 5.2.@.509FAQ 5.1.@.510FAQ 4.3.@.511FAQ 4.2.@.512FAQ 4.1.@.513FAQ 3.3.@.514FAQ 3.2.@.515FAQ 3.1.@.516FAQ 2.2.@.517FAQ 2.1.@.518FAQ 1.3.@.519FAQ 1.2.@.520FAQ 1.1.@.521FAQ 6.1 (continued)

FAQ 6.1.aFAQ 6.1.jFAQ 5.4.mFAQ 5.4.ahFAQ 5.3.akFAQ 5.3.ckFAQ 5.2.cnFAQ 5.2.dfFAQ 5.1.diFAQ 5.1.epFAQ 4.3.ezFAQ 4.3.fiFAQ 4.2.heFAQ 4.2.hmFAQ 4.1.ikFAQ 4.1.irFAQ 3.3.@.263FAQ 3.3.@.271FAQ 3.2.@.292FAQ 3.2.@.293FAQ 3.2.@.300FAQ 3.1.@.305FAQ 3.1.@.313FAQ 2.2.@.337FAQ 2.2.@.346FAQ 2.1.@.356FAQ 2.1.@.365FAQ 1.3.@.397FAQ 1.3.@.405FAQ 1.2.@.413FAQ 1.2.@.423FAQ 1.1.@.477FAQ 1.1.@.486FAQ 12.3.@.489FAQ 12.2.@.490FAQ 12.1.@.491FAQ 11.3.@.492FAQ 11.2.@.493FAQ 11.1.@.494FAQ 10.2.@.495FAQ 10.1.@.496FAQ 9.3.@.497FAQ 9.2.@.498FAQ 9.1.@.499FAQ 8.3.@.500FAQ 8.2.@.501FAQ 8.1.@.502FAQ 7.3.@.503FAQ 7.2.@.504FAQ 7.1.@.505FAQ 6.2.@.506FAQ 6.1.@.507FAQ 5.4.@.508FAQ 5.3.@.509FAQ 5.2.@.510FAQ 5.1.@.511FAQ 4.3.@.512FAQ 4.2.@.513FAQ 4.1.@.514FAQ 3.3.@.515FAQ 3.2.@.516FAQ 3.1.@.517FAQ 2.2.@.518FAQ 2.1.@.519FAQ 1.3.@.520FAQ 1.2.@.521FAQ 1.1.@.522FAQ 6.1: What are short-lived climate forcers and how do they affect the climate?

FAQ 6.1.bFAQ 6.1.kFAQ 5.4.nFAQ 5.4.aiFAQ 5.3.alFAQ 5.3.clFAQ 5.2.coFAQ 5.2.dgFAQ 5.1.djFAQ 5.1.eqFAQ 4.3.faFAQ 4.3.fjFAQ 4.2.hfFAQ 4.2.hnFAQ 4.1.ilFAQ 4.1.isFAQ 3.3.@.264FAQ 3.3.@.272FAQ 3.2.@.293FAQ 3.2.@.294FAQ 3.2.@.301FAQ 3.1.@.306FAQ 3.1.@.314FAQ 2.2.@.338FAQ 2.2.@.347FAQ 2.1.@.357FAQ 2.1.@.366FAQ 1.3.@.398FAQ 1.3.@.406FAQ 1.2.@.414FAQ 1.2.@.424FAQ 1.1.@.478FAQ 1.1.@.487FAQ 12.3.@.490FAQ 12.2.@.491FAQ 12.1.@.492FAQ 11.3.@.493FAQ 11.2.@.494FAQ 11.1.@.495FAQ 10.2.@.496FAQ 10.1.@.497FAQ 9.3.@.498FAQ 9.2.@.499FAQ 9.1.@.500FAQ 8.3.@.501FAQ 8.2.@.502FAQ 8.1.@.503FAQ 7.3.@.504FAQ 7.2.@.505FAQ 7.1.@.506FAQ 6.2.@.507FAQ 6.1.@.508FAQ 5.4.@.509FAQ 5.3.@.510FAQ 5.2.@.511FAQ 5.1.@.512FAQ 4.3.@.513FAQ 4.2.@.514FAQ 4.1.@.515FAQ 3.3.@.516FAQ 3.2.@.517FAQ 3.1.@.518FAQ 2.2.@.519FAQ 2.1.@.520FAQ 1.3.@.521FAQ 1.2.@.522FAQ 1.1.@.52312 years

FAQ 6.1.cFAQ 6.1.lFAQ 5.4.oFAQ 5.4.ajFAQ 5.3.amFAQ 5.3.cmFAQ 5.2.cpFAQ 5.2.dhFAQ 5.1.dkFAQ 5.1.erFAQ 4.3.fbFAQ 4.3.fkFAQ 4.2.hgFAQ 4.2.hoFAQ 4.1.imFAQ 4.1.itFAQ 3.3.@.265FAQ 3.3.@.273FAQ 3.2.@.294FAQ 3.2.@.295FAQ 3.2.@.302FAQ 3.1.@.307FAQ 3.1.@.315FAQ 2.2.@.339FAQ 2.2.@.348FAQ 2.1.@.358FAQ 2.1.@.367FAQ 1.3.@.399FAQ 1.3.@.407FAQ 1.2.@.415FAQ 1.2.@.425FAQ 1.1.@.479FAQ 1.1.@.488FAQ 12.3.@.491FAQ 12.2.@.492FAQ 12.1.@.493FAQ 11.3.@.494FAQ 11.2.@.495FAQ 11.1.@.496FAQ 10.2.@.497FAQ 10.1.@.498FAQ 9.3.@.499FAQ 9.2.@.500FAQ 9.1.@.501FAQ 8.3.@.502FAQ 8.2.@.503FAQ 8.1.@.504FAQ 7.3.@.505FAQ 7.2.@.506FAQ 7.1.@.507FAQ 6.2.@.508FAQ 6.1.@.509FAQ 5.4.@.510FAQ 5.3.@.511FAQ 5.2.@.512FAQ 5.1.@.513FAQ 4.3.@.514FAQ 4.2.@.515FAQ 4.1.@.516FAQ 3.3.@.517FAQ 3.2.@.518FAQ 3.1.@.519FAQ 2.2.@.520FAQ 2.1.@.521FAQ 1.3.@.522FAQ 1.2.@.523FAQ 1.1.@.524Weeks

FAQ 6.1.dFAQ 6.1.mFAQ 5.4.pFAQ 5.4.akFAQ 5.3.anFAQ 5.3.cnFAQ 5.2.cqFAQ 5.2.diFAQ 5.1.dlFAQ 5.1.esFAQ 4.3.fcFAQ 4.3.flFAQ 4.2.hhFAQ 4.2.hpFAQ 4.1.inFAQ 4.1.iuFAQ 3.3.@.266FAQ 3.3.@.274FAQ 3.2.@.295FAQ 3.2.@.296FAQ 3.2.@.303FAQ 3.1.@.308FAQ 3.1.@.316FAQ 2.2.@.340FAQ 2.2.@.349FAQ 2.1.@.359FAQ 2.1.@.368FAQ 1.3.@.400FAQ 1.3.@.408FAQ 1.2.@.416FAQ 1.2.@.426FAQ 1.1.@.480FAQ 1.1.@.489FAQ 12.3.@.492FAQ 12.2.@.493FAQ 12.1.@.494FAQ 11.3.@.495FAQ 11.2.@.496FAQ 11.1.@.497FAQ 10.2.@.498FAQ 10.1.@.499FAQ 9.3.@.500FAQ 9.2.@.501FAQ 9.1.@.502FAQ 8.3.@.503FAQ 8.2.@.504FAQ 8.1.@.505FAQ 7.3.@.506FAQ 7.2.@.507FAQ 7.1.@.508FAQ 6.2.@.509FAQ 6.1.@.510FAQ 5.4.@.511FAQ 5.3.@.512FAQ 5.2.@.513FAQ 5.1.@.514FAQ 4.3.@.515FAQ 4.2.@.516FAQ 4.1.@.517FAQ 3.3.@.518FAQ 3.2.@.519FAQ 3.1.@.520FAQ 2.2.@.521FAQ 2.1.@.522FAQ 1.3.@.523FAQ 1.2.@.524FAQ 1.1.@.5251-20 years

FAQ 6.1.eFAQ 6.1.nFAQ 5.4.qFAQ 5.4.alFAQ 5.3.aoFAQ 5.3.coFAQ 5.2.crFAQ 5.2.djFAQ 5.1.dmFAQ 5.1.etFAQ 4.3.fdFAQ 4.3.fmFAQ 4.2.hiFAQ 4.2.hqFAQ 4.1.ioFAQ 4.1.ivFAQ 3.3.@.267FAQ 3.3.@.275FAQ 3.2.@.296FAQ 3.2.@.297FAQ 3.2.@.304FAQ 3.1.@.309FAQ 3.1.@.317FAQ 2.2.@.341FAQ 2.2.@.350FAQ 2.1.@.360FAQ 2.1.@.369FAQ 1.3.@.401FAQ 1.3.@.409FAQ 1.2.@.417FAQ 1.2.@.427FAQ 1.1.@.481FAQ 1.1.@.490FAQ 12.3.@.493FAQ 12.2.@.494FAQ 12.1.@.495FAQ 11.3.@.496FAQ 11.2.@.497FAQ 11.1.@.498FAQ 10.2.@.499FAQ 10.1.@.500FAQ 9.3.@.501FAQ 9.2.@.502FAQ 9.1.@.503FAQ 8.3.@.504FAQ 8.2.@.505FAQ 8.1.@.506FAQ 7.3.@.507FAQ 7.2.@.508FAQ 7.1.@.509FAQ 6.2.@.510FAQ 6.1.@.511FAQ 5.4.@.512FAQ 5.3.@.513FAQ 5.2.@.514FAQ 5.1.@.515FAQ 4.3.@.516FAQ 4.2.@.517FAQ 4.1.@.518FAQ 3.3.@.519FAQ 3.2.@.520FAQ 3.1.@.521FAQ 2.2.@.522FAQ 2.1.@.523FAQ 1.3.@.524FAQ 1.2.@.525FAQ 1.1.@.526Warming/cooling effect

FAQ 6.1.fFAQ 6.1.oFAQ 5.4.rFAQ 5.4.amFAQ 5.3.apFAQ 5.3.cpFAQ 5.2.csFAQ 5.2.dkFAQ 5.1.dnFAQ 5.1.euFAQ 4.3.feFAQ 4.3.fnFAQ 4.2.hjFAQ 4.2.hrFAQ 4.1.ipFAQ 4.1.@.256FAQ 3.3.@.268FAQ 3.3.@.276FAQ 3.2.@.297FAQ 3.2.@.298FAQ 3.2.@.305FAQ 3.1.@.310FAQ 3.1.@.318FAQ 2.2.@.342FAQ 2.2.@.351FAQ 2.1.@.361FAQ 2.1.@.370FAQ 1.3.@.402FAQ 1.3.@.410FAQ 1.2.@.418FAQ 1.2.@.428FAQ 1.1.@.482FAQ 1.1.@.491FAQ 12.3.@.494FAQ 12.2.@.495FAQ 12.1.@.496FAQ 11.3.@.497FAQ 11.2.@.498FAQ 11.1.@.499FAQ 10.2.@.500FAQ 10.1.@.501FAQ 9.3.@.502FAQ 9.2.@.503FAQ 9.1.@.504FAQ 8.3.@.505FAQ 8.2.@.506FAQ 8.1.@.507FAQ 7.3.@.508FAQ 7.2.@.509FAQ 7.1.@.510FAQ 6.2.@.511FAQ 6.1.@.512FAQ 5.4.@.513FAQ 5.3.@.514FAQ 5.2.@.515FAQ 5.1.@.516FAQ 4.3.@.517FAQ 4.2.@.518FAQ 4.1.@.519FAQ 3.3.@.520FAQ 3.2.@.521FAQ 3.1.@.522FAQ 2.2.@.523FAQ 2.1.@.524FAQ 1.3.@.525FAQ 1.2.@.526FAQ 1.1.@.527Days

FAQ 6.1.gFAQ 6.1.pFAQ 5.4.sFAQ 5.4.anFAQ 5.3.aqFAQ 5.3.cqFAQ 5.2.ctFAQ 5.2.dlFAQ 5.1.doFAQ 5.1.evFAQ 4.3.ffFAQ 4.3.foFAQ 4.2.hkFAQ 4.2.hsFAQ 4.1.iqFAQ 4.1.@.257FAQ 3.3.@.269FAQ 3.3.@.277FAQ 3.2.@.298FAQ 3.2.@.299FAQ 3.2.@.306FAQ 3.1.@.311FAQ 3.1.@.319FAQ 2.2.@.343FAQ 2.2.@.352FAQ 2.1.@.362FAQ 2.1.@.371FAQ 1.3.@.403FAQ 1.3.@.411FAQ 1.2.@.419FAQ 1.2.@.429FAQ 1.1.@.483FAQ 1.1.@.492FAQ 12.3.@.495FAQ 12.2.@.496FAQ 12.1.@.497FAQ 11.3.@.498FAQ 11.2.@.499FAQ 11.1.@.500FAQ 10.2.@.501FAQ 10.1.@.502FAQ 9.3.@.503FAQ 9.2.@.504FAQ 9.1.@.505FAQ 8.3.@.506FAQ 8.2.@.507FAQ 8.1.@.508FAQ 7.3.@.509FAQ 7.2.@.510FAQ 7.1.@.511FAQ 6.2.@.512FAQ 6.1.@.513FAQ 5.4.@.514FAQ 5.3.@.515FAQ 5.2.@.516FAQ 5.1.@.517FAQ 4.3.@.518FAQ 4.2.@.519FAQ 4.1.@.520FAQ 3.3.@.521FAQ 3.2.@.522FAQ 3.1.@.523FAQ 2.2.@.524FAQ 2.1.@.525FAQ 1.3.@.526FAQ 1.2.@.527FAQ 1.1.@.528Days

FAQ 6.1.hFAQ 6.1.qFAQ 5.4.tFAQ 5.4.aoFAQ 5.3.arFAQ 5.3.crFAQ 5.2.cuFAQ 5.2.dmFAQ 5.1.dpFAQ 5.1.ewFAQ 4.3.fgFAQ 4.3.fpFAQ 4.2.hlFAQ 4.2.htFAQ 4.1.irFAQ 4.1.@.258FAQ 3.3.@.270FAQ 3.3.@.278FAQ 3.2.@.299FAQ 3.2.@.300FAQ 3.2.@.307FAQ 3.1.@.312FAQ 3.1.@.320FAQ 2.2.@.344FAQ 2.2.@.353FAQ 2.1.@.363FAQ 2.1.@.372FAQ 1.3.@.404FAQ 1.3.@.412FAQ 1.2.@.420FAQ 1.2.@.430FAQ 1.1.@.484FAQ 1.1.@.493FAQ 12.3.@.496FAQ 12.2.@.497FAQ 12.1.@.498FAQ 11.3.@.499FAQ 11.2.@.500FAQ 11.1.@.501FAQ 10.2.@.502FAQ 10.1.@.503FAQ 9.3.@.504FAQ 9.2.@.505FAQ 9.1.@.506FAQ 8.3.@.507FAQ 8.2.@.508FAQ 8.1.@.509FAQ 7.3.@.510FAQ 7.2.@.511FAQ 7.1.@.512FAQ 6.2.@.513FAQ 6.1.@.514FAQ 5.4.@.515FAQ 5.3.@.516FAQ 5.2.@.517FAQ 5.1.@.518FAQ 4.3.@.519FAQ 4.2.@.520FAQ 4.1.@.521FAQ 3.3.@.522FAQ 3.2.@.523FAQ 3.1.@.524FAQ 2.2.@.525FAQ 2.1.@.526FAQ 1.3.@.527FAQ 1.2.@.528FAQ 1.1.@.529Short lived climate forcers do not remain for very long in the atmosphere, thus an increase or decrease in their emissions rapidly affects the climate system.

FAQ 6.1.iFAQ 6.1.rFAQ 5.4.uFAQ 5.4.apFAQ 5.3.asFAQ 5.3.csFAQ 5.2.cvFAQ 5.2.dnFAQ 5.1.dqFAQ 5.1.exFAQ 4.3.fhFAQ 4.3.fqFAQ 4.2.hmFAQ 4.2.huFAQ 4.1.isFAQ 4.1.@.259FAQ 3.3.@.271FAQ 3.3.@.279FAQ 3.2.@.300FAQ 3.2.@.301FAQ 3.2.@.308FAQ 3.1.@.313FAQ 3.1.@.321FAQ 2.2.@.345FAQ 2.2.@.354FAQ 2.1.@.364FAQ 2.1.@.373FAQ 1.3.@.405FAQ 1.3.@.413FAQ 1.2.@.421FAQ 1.2.@.431FAQ 1.1.@.485FAQ 1.1.@.494FAQ 12.3.@.497FAQ 12.2.@.498FAQ 12.1.@.499FAQ 11.3.@.500FAQ 11.2.@.501FAQ 11.1.@.502FAQ 10.2.@.503FAQ 10.1.@.504FAQ 9.3.@.505FAQ 9.2.@.506FAQ 9.1.@.507FAQ 8.3.@.508FAQ 8.2.@.509FAQ 8.1.@.510FAQ 7.3.@.511FAQ 7.2.@.512FAQ 7.1.@.513FAQ 6.2.@.514FAQ 6.1.@.515FAQ 5.4.@.516FAQ 5.3.@.517FAQ 5.2.@.518FAQ 5.1.@.519FAQ 4.3.@.520FAQ 4.2.@.521FAQ 4.1.@.522FAQ 3.3.@.523FAQ 3.2.@.524FAQ 3.1.@.525FAQ 2.2.@.526FAQ 2.1.@.527FAQ 1.3.@.528FAQ 1.2.@.529FAQ 1.1.@.530Short-lived climate forcer Main human sourcesLifetime in atmosphereRelative contribution to global temperature change

FAQ 6.1.jFAQ 6.1.sFAQ 5.4.vFAQ 5.4.aqFAQ 5.3.atFAQ 5.3.ctFAQ 5.2.cwFAQ 5.2.doFAQ 5.1.drFAQ 5.1.eyFAQ 4.3.fiFAQ 4.3.frFAQ 4.2.hnFAQ 4.2.hvFAQ 4.1.itFAQ 4.1.@.260FAQ 3.3.@.272FAQ 3.3.@.280FAQ 3.2.@.301FAQ 3.2.@.302FAQ 3.2.@.309FAQ 3.1.@.314FAQ 3.1.@.322FAQ 2.2.@.346FAQ 2.2.@.355FAQ 2.1.@.365FAQ 2.1.@.374FAQ 1.3.@.406FAQ 1.3.@.414FAQ 1.2.@.422FAQ 1.2.@.432FAQ 1.1.@.486FAQ 1.1.@.495FAQ 12.3.@.498FAQ 12.2.@.499FAQ 12.1.@.500FAQ 11.3.@.501FAQ 11.2.@.502FAQ 11.1.@.503FAQ 10.2.@.504FAQ 10.1.@.505FAQ 9.3.@.506FAQ 9.2.@.507FAQ 9.1.@.508FAQ 8.3.@.509FAQ 8.2.@.510FAQ 8.1.@.511FAQ 7.3.@.512FAQ 7.2.@.513FAQ 7.1.@.514FAQ 6.2.@.515FAQ 6.1.@.516FAQ 5.4.@.517FAQ 5.3.@.518FAQ 5.2.@.519FAQ 5.1.@.520FAQ 4.3.@.521FAQ 4.2.@.522FAQ 4.1.@.523FAQ 3.3.@.524FAQ 3.2.@.525FAQ 3.1.@.526FAQ 2.2.@.527FAQ 2.1.@.528FAQ 1.3.@.529FAQ 1.2.@.530FAQ 1.1.@.531Black Carbon

FAQ 6.1.kFAQ 6.1.tFAQ 5.4.wFAQ 5.4.arFAQ 5.3.auFAQ 5.3.cuFAQ 5.2.cxFAQ 5.2.dpFAQ 5.1.dsFAQ 5.1.ezFAQ 4.3.fjFAQ 4.3.fsFAQ 4.2.hoFAQ 4.2.hwFAQ 4.1.iuFAQ 4.1.@.261FAQ 3.3.@.273FAQ 3.3.@.281FAQ 3.2.@.302FAQ 3.2.@.303FAQ 3.2.@.310FAQ 3.1.@.315FAQ 3.1.@.323FAQ 2.2.@.347FAQ 2.2.@.356FAQ 2.1.@.366FAQ 2.1.@.375FAQ 1.3.@.407FAQ 1.3.@.415FAQ 1.2.@.423FAQ 1.2.@.433FAQ 1.1.@.487FAQ 1.1.@.496FAQ 12.3.@.499FAQ 12.2.@.500FAQ 12.1.@.501FAQ 11.3.@.502FAQ 11.2.@.503FAQ 11.1.@.504FAQ 10.2.@.505FAQ 10.1.@.506FAQ 9.3.@.507FAQ 9.2.@.508FAQ 9.1.@.509FAQ 8.3.@.510FAQ 8.2.@.511FAQ 8.1.@.512FAQ 7.3.@.513FAQ 7.2.@.514FAQ 7.1.@.515FAQ 6.2.@.516FAQ 6.1.@.517FAQ 5.4.@.518FAQ 5.3.@.519FAQ 5.2.@.520FAQ 5.1.@.521FAQ 4.3.@.522FAQ 4.2.@.523FAQ 4.1.@.524FAQ 3.3.@.525FAQ 3.2.@.526FAQ 3.1.@.527FAQ 2.2.@.528FAQ 2.1.@.529FAQ 1.3.@.530FAQ 1.2.@.531FAQ 1.1.@.532Halocarbons

FAQ 6.1.lFAQ 6.1.uFAQ 5.4.xFAQ 5.4.asFAQ 5.3.avFAQ 5.3.cvFAQ 5.2.cyFAQ 5.2.dqFAQ 5.1.dtFAQ 5.1.faFAQ 4.3.fkFAQ 4.3.ftFAQ 4.2.hpFAQ 4.2.hxFAQ 4.1.ivFAQ 4.1.@.262FAQ 3.3.@.274FAQ 3.3.@.282FAQ 3.2.@.303FAQ 3.2.@.304FAQ 3.2.@.311FAQ 3.1.@.316FAQ 3.1.@.324FAQ 2.2.@.348FAQ 2.2.@.357FAQ 2.1.@.367FAQ 2.1.@.376FAQ 1.3.@.408FAQ 1.3.@.416FAQ 1.2.@.424FAQ 1.2.@.434FAQ 1.1.@.488FAQ 1.1.@.497FAQ 12.3.@.500FAQ 12.2.@.501FAQ 12.1.@.502FAQ 11.3.@.503FAQ 11.2.@.504FAQ 11.1.@.505FAQ 10.2.@.506FAQ 10.1.@.507FAQ 9.3.@.508FAQ 9.2.@.509FAQ 9.1.@.510FAQ 8.3.@.511FAQ 8.2.@.512FAQ 8.1.@.513FAQ 7.3.@.514FAQ 7.2.@.515FAQ 7.1.@.516FAQ 6.2.@.517FAQ 6.1.@.518FAQ 5.4.@.519FAQ 5.3.@.520FAQ 5.2.@.521FAQ 5.1.@.522FAQ 4.3.@.523FAQ 4.2.@.524FAQ 4.1.@.525FAQ 3.3.@.526FAQ 3.2.@.527FAQ 3.1.@.528FAQ 2.2.@.529FAQ 2.1.@.530FAQ 1.3.@.531FAQ 1.2.@.532FAQ 1.1.@.533Organ ic aerosols

FAQ 6.1.mFAQ 6.1.vFAQ 5.4.yFAQ 5.4.atFAQ 5.3.awFAQ 5.3.cwFAQ 5.2.czFAQ 5.2.drFAQ 5.1.duFAQ 5.1.fbFAQ 4.3.flFAQ 4.3.fuFAQ 4.2.hqFAQ 4.2.hyFAQ 4.1.@.256FAQ 4.1.@.263FAQ 3.3.@.275FAQ 3.3.@.283FAQ 3.2.@.304FAQ 3.2.@.305FAQ 3.2.@.312FAQ 3.1.@.317FAQ 3.1.@.325FAQ 2.2.@.349FAQ 2.2.@.358FAQ 2.1.@.368FAQ 2.1.@.377FAQ 1.3.@.409FAQ 1.3.@.417FAQ 1.2.@.425FAQ 1.2.@.435FAQ 1.1.@.489FAQ 1.1.@.498FAQ 12.3.@.501FAQ 12.2.@.502FAQ 12.1.@.503FAQ 11.3.@.504FAQ 11.2.@.505FAQ 11.1.@.506FAQ 10.2.@.507FAQ 10.1.@.508FAQ 9.3.@.509FAQ 9.2.@.510FAQ 9.1.@.511FAQ 8.3.@.512FAQ 8.2.@.513FAQ 8.1.@.514FAQ 7.3.@.515FAQ 7.2.@.516FAQ 7.1.@.517FAQ 6.2.@.518FAQ 6.1.@.519FAQ 5.4.@.520FAQ 5.3.@.521FAQ 5.2.@.522FAQ 5.1.@.523FAQ 4.3.@.524FAQ 4.2.@.525FAQ 4.1.@.526FAQ 3.3.@.527FAQ 3.2.@.528FAQ 3.1.@.529FAQ 2.2.@.530FAQ 2.1.@.531FAQ 1.3.@.532FAQ 1.2.@.533FAQ 1.1.@.534Nitrate

FAQ 6.1.nFAQ 6.1.wFAQ 5.4.zFAQ 5.4.auFAQ 5.3.axFAQ 5.3.cxFAQ 5.2.daFAQ 5.2.dsFAQ 5.1.dvFAQ 5.1.fcFAQ 4.3.fmFAQ 4.3.fvFAQ 4.2.hrFAQ 4.2.hzFAQ 4.1.@.257FAQ 4.1.@.264FAQ 3.3.@.276FAQ 3.3.@.284FAQ 3.2.@.305FAQ 3.2.@.306FAQ 3.2.@.313FAQ 3.1.@.318FAQ 3.1.@.326FAQ 2.2.@.350FAQ 2.2.@.359FAQ 2.1.@.369FAQ 2.1.@.378FAQ 1.3.@.410FAQ 1.3.@.418FAQ 1.2.@.426FAQ 1.2.@.436FAQ 1.1.@.490FAQ 1.1.@.499FAQ 12.3.@.502FAQ 12.2.@.503FAQ 12.1.@.504FAQ 11.3.@.505FAQ 11.2.@.506FAQ 11.1.@.507FAQ 10.2.@.508FAQ 10.1.@.509FAQ 9.3.@.510FAQ 9.2.@.511FAQ 9.1.@.512FAQ 8.3.@.513FAQ 8.2.@.514FAQ 8.1.@.515FAQ 7.3.@.516FAQ 7.2.@.517FAQ 7.1.@.518FAQ 6.2.@.519FAQ 6.1.@.520FAQ 5.4.@.521FAQ 5.3.@.522FAQ 5.2.@.523FAQ 5.1.@.524FAQ 4.3.@.525FAQ 4.2.@.526FAQ 4.1.@.527FAQ 3.3.@.528FAQ 3.2.@.529FAQ 3.1.@.530FAQ 2.2.@.531FAQ 2.1.@.532FAQ 1.3.@.533FAQ 1.2.@.534FAQ 1.1.@.535Sulphate

FAQ 6.1.oFAQ 6.1.xFAQ 5.4.aaFAQ 5.4.avFAQ 5.3.ayFAQ 5.3.cyFAQ 5.2.dbFAQ 5.2.dtFAQ 5.1.dwFAQ 5.1.fdFAQ 4.3.fnFAQ 4.3.fwFAQ 4.2.hsFAQ 4.2.iaFAQ 4.1.@.258FAQ 4.1.@.265FAQ 3.3.@.277FAQ 3.3.@.285FAQ 3.2.@.306FAQ 3.2.@.307FAQ 3.2.@.314FAQ 3.1.@.319FAQ 3.1.@.327FAQ 2.2.@.351FAQ 2.2.@.360FAQ 2.1.@.370FAQ 2.1.@.379FAQ 1.3.@.411FAQ 1.3.@.419FAQ 1.2.@.427FAQ 1.2.@.437FAQ 1.1.@.491FAQ 1.1.@.500FAQ 12.3.@.503FAQ 12.2.@.504FAQ 12.1.@.505FAQ 11.3.@.506FAQ 11.2.@.507FAQ 11.1.@.508FAQ 10.2.@.509FAQ 10.1.@.510FAQ 9.3.@.511FAQ 9.2.@.512FAQ 9.1.@.513FAQ 8.3.@.514FAQ 8.2.@.515FAQ 8.1.@.516FAQ 7.3.@.517FAQ 7.2.@.518FAQ 7.1.@.519FAQ 6.2.@.520FAQ 6.1.@.521FAQ 5.4.@.522FAQ 5.3.@.523FAQ 5.2.@.524FAQ 5.1.@.525FAQ 4.3.@.526FAQ 4.2.@.527FAQ 4.1.@.528FAQ 3.3.@.529FAQ 3.2.@.530FAQ 3.1.@.531FAQ 2.2.@.532FAQ 2.1.@.533FAQ 1.3.@.534FAQ 1.2.@.535FAQ 1.1.@.536Methane (CH4)

FAQ 6.1.pFAQ 6.1.yFAQ 5.4.abFAQ 5.4.awFAQ 5.3.azFAQ 5.3.czFAQ 5.2.dcFAQ 5.2.duFAQ 5.1.dxFAQ 5.1.feFAQ 4.3.foFAQ 4.3.fxFAQ 4.2.htFAQ 4.2.ibFAQ 4.1.@.259FAQ 4.1.@.266FAQ 3.3.@.278FAQ 3.3.@.286FAQ 3.2.@.307FAQ 3.2.@.308FAQ 3.2.@.315FAQ 3.1.@.320FAQ 3.1.@.328FAQ 2.2.@.352FAQ 2.2.@.361FAQ 2.1.@.371FAQ 2.1.@.380FAQ 1.3.@.412FAQ 1.3.@.420FAQ 1.2.@.428FAQ 1.2.@.438FAQ 1.1.@.492FAQ 1.1.@.501FAQ 12.3.@.504FAQ 12.2.@.505FAQ 12.1.@.506FAQ 11.3.@.507FAQ 11.2.@.508FAQ 11.1.@.509FAQ 10.2.@.510FAQ 10.1.@.511FAQ 9.3.@.512FAQ 9.2.@.513FAQ 9.1.@.514FAQ 8.3.@.515FAQ 8.2.@.516FAQ 8.1.@.517FAQ 7.3.@.518FAQ 7.2.@.519FAQ 7.1.@.520FAQ 6.2.@.521FAQ 6.1.@.522FAQ 5.4.@.523FAQ 5.3.@.524FAQ 5.2.@.525FAQ 5.1.@.526FAQ 4.3.@.527FAQ 4.2.@.528FAQ 4.1.@.529FAQ 3.3.@.530FAQ 3.2.@.531FAQ 3.1.@.532FAQ 2.2.@.533FAQ 2.1.@.534FAQ 1.3.@.535FAQ 1.2.@.536FAQ 1.1.@.537Ozone (O3)

FAQ 6.1.qFAQ 6.1.zFAQ 5.4.acFAQ 5.4.axFAQ 5.3.baFAQ 5.3.daFAQ 5.2.ddFAQ 5.2.dvFAQ 5.1.dyFAQ 5.1.ffFAQ 4.3.fpFAQ 4.3.fyFAQ 4.2.huFAQ 4.2.icFAQ 4.1.@.260FAQ 4.1.@.267FAQ 3.3.@.279FAQ 3.3.@.287FAQ 3.2.@.308FAQ 3.2.@.309FAQ 3.2.@.316FAQ 3.1.@.321FAQ 3.1.@.329FAQ 2.2.@.353FAQ 2.2.@.362FAQ 2.1.@.372FAQ 2.1.@.381FAQ 1.3.@.413FAQ 1.3.@.421FAQ 1.2.@.429FAQ 1.2.@.439FAQ 1.1.@.493FAQ 1.1.@.502FAQ 12.3.@.505FAQ 12.2.@.506FAQ 12.1.@.507FAQ 11.3.@.508FAQ 11.2.@.509FAQ 11.1.@.510FAQ 10.2.@.511FAQ 10.1.@.512FAQ 9.3.@.513FAQ 9.2.@.514FAQ 9.1.@.515FAQ 8.3.@.516FAQ 8.2.@.517FAQ 8.1.@.518FAQ 7.3.@.519FAQ 7.2.@.520FAQ 7.1.@.521FAQ 6.2.@.522FAQ 6.1.@.523FAQ 5.4.@.524FAQ 5.3.@.525FAQ 5.2.@.526FAQ 5.1.@.527FAQ 4.3.@.528FAQ 4.2.@.529FAQ 4.1.@.530FAQ 3.3.@.531FAQ 3.2.@.532FAQ 3.1.@.533FAQ 2.2.@.534FAQ 2.1.@.535FAQ 1.3.@.536FAQ 1.2.@.537FAQ 1.1.@.538Agriculture Fossil fuels Waste Industry Residential Transportation Refrigerants

FAQ 6.1.rFAQ 6.1.aaFAQ 5.4.adFAQ 5.4.ayFAQ 5.3.bbFAQ 5.3.dbFAQ 5.2.deFAQ 5.2.dwFAQ 5.1.dzFAQ 5.1.fgFAQ 4.3.fqFAQ 4.3.fzFAQ 4.2.hvFAQ 4.2.idFAQ 4.1.@.261FAQ 4.1.@.268FAQ 3.3.@.280FAQ 3.3.@.288FAQ 3.2.@.309FAQ 3.2.@.310FAQ 3.2.@.317FAQ 3.1.@.322FAQ 3.1.@.330FAQ 2.2.@.354FAQ 2.2.@.363FAQ 2.1.@.373FAQ 2.1.@.382FAQ 1.3.@.414FAQ 1.3.@.422FAQ 1.2.@.430FAQ 1.2.@.440FAQ 1.1.@.494FAQ 1.1.@.503FAQ 12.3.@.506FAQ 12.2.@.507FAQ 12.1.@.508FAQ 11.3.@.509FAQ 11.2.@.510FAQ 11.1.@.511FAQ 10.2.@.512FAQ 10.1.@.513FAQ 9.3.@.514FAQ 9.2.@.515FAQ 9.1.@.516FAQ 8.3.@.517FAQ 8.2.@.518FAQ 8.1.@.519FAQ 7.3.@.520FAQ 7.2.@.521FAQ 7.1.@.522FAQ 6.2.@.523FAQ 6.1.@.524FAQ 5.4.@.525FAQ 5.3.@.526FAQ 5.2.@.527FAQ 5.1.@.528FAQ 4.3.@.529FAQ 4.2.@.530FAQ 4.1.@.531FAQ 3.3.@.532FAQ 3.2.@.533FAQ 3.1.@.534FAQ 2.2.@.535FAQ 2.1.@.536FAQ 1.3.@.537FAQ 1.2.@.538FAQ 1.1.@.539FAQ 6.1, Figure 1 | Main short-lived climate forcers, their sources, how long they exist in the atmosphere, and their relative contribution to global surface temperature changes between 1750 and 2019 (area of the globe). By definition this contribution depends on the lifetime, the warming/cooling potential (radiative efficiency), and the emissions of each compound in the atmosphere. Blue indicates cooling and orange indicates warming. Note that, between 1750 and 2019, the cooling contribution from aerosols (blue diamonds and globe) was approximately half the warming contribution from carbon dioxide.

FAQ 6.1.sFAQ 6.1.abFAQ 5.4.aeFAQ 5.4.azFAQ 5.3.bcFAQ 5.3.dcFAQ 5.2.dfFAQ 5.2.dxFAQ 5.1.eaFAQ 5.1.fhFAQ 4.3.frFAQ 4.3.gaFAQ 4.2.hwFAQ 4.2.ieFAQ 4.1.@.262FAQ 4.1.@.269FAQ 3.3.@.281FAQ 3.3.@.289FAQ 3.2.@.310FAQ 3.2.@.311FAQ 3.2.@.318FAQ 3.1.@.323FAQ 3.1.@.331FAQ 2.2.@.355FAQ 2.2.@.364FAQ 2.1.@.374FAQ 2.1.@.383FAQ 1.3.@.415FAQ 1.3.@.423FAQ 1.2.@.431FAQ 1.2.@.441FAQ 1.1.@.495FAQ 1.1.@.504FAQ 12.3.@.507FAQ 12.2.@.508FAQ 12.1.@.509FAQ 11.3.@.510FAQ 11.2.@.511FAQ 11.1.@.512FAQ 10.2.@.513FAQ 10.1.@.514FAQ 9.3.@.515FAQ 9.2.@.516FAQ 9.1.@.517FAQ 8.3.@.518FAQ 8.2.@.519FAQ 8.1.@.520FAQ 7.3.@.521FAQ 7.2.@.522FAQ 7.1.@.523FAQ 6.2.@.524FAQ 6.1.@.525FAQ 5.4.@.526FAQ 5.3.@.527FAQ 5.2.@.528FAQ 5.1.@.529FAQ 4.3.@.530FAQ 4.2.@.531FAQ 4.1.@.532FAQ 3.3.@.533FAQ 3.2.@.534FAQ 3.1.@.535FAQ 2.2.@.536FAQ 2.1.@.537FAQ 1.3.@.538FAQ 1.2.@.539FAQ 1.1.@.540FAQ

FAQ 6.1.tFAQ 6.1.acFAQ 5.4.afFAQ 5.4.baFAQ 5.3.bdFAQ 5.3.ddFAQ 5.2.dgFAQ 5.2.dyFAQ 5.1.ebFAQ 5.1.fiFAQ 4.3.fsFAQ 4.3.gbFAQ 4.2.hxFAQ 4.2.ifFAQ 4.1.@.263FAQ 4.1.@.270FAQ 3.3.@.282FAQ 3.3.@.290FAQ 3.2.@.311FAQ 3.2.@.312FAQ 3.2.@.319FAQ 3.1.@.324FAQ 3.1.@.332FAQ 2.2.@.356FAQ 2.2.@.365FAQ 2.1.@.375FAQ 2.1.@.384FAQ 1.3.@.416FAQ 1.3.@.424FAQ 1.2.@.432FAQ 1.2.@.442FAQ 1.1.@.496FAQ 1.1.@.505FAQ 12.3.@.508FAQ 12.2.@.509FAQ 12.1.@.510FAQ 11.3.@.511FAQ 11.2.@.512FAQ 11.1.@.513FAQ 10.2.@.514FAQ 10.1.@.515FAQ 9.3.@.516FAQ 9.2.@.517FAQ 9.1.@.518FAQ 8.3.@.519FAQ 8.2.@.520FAQ 8.1.@.521FAQ 7.3.@.522FAQ 7.2.@.523FAQ 7.1.@.524FAQ 6.2.@.525FAQ 6.1.@.526FAQ 5.4.@.527FAQ 5.3.@.528FAQ 5.2.@.529FAQ 5.1.@.530FAQ 4.3.@.531FAQ 4.2.@.532FAQ 4.1.@.533FAQ 3.3.@.534FAQ 3.2.@.535FAQ 3.1.@.536FAQ 2.2.@.537FAQ 2.1.@.538FAQ 1.3.@.539FAQ 1.2.@.540FAQ 1.1.@.541Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 6.1.uFAQ 6.1.adFAQ 5.4.agFAQ 5.4.bbFAQ 5.3.beFAQ 5.3.deFAQ 5.2.dhFAQ 5.2.dzFAQ 5.1.ecFAQ 5.1.fjFAQ 4.3.ftFAQ 4.3.gcFAQ 4.2.hyFAQ 4.2.igFAQ 4.1.@.264FAQ 4.1.@.271FAQ 3.3.@.283FAQ 3.3.@.291FAQ 3.2.@.312FAQ 3.2.@.313FAQ 3.2.@.320FAQ 3.1.@.325FAQ 3.1.@.333FAQ 2.2.@.357FAQ 2.2.@.366FAQ 2.1.@.376FAQ 2.1.@.385FAQ 1.3.@.417FAQ 1.3.@.425FAQ 1.2.@.433FAQ 1.2.@.443FAQ 1.1.@.497FAQ 1.1.@.506FAQ 12.3.@.509FAQ 12.2.@.510FAQ 12.1.@.511FAQ 11.3.@.512FAQ 11.2.@.513FAQ 11.1.@.514FAQ 10.2.@.515FAQ 10.1.@.516FAQ 9.3.@.517FAQ 9.2.@.518FAQ 9.1.@.519FAQ 8.3.@.520FAQ 8.2.@.521FAQ 8.1.@.522FAQ 7.3.@.523FAQ 7.2.@.524FAQ 7.1.@.525FAQ 6.2.@.526FAQ 6.1.@.527FAQ 5.4.@.528FAQ 5.3.@.529FAQ 5.2.@.530FAQ 5.1.@.531FAQ 4.3.@.532FAQ 4.2.@.533FAQ 4.1.@.534FAQ 3.3.@.535FAQ 3.2.@.536FAQ 3.1.@.537FAQ 2.2.@.538FAQ 2.1.@.539FAQ 1.3.@.540FAQ 1.2.@.541FAQ 1.1.@.542FAQ 6.2 | What Are the Links Between Limiting Climate Change and Improving Air Quality?

FAQ 6.2.aFAQ 6.1.vFAQ 6.1.aeFAQ 5.4.ahFAQ 5.4.bcFAQ 5.3.bfFAQ 5.3.dfFAQ 5.2.diFAQ 5.2.eaFAQ 5.1.edFAQ 5.1.fkFAQ 4.3.fuFAQ 4.3.gdFAQ 4.2.hzFAQ 4.2.ihFAQ 4.1.@.265FAQ 4.1.@.272FAQ 3.3.@.284FAQ 3.3.@.292FAQ 3.2.@.313FAQ 3.2.@.314FAQ 3.2.@.321FAQ 3.1.@.326FAQ 3.1.@.334FAQ 2.2.@.358FAQ 2.2.@.367FAQ 2.1.@.377FAQ 2.1.@.386FAQ 1.3.@.418FAQ 1.3.@.426FAQ 1.2.@.434FAQ 1.2.@.444FAQ 1.1.@.498FAQ 1.1.@.507FAQ 12.3.@.510FAQ 12.2.@.511FAQ 12.1.@.512FAQ 11.3.@.513FAQ 11.2.@.514FAQ 11.1.@.515FAQ 10.2.@.516FAQ 10.1.@.517FAQ 9.3.@.518FAQ 9.2.@.519FAQ 9.1.@.520FAQ 8.3.@.521FAQ 8.2.@.522FAQ 8.1.@.523FAQ 7.3.@.524FAQ 7.2.@.525FAQ 7.1.@.526FAQ 6.2.@.527FAQ 6.1.@.528FAQ 5.4.@.529FAQ 5.3.@.530FAQ 5.2.@.531FAQ 5.1.@.532FAQ 4.3.@.533FAQ 4.2.@.534FAQ 4.1.@.535FAQ 3.3.@.536FAQ 3.2.@.537FAQ 3.1.@.538FAQ 2.2.@.539FAQ 2.1.@.540FAQ 1.3.@.541FAQ 1.2.@.542FAQ 1.1.@.543Climate change and air quality are intimately linked. Many of the human activities that produce long-lived greenhouse gases also emit air pollutants, and many of these air pollutants are also ‘short-lived climate forcers’ that affect the climate. Therefore, many options for improving air quality may also serve to limit climate change and vice versa. However, some options for improving air quality cause additional climate warming, and some actions that address climate change can worsen air quality.

FAQ 6.2.bFAQ 6.1.wFAQ 6.1.afFAQ 5.4.aiFAQ 5.4.bdFAQ 5.3.bgFAQ 5.3.dgFAQ 5.2.djFAQ 5.2.ebFAQ 5.1.eeFAQ 5.1.flFAQ 4.3.fvFAQ 4.3.geFAQ 4.2.iaFAQ 4.2.iiFAQ 4.1.@.266FAQ 4.1.@.273FAQ 3.3.@.285FAQ 3.3.@.293FAQ 3.2.@.314FAQ 3.2.@.315FAQ 3.2.@.322FAQ 3.1.@.327FAQ 3.1.@.335FAQ 2.2.@.359FAQ 2.2.@.368FAQ 2.1.@.378FAQ 2.1.@.387FAQ 1.3.@.419FAQ 1.3.@.427FAQ 1.2.@.435FAQ 1.2.@.445FAQ 1.1.@.499FAQ 1.1.@.508FAQ 12.3.@.511FAQ 12.2.@.512FAQ 12.1.@.513FAQ 11.3.@.514FAQ 11.2.@.515FAQ 11.1.@.516FAQ 10.2.@.517FAQ 10.1.@.518FAQ 9.3.@.519FAQ 9.2.@.520FAQ 9.1.@.521FAQ 8.3.@.522FAQ 8.2.@.523FAQ 8.1.@.524FAQ 7.3.@.525FAQ 7.2.@.526FAQ 7.1.@.527FAQ 6.2.@.528FAQ 6.1.@.529FAQ 5.4.@.530FAQ 5.3.@.531FAQ 5.2.@.532FAQ 5.1.@.533FAQ 4.3.@.534FAQ 4.2.@.535FAQ 4.1.@.536FAQ 3.3.@.537FAQ 3.2.@.538FAQ 3.1.@.539FAQ 2.2.@.540FAQ 2.1.@.541FAQ 1.3.@.542FAQ 1.2.@.543FAQ 1.1.@.544Climate change and air pollution are both critical environmental issues that are already affecting humanity. In 2016, the World Health Organization attributed 4.2 million deaths worldwide every year to ambient (outdoor) air pollution. Meanwhile, climate change impacts water resources, food production, human health, extreme events, coastal erosion, wildfires, and many other phenomena.

FAQ 6.2.cFAQ 6.1.xFAQ 6.1.agFAQ 5.4.ajFAQ 5.4.beFAQ 5.3.bhFAQ 5.3.dhFAQ 5.2.dkFAQ 5.2.ecFAQ 5.1.efFAQ 5.1.fmFAQ 4.3.fwFAQ 4.3.gfFAQ 4.2.ibFAQ 4.2.ijFAQ 4.1.@.267FAQ 4.1.@.274FAQ 3.3.@.286FAQ 3.3.@.294FAQ 3.2.@.315FAQ 3.2.@.316FAQ 3.2.@.323FAQ 3.1.@.328FAQ 3.1.@.336FAQ 2.2.@.360FAQ 2.2.@.369FAQ 2.1.@.379FAQ 2.1.@.388FAQ 1.3.@.420FAQ 1.3.@.428FAQ 1.2.@.436FAQ 1.2.@.446FAQ 1.1.@.500FAQ 1.1.@.509FAQ 12.3.@.512FAQ 12.2.@.513FAQ 12.1.@.514FAQ 11.3.@.515FAQ 11.2.@.516FAQ 11.1.@.517FAQ 10.2.@.518FAQ 10.1.@.519FAQ 9.3.@.520FAQ 9.2.@.521FAQ 9.1.@.522FAQ 8.3.@.523FAQ 8.2.@.524FAQ 8.1.@.525FAQ 7.3.@.526FAQ 7.2.@.527FAQ 7.1.@.528FAQ 6.2.@.529FAQ 6.1.@.530FAQ 5.4.@.531FAQ 5.3.@.532FAQ 5.2.@.533FAQ 5.1.@.534FAQ 4.3.@.535FAQ 4.2.@.536FAQ 4.1.@.537FAQ 3.3.@.538FAQ 3.2.@.539FAQ 3.1.@.540FAQ 2.2.@.541FAQ 2.1.@.542FAQ 1.3.@.543FAQ 1.2.@.544FAQ 1.1.@.545Most human activities, including energy production, agriculture, transportation, industrial processes, waste management and residential heating and cooling, result in emissions of gaseous and particulate pollutants that modify the composition of the atmosphere, leading to degradation of air quality as well as to climate change. These air pollutants are also short-lived climate forcers – substances that affect the climate but remain in the atmosphere for shorter periods (days to decades) than long-lived greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (see FAQ 6.1). While this means that the issues of air pollution and climate change are intimately connected, air pollutants and greenhouse gases are often defined, investigated and regulated independently of one another in both the scientific and policy arenas.

FAQ 6.2.dFAQ 6.1.yFAQ 6.1.ahFAQ 5.4.akFAQ 5.4.bfFAQ 5.3.biFAQ 5.3.diFAQ 5.2.dlFAQ 5.2.edFAQ 5.1.egFAQ 5.1.fnFAQ 4.3.fxFAQ 4.3.ggFAQ 4.2.icFAQ 4.2.ikFAQ 4.1.@.268FAQ 4.1.@.275FAQ 3.3.@.287FAQ 3.3.@.295FAQ 3.2.@.316FAQ 3.2.@.317FAQ 3.2.@.324FAQ 3.1.@.329FAQ 3.1.@.337FAQ 2.2.@.361FAQ 2.2.@.370FAQ 2.1.@.380FAQ 2.1.@.389FAQ 1.3.@.421FAQ 1.3.@.429FAQ 1.2.@.437FAQ 1.2.@.447FAQ 1.1.@.501FAQ 1.1.@.510FAQ 12.3.@.513FAQ 12.2.@.514FAQ 12.1.@.515FAQ 11.3.@.516FAQ 11.2.@.517FAQ 11.1.@.518FAQ 10.2.@.519FAQ 10.1.@.520FAQ 9.3.@.521FAQ 9.2.@.522FAQ 9.1.@.523FAQ 8.3.@.524FAQ 8.2.@.525FAQ 8.1.@.526FAQ 7.3.@.527FAQ 7.2.@.528FAQ 7.1.@.529FAQ 6.2.@.530FAQ 6.1.@.531FAQ 5.4.@.532FAQ 5.3.@.533FAQ 5.2.@.534FAQ 5.1.@.535FAQ 4.3.@.536FAQ 4.2.@.537FAQ 4.1.@.538FAQ 3.3.@.539FAQ 3.2.@.540FAQ 3.1.@.541FAQ 2.2.@.542FAQ 2.1.@.543FAQ 1.3.@.544FAQ 1.2.@.545FAQ 1.1.@.546Many sources simultaneously emit carbon dioxide and air pollutants. When we drive our fossil fuel vehicles or light a fire in the fireplace, it is not just carbon dioxide or air pollutants that are emitted, but always both. It is therefore not possible to separate emissions into two clearly distinct groups. As a result, policies aiming at addressing climate change may have benefits or side effects for air quality, and vice versa.

FAQ 6.2.eFAQ 6.1.zFAQ 6.1.aiFAQ 5.4.alFAQ 5.4.bgFAQ 5.3.bjFAQ 5.3.djFAQ 5.2.dmFAQ 5.2.eeFAQ 5.1.ehFAQ 5.1.foFAQ 4.3.fyFAQ 4.3.ghFAQ 4.2.idFAQ 4.2.ilFAQ 4.1.@.269FAQ 4.1.@.276FAQ 3.3.@.288FAQ 3.3.@.296FAQ 3.2.@.317FAQ 3.2.@.318FAQ 3.2.@.325FAQ 3.1.@.330FAQ 3.1.@.338FAQ 2.2.@.362FAQ 2.2.@.371FAQ 2.1.@.381FAQ 2.1.@.390FAQ 1.3.@.422FAQ 1.3.@.430FAQ 1.2.@.438FAQ 1.2.@.448FAQ 1.1.@.502FAQ 1.1.@.511FAQ 12.3.@.514FAQ 12.2.@.515FAQ 12.1.@.516FAQ 11.3.@.517FAQ 11.2.@.518FAQ 11.1.@.519FAQ 10.2.@.520FAQ 10.1.@.521FAQ 9.3.@.522FAQ 9.2.@.523FAQ 9.1.@.524FAQ 8.3.@.525FAQ 8.2.@.526FAQ 8.1.@.527FAQ 7.3.@.528FAQ 7.2.@.529FAQ 7.1.@.530FAQ 6.2.@.531FAQ 6.1.@.532FAQ 5.4.@.533FAQ 5.3.@.534FAQ 5.2.@.535FAQ 5.1.@.536FAQ 4.3.@.537FAQ 4.2.@.538FAQ 4.1.@.539FAQ 3.3.@.540FAQ 3.2.@.541FAQ 3.1.@.542FAQ 2.2.@.543FAQ 2.1.@.544FAQ 1.3.@.545FAQ 1.2.@.546FAQ 1.1.@.547For example, some short-term ‘win-win’ policies that simultaneously improve air quality and limit climate change include the implementation of energy efficiency measures, methane capture and recovery from solid-waste management and the oil and gas industry, zero-emissions vehicles, efficient and clean stoves for heating and cooking, filtering of soot (particulate matter) for diesel vehicles, cleaner brick-kiln technology, practices that reduce burning of agricultural waste, and the eradication of burning of kerosene for lighting.

FAQ 6.2.fFAQ 6.1.aaFAQ 6.1.ajFAQ 5.4.amFAQ 5.4.bhFAQ 5.3.bkFAQ 5.3.dkFAQ 5.2.dnFAQ 5.2.efFAQ 5.1.eiFAQ 5.1.fpFAQ 4.3.fzFAQ 4.3.giFAQ 4.2.ieFAQ 4.2.imFAQ 4.1.@.270FAQ 4.1.@.277FAQ 3.3.@.289FAQ 3.3.@.297FAQ 3.2.@.318FAQ 3.2.@.319FAQ 3.2.@.326FAQ 3.1.@.331FAQ 3.1.@.339FAQ 2.2.@.363FAQ 2.2.@.372FAQ 2.1.@.382FAQ 2.1.@.391FAQ 1.3.@.423FAQ 1.3.@.431FAQ 1.2.@.439FAQ 1.2.@.449FAQ 1.1.@.503FAQ 1.1.@.512FAQ 12.3.@.515FAQ 12.2.@.516FAQ 12.1.@.517FAQ 11.3.@.518FAQ 11.2.@.519FAQ 11.1.@.520FAQ 10.2.@.521FAQ 10.1.@.522FAQ 9.3.@.523FAQ 9.2.@.524FAQ 9.1.@.525FAQ 8.3.@.526FAQ 8.2.@.527FAQ 8.1.@.528FAQ 7.3.@.529FAQ 7.2.@.530FAQ 7.1.@.531FAQ 6.2.@.532FAQ 6.1.@.533FAQ 5.4.@.534FAQ 5.3.@.535FAQ 5.2.@.536FAQ 5.1.@.537FAQ 4.3.@.538FAQ 4.2.@.539FAQ 4.1.@.540FAQ 3.3.@.541FAQ 3.2.@.542FAQ 3.1.@.543FAQ 2.2.@.544FAQ 2.1.@.545FAQ 1.3.@.546FAQ 1.2.@.547FAQ 1.1.@.548There are, however, also ‘win-lose’ actions. For example, wood burning is defined as carbon neutral because a tree accumulates the same amount of carbon dioxide throughout its lifetime as is released when wood from that tree is burned. However, burning wood can also result in significant emissions of air pollutants, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and particulate matter, that locally or regionally affect the climate, human health and ecosystems (FAQ 6.2, Figure 1). Alternatively, decreasing the amount of sulphate aerosols produced by power and industrial plants, and from maritime transport, improves air quality but results in a warming influence on the climate, because those sulphate aerosols contribute to cooling the atmosphere by blocking incoming sunlight.

FAQ 6.2.gFAQ 6.1.abFAQ 6.1.akFAQ 5.4.anFAQ 5.4.biFAQ 5.3.blFAQ 5.3.dlFAQ 5.2.doFAQ 5.2.egFAQ 5.1.ejFAQ 5.1.fqFAQ 4.3.gaFAQ 4.3.gjFAQ 4.2.ifFAQ 4.2.inFAQ 4.1.@.271FAQ 4.1.@.278FAQ 3.3.@.290FAQ 3.3.@.298FAQ 3.2.@.319FAQ 3.2.@.320FAQ 3.2.@.327FAQ 3.1.@.332FAQ 3.1.@.340FAQ 2.2.@.364FAQ 2.2.@.373FAQ 2.1.@.383FAQ 2.1.@.392FAQ 1.3.@.424FAQ 1.3.@.432FAQ 1.2.@.440FAQ 1.2.@.450FAQ 1.1.@.504FAQ 1.1.@.513FAQ 12.3.@.516FAQ 12.2.@.517FAQ 12.1.@.518FAQ 11.3.@.519FAQ 11.2.@.520FAQ 11.1.@.521FAQ 10.2.@.522FAQ 10.1.@.523FAQ 9.3.@.524FAQ 9.2.@.525FAQ 9.1.@.526FAQ 8.3.@.527FAQ 8.2.@.528FAQ 8.1.@.529FAQ 7.3.@.530FAQ 7.2.@.531FAQ 7.1.@.532FAQ 6.2.@.533FAQ 6.1.@.534FAQ 5.4.@.535FAQ 5.3.@.536FAQ 5.2.@.537FAQ 5.1.@.538FAQ 4.3.@.539FAQ 4.2.@.540FAQ 4.1.@.541FAQ 3.3.@.542FAQ 3.2.@.543FAQ 3.1.@.544FAQ 2.2.@.545FAQ 2.1.@.546FAQ 1.3.@.547FAQ 1.2.@.548FAQ 1.1.@.549Air quality and climate change represent two sides of the same coin, and addressing both issues together could lead to significant synergies and economic benefits while avoiding policy actions that mitigate one of the two issues but worsen the other.

FAQ 6.2.hFAQ 6.1.acFAQ 6.1.alFAQ 5.4.aoFAQ 5.4.bjFAQ 5.3.bmFAQ 5.3.dmFAQ 5.2.dpFAQ 5.2.ehFAQ 5.1.ekFAQ 5.1.frFAQ 4.3.gbFAQ 4.3.gkFAQ 4.2.igFAQ 4.2.ioFAQ 4.1.@.272FAQ 4.1.@.279FAQ 3.3.@.291FAQ 3.3.@.299FAQ 3.2.@.320FAQ 3.2.@.321FAQ 3.2.@.328FAQ 3.1.@.333FAQ 3.1.@.341FAQ 2.2.@.365FAQ 2.2.@.374FAQ 2.1.@.384FAQ 2.1.@.393FAQ 1.3.@.425FAQ 1.3.@.433FAQ 1.2.@.441FAQ 1.2.@.451FAQ 1.1.@.505FAQ 1.1.@.514FAQ 12.3.@.517FAQ 12.2.@.518FAQ 12.1.@.519FAQ 11.3.@.520FAQ 11.2.@.521FAQ 11.1.@.522FAQ 10.2.@.523FAQ 10.1.@.524FAQ 9.3.@.525FAQ 9.2.@.526FAQ 9.1.@.527FAQ 8.3.@.528FAQ 8.2.@.529FAQ 8.1.@.530FAQ 7.3.@.531FAQ 7.2.@.532FAQ 7.1.@.533FAQ 6.2.@.534FAQ 6.1.@.535FAQ 5.4.@.536FAQ 5.3.@.537FAQ 5.2.@.538FAQ 5.1.@.539FAQ 4.3.@.540FAQ 4.2.@.541FAQ 4.1.@.542FAQ 3.3.@.543FAQ 3.2.@.544FAQ 3.1.@.545FAQ 2.2.@.546FAQ 2.1.@.547FAQ 1.3.@.548FAQ 1.2.@.549FAQ 1.1.@.550FAQ

FAQ 6.2.iFAQ 6.1.adFAQ 6.1.amFAQ 5.4.apFAQ 5.4.bkFAQ 5.3.bnFAQ 5.3.dnFAQ 5.2.dqFAQ 5.2.eiFAQ 5.1.elFAQ 5.1.fsFAQ 4.3.gcFAQ 4.3.glFAQ 4.2.ihFAQ 4.2.ipFAQ 4.1.@.273FAQ 4.1.@.280FAQ 3.3.@.292FAQ 3.3.@.300FAQ 3.2.@.321FAQ 3.2.@.322FAQ 3.2.@.329FAQ 3.1.@.334FAQ 3.1.@.342FAQ 2.2.@.366FAQ 2.2.@.375FAQ 2.1.@.385FAQ 2.1.@.394FAQ 1.3.@.426FAQ 1.3.@.434FAQ 1.2.@.442FAQ 1.2.@.452FAQ 1.1.@.506FAQ 1.1.@.515FAQ 12.3.@.518FAQ 12.2.@.519FAQ 12.1.@.520FAQ 11.3.@.521FAQ 11.2.@.522FAQ 11.1.@.523FAQ 10.2.@.524FAQ 10.1.@.525FAQ 9.3.@.526FAQ 9.2.@.527FAQ 9.1.@.528FAQ 8.3.@.529FAQ 8.2.@.530FAQ 8.1.@.531FAQ 7.3.@.532FAQ 7.2.@.533FAQ 7.1.@.534FAQ 6.2.@.535FAQ 6.1.@.536FAQ 5.4.@.537FAQ 5.3.@.538FAQ 5.2.@.539FAQ 5.1.@.540FAQ 4.3.@.541FAQ 4.2.@.542FAQ 4.1.@.543FAQ 3.3.@.544FAQ 3.2.@.545FAQ 3.1.@.546FAQ 2.2.@.547FAQ 2.1.@.548FAQ 1.3.@.549FAQ 1.2.@.550FAQ 1.1.@.551FAQ 6.2 (continued)

FAQ 6.2.aFAQ 6.2.jFAQ 6.1.aeFAQ 6.1.anFAQ 5.4.aqFAQ 5.4.blFAQ 5.3.boFAQ 5.3.doFAQ 5.2.drFAQ 5.2.ejFAQ 5.1.emFAQ 5.1.ftFAQ 4.3.gdFAQ 4.3.gmFAQ 4.2.iiFAQ 4.2.iqFAQ 4.1.@.274FAQ 4.1.@.281FAQ 3.3.@.293FAQ 3.3.@.301FAQ 3.2.@.322FAQ 3.2.@.323FAQ 3.2.@.330FAQ 3.1.@.335FAQ 3.1.@.343FAQ 2.2.@.367FAQ 2.2.@.376FAQ 2.1.@.386FAQ 2.1.@.395FAQ 1.3.@.427FAQ 1.3.@.435FAQ 1.2.@.443FAQ 1.2.@.453FAQ 1.1.@.507FAQ 1.1.@.516FAQ 12.3.@.519FAQ 12.2.@.520FAQ 12.1.@.521FAQ 11.3.@.522FAQ 11.2.@.523FAQ 11.1.@.524FAQ 10.2.@.525FAQ 10.1.@.526FAQ 9.3.@.527FAQ 9.2.@.528FAQ 9.1.@.529FAQ 8.3.@.530FAQ 8.2.@.531FAQ 8.1.@.532FAQ 7.3.@.533FAQ 7.2.@.534FAQ 7.1.@.535FAQ 6.2.@.536FAQ 6.1.@.537FAQ 5.4.@.538FAQ 5.3.@.539FAQ 5.2.@.540FAQ 5.1.@.541FAQ 4.3.@.542FAQ 4.2.@.543FAQ 4.1.@.544FAQ 3.3.@.545FAQ 3.2.@.546FAQ 3.1.@.547FAQ 2.2.@.548FAQ 2.1.@.549FAQ 1.3.@.550FAQ 1.2.@.551FAQ 1.1.@.552FAQ 6.2: Limiting climate change and improving air quality?

FAQ 6.2.bFAQ 6.2.kFAQ 6.1.afFAQ 6.1.aoFAQ 5.4.arFAQ 5.4.bmFAQ 5.3.bpFAQ 5.3.dpFAQ 5.2.dsFAQ 5.2.ekFAQ 5.1.enFAQ 5.1.fuFAQ 4.3.geFAQ 4.3.gnFAQ 4.2.ijFAQ 4.2.irFAQ 4.1.@.275FAQ 4.1.@.282FAQ 3.3.@.294FAQ 3.3.@.302FAQ 3.2.@.323FAQ 3.2.@.324FAQ 3.2.@.331FAQ 3.1.@.336FAQ 3.1.@.344FAQ 2.2.@.368FAQ 2.2.@.377FAQ 2.1.@.387FAQ 2.1.@.396FAQ 1.3.@.428FAQ 1.3.@.436FAQ 1.2.@.444FAQ 1.2.@.454FAQ 1.1.@.508FAQ 1.1.@.517FAQ 12.3.@.520FAQ 12.2.@.521FAQ 12.1.@.522FAQ 11.3.@.523FAQ 11.2.@.524FAQ 11.1.@.525FAQ 10.2.@.526FAQ 10.1.@.527FAQ 9.3.@.528FAQ 9.2.@.529FAQ 9.1.@.530FAQ 8.3.@.531FAQ 8.2.@.532FAQ 8.1.@.533FAQ 7.3.@.534FAQ 7.2.@.535FAQ 7.1.@.536FAQ 6.2.@.537FAQ 6.1.@.538FAQ 5.4.@.539FAQ 5.3.@.540FAQ 5.2.@.541FAQ 5.1.@.542FAQ 4.3.@.543FAQ 4.2.@.544FAQ 4.1.@.545FAQ 3.3.@.546FAQ 3.2.@.547FAQ 3.1.@.548FAQ 2.2.@.549FAQ 2.1.@.550FAQ 1.3.@.551FAQ 1.2.@.552FAQ 1.1.@.553Current actions to limit climate change

FAQ 6.2.cFAQ 6.2.lFAQ 6.1.agFAQ 6.1.apFAQ 5.4.asFAQ 5.4.bnFAQ 5.3.bqFAQ 5.3.dqFAQ 5.2.dtFAQ 5.2.elFAQ 5.1.eoFAQ 5.1.fvFAQ 4.3.gfFAQ 4.3.goFAQ 4.2.ikFAQ 4.2.isFAQ 4.1.@.276FAQ 4.1.@.283FAQ 3.3.@.295FAQ 3.3.@.303FAQ 3.2.@.324FAQ 3.2.@.325FAQ 3.2.@.332FAQ 3.1.@.337FAQ 3.1.@.345FAQ 2.2.@.369FAQ 2.2.@.378FAQ 2.1.@.388FAQ 2.1.@.397FAQ 1.3.@.429FAQ 1.3.@.437FAQ 1.2.@.445FAQ 1.2.@.455FAQ 1.1.@.509FAQ 1.1.@.518FAQ 12.3.@.521FAQ 12.2.@.522FAQ 12.1.@.523FAQ 11.3.@.524FAQ 11.2.@.525FAQ 11.1.@.526FAQ 10.2.@.527FAQ 10.1.@.528FAQ 9.3.@.529FAQ 9.2.@.530FAQ 9.1.@.531FAQ 8.3.@.532FAQ 8.2.@.533FAQ 8.1.@.534FAQ 7.3.@.535FAQ 7.2.@.536FAQ 7.1.@.537FAQ 6.2.@.538FAQ 6.1.@.539FAQ 5.4.@.540FAQ 5.3.@.541FAQ 5.2.@.542FAQ 5.1.@.543FAQ 4.3.@.544FAQ 4.2.@.545FAQ 4.1.@.546FAQ 3.3.@.547FAQ 3.2.@.548FAQ 3.1.@.549FAQ 2.2.@.550FAQ 2.1.@.551FAQ 1.3.@.552FAQ 1.2.@.553FAQ 1.1.@.554Reduce

FAQ 6.2.dFAQ 6.2.mFAQ 6.1.ahFAQ 6.1.aqFAQ 5.4.atFAQ 5.4.boFAQ 5.3.brFAQ 5.3.drFAQ 5.2.duFAQ 5.2.emFAQ 5.1.epFAQ 5.1.fwFAQ 4.3.ggFAQ 4.3.gpFAQ 4.2.ilFAQ 4.2.itFAQ 4.1.@.277FAQ 4.1.@.284FAQ 3.3.@.296FAQ 3.3.@.304FAQ 3.2.@.325FAQ 3.2.@.326FAQ 3.2.@.333FAQ 3.1.@.338FAQ 3.1.@.346FAQ 2.2.@.370FAQ 2.2.@.379FAQ 2.1.@.389FAQ 2.1.@.398FAQ 1.3.@.430FAQ 1.3.@.438FAQ 1.2.@.446FAQ 1.2.@.456FAQ 1.1.@.510FAQ 1.1.@.519FAQ 12.3.@.522FAQ 12.2.@.523FAQ 12.1.@.524FAQ 11.3.@.525FAQ 11.2.@.526FAQ 11.1.@.527FAQ 10.2.@.528FAQ 10.1.@.529FAQ 9.3.@.530FAQ 9.2.@.531FAQ 9.1.@.532FAQ 8.3.@.533FAQ 8.2.@.534FAQ 8.1.@.535FAQ 7.3.@.536FAQ 7.2.@.537FAQ 7.1.@.538FAQ 6.2.@.539FAQ 6.1.@.540FAQ 5.4.@.541FAQ 5.3.@.542FAQ 5.2.@.543FAQ 5.1.@.544FAQ 4.3.@.545FAQ 4.2.@.546FAQ 4.1.@.547FAQ 3.3.@.548FAQ 3.2.@.549FAQ 3.1.@.550FAQ 2.2.@.551FAQ 2.1.@.552FAQ 1.3.@.553FAQ 1.2.@.554FAQ 1.1.@.555Incre ase

FAQ 6.2.eFAQ 6.2.nFAQ 6.1.aiFAQ 6.1.arFAQ 5.4.auFAQ 5.4.bpFAQ 5.3.bsFAQ 5.3.dsFAQ 5.2.dvFAQ 5.2.enFAQ 5.1.eqFAQ 5.1.fxFAQ 4.3.ghFAQ 4.3.gqFAQ 4.2.imFAQ 4.2.iuFAQ 4.1.@.278FAQ 4.1.@.285FAQ 3.3.@.297FAQ 3.3.@.305FAQ 3.2.@.326FAQ 3.2.@.327FAQ 3.2.@.334FAQ 3.1.@.339FAQ 3.1.@.347FAQ 2.2.@.371FAQ 2.2.@.380FAQ 2.1.@.390FAQ 2.1.@.399FAQ 1.3.@.431FAQ 1.3.@.439FAQ 1.2.@.447FAQ 1.2.@.457FAQ 1.1.@.511FAQ 1.1.@.520FAQ 12.3.@.523FAQ 12.2.@.524FAQ 12.1.@.525FAQ 11.3.@.526FAQ 11.2.@.527FAQ 11.1.@.528FAQ 10.2.@.529FAQ 10.1.@.530FAQ 9.3.@.531FAQ 9.2.@.532FAQ 9.1.@.533FAQ 8.3.@.534FAQ 8.2.@.535FAQ 8.1.@.536FAQ 7.3.@.537FAQ 7.2.@.538FAQ 7.1.@.539FAQ 6.2.@.540FAQ 6.1.@.541FAQ 5.4.@.542FAQ 5.3.@.543FAQ 5.2.@.544FAQ 5.1.@.545FAQ 4.3.@.546FAQ 4.2.@.547FAQ 4.1.@.548FAQ 3.3.@.549FAQ 3.2.@.550FAQ 3.1.@.551FAQ 2.2.@.552FAQ 2.1.@.553FAQ 1.3.@.554FAQ 1.2.@.555FAQ 1.1.@.556Reduce

FAQ 6.2.fFAQ 6.2.oFAQ 6.1.ajFAQ 6.1.asFAQ 5.4.avFAQ 5.4.bqFAQ 5.3.btFAQ 5.3.dtFAQ 5.2.dwFAQ 5.2.eoFAQ 5.1.erFAQ 5.1.fyFAQ 4.3.giFAQ 4.3.grFAQ 4.2.inFAQ 4.2.ivFAQ 4.1.@.279FAQ 4.1.@.286FAQ 3.3.@.298FAQ 3.3.@.306FAQ 3.2.@.327FAQ 3.2.@.328FAQ 3.2.@.335FAQ 3.1.@.340FAQ 3.1.@.348FAQ 2.2.@.372FAQ 2.2.@.381FAQ 2.1.@.391FAQ 2.1.@.400FAQ 1.3.@.432FAQ 1.3.@.440FAQ 1.2.@.448FAQ 1.2.@.458FAQ 1.1.@.512FAQ 1.1.@.521FAQ 12.3.@.524FAQ 12.2.@.525FAQ 12.1.@.526FAQ 11.3.@.527FAQ 11.2.@.528FAQ 11.1.@.529FAQ 10.2.@.530FAQ 10.1.@.531FAQ 9.3.@.532FAQ 9.2.@.533FAQ 9.1.@.534FAQ 8.3.@.535FAQ 8.2.@.536FAQ 8.1.@.537FAQ 7.3.@.538FAQ 7.2.@.539FAQ 7.1.@.540FAQ 6.2.@.541FAQ 6.1.@.542FAQ 5.4.@.543FAQ 5.3.@.544FAQ 5.2.@.545FAQ 5.1.@.546FAQ 4.3.@.547FAQ 4.2.@.548FAQ 4.1.@.549FAQ 3.3.@.550FAQ 3.2.@.551FAQ 3.1.@.552FAQ 2.2.@.553FAQ 2.1.@.554FAQ 1.3.@.555FAQ 1.2.@.556FAQ 1.1.@.557Climate benefitCrop benefitsHealth benefitsClimate penalty

FAQ 6.2.gFAQ 6.2.pFAQ 6.1.akFAQ 6.1.atFAQ 5.4.awFAQ 5.4.brFAQ 5.3.buFAQ 5.3.duFAQ 5.2.dxFAQ 5.2.epFAQ 5.1.esFAQ 5.1.fzFAQ 4.3.gjFAQ 4.3.gsFAQ 4.2.ioFAQ 4.2.@.256FAQ 4.1.@.280FAQ 4.1.@.287FAQ 3.3.@.299FAQ 3.3.@.307FAQ 3.2.@.328FAQ 3.2.@.329FAQ 3.2.@.336FAQ 3.1.@.341FAQ 3.1.@.349FAQ 2.2.@.373FAQ 2.2.@.382FAQ 2.1.@.392FAQ 2.1.@.401FAQ 1.3.@.433FAQ 1.3.@.441FAQ 1.2.@.449FAQ 1.2.@.459FAQ 1.1.@.513FAQ 1.1.@.522FAQ 12.3.@.525FAQ 12.2.@.526FAQ 12.1.@.527FAQ 11.3.@.528FAQ 11.2.@.529FAQ 11.1.@.530FAQ 10.2.@.531FAQ 10.1.@.532FAQ 9.3.@.533FAQ 9.2.@.534FAQ 9.1.@.535FAQ 8.3.@.536FAQ 8.2.@.537FAQ 8.1.@.538FAQ 7.3.@.539FAQ 7.2.@.540FAQ 7.1.@.541FAQ 6.2.@.542FAQ 6.1.@.543FAQ 5.4.@.544FAQ 5.3.@.545FAQ 5.2.@.546FAQ 5.1.@.547FAQ 4.3.@.548FAQ 4.2.@.549FAQ 4.1.@.550FAQ 3.3.@.551FAQ 3.2.@.552FAQ 3.1.@.553FAQ 2.2.@.554FAQ 2.1.@.555FAQ 1.3.@.556FAQ 1.2.@.557FAQ 1.1.@.558Current actions to improve air qualityWarming compounds

FAQ 6.2.hFAQ 6.2.qFAQ 6.1.alFAQ 6.1.auFAQ 5.4.axFAQ 5.4.bsFAQ 5.3.bvFAQ 5.3.dvFAQ 5.2.dyFAQ 5.2.eqFAQ 5.1.etFAQ 5.1.gaFAQ 4.3.gkFAQ 4.3.gtFAQ 4.2.ipFAQ 4.2.@.257FAQ 4.1.@.281FAQ 4.1.@.288FAQ 3.3.@.300FAQ 3.3.@.308FAQ 3.2.@.329FAQ 3.2.@.330FAQ 3.2.@.337FAQ 3.1.@.342FAQ 3.1.@.350FAQ 2.2.@.374FAQ 2.2.@.383FAQ 2.1.@.393FAQ 2.1.@.402FAQ 1.3.@.434FAQ 1.3.@.442FAQ 1.2.@.450FAQ 1.2.@.460FAQ 1.1.@.514FAQ 1.1.@.523FAQ 12.3.@.526FAQ 12.2.@.527FAQ 12.1.@.528FAQ 11.3.@.529FAQ 11.2.@.530FAQ 11.1.@.531FAQ 10.2.@.532FAQ 10.1.@.533FAQ 9.3.@.534FAQ 9.2.@.535FAQ 9.1.@.536FAQ 8.3.@.537FAQ 8.2.@.538FAQ 8.1.@.539FAQ 7.3.@.540FAQ 7.2.@.541FAQ 7.1.@.542FAQ 6.2.@.543FAQ 6.1.@.544FAQ 5.4.@.545FAQ 5.3.@.546FAQ 5.2.@.547FAQ 5.1.@.548FAQ 4.3.@.549FAQ 4.2.@.550FAQ 4.1.@.551FAQ 3.3.@.552FAQ 3.2.@.553FAQ 3.1.@.554FAQ 2.2.@.555FAQ 2.1.@.556FAQ 1.3.@.557FAQ 1.2.@.558FAQ 1.1.@.559Cooling compounds

FAQ 6.2.iFAQ 6.2.rFAQ 6.1.amFAQ 6.1.avFAQ 5.4.ayFAQ 5.4.btFAQ 5.3.bwFAQ 5.3.dwFAQ 5.2.dzFAQ 5.2.erFAQ 5.1.euFAQ 5.1.gbFAQ 4.3.glFAQ 4.3.guFAQ 4.2.iqFAQ 4.2.@.258FAQ 4.1.@.282FAQ 4.1.@.289FAQ 3.3.@.301FAQ 3.3.@.309FAQ 3.2.@.330FAQ 3.2.@.331FAQ 3.2.@.338FAQ 3.1.@.343FAQ 3.1.@.351FAQ 2.2.@.375FAQ 2.2.@.384FAQ 2.1.@.394FAQ 2.1.@.403FAQ 1.3.@.435FAQ 1.3.@.443FAQ 1.2.@.451FAQ 1.2.@.461FAQ 1.1.@.515FAQ 1.1.@.524FAQ 12.3.@.527FAQ 12.2.@.528FAQ 12.1.@.529FAQ 11.3.@.530FAQ 11.2.@.531FAQ 11.1.@.532FAQ 10.2.@.533FAQ 10.1.@.534FAQ 9.3.@.535FAQ 9.2.@.536FAQ 9.1.@.537FAQ 8.3.@.538FAQ 8.2.@.539FAQ 8.1.@.540FAQ 7.3.@.541FAQ 7.2.@.542FAQ 7.1.@.543FAQ 6.2.@.544FAQ 6.1.@.545FAQ 5.4.@.546FAQ 5.3.@.547FAQ 5.2.@.548FAQ 5.1.@.549FAQ 4.3.@.550FAQ 4.2.@.551FAQ 4.1.@.552FAQ 3.3.@.553FAQ 3.2.@.554FAQ 3.1.@.555FAQ 2.2.@.556FAQ 2.1.@.557FAQ 1.3.@.558FAQ 1.2.@.559FAQ 1.1.@.560No direct climate effect

FAQ 6.2.jFAQ 6.2.sFAQ 6.1.anFAQ 6.1.awFAQ 5.4.azFAQ 5.4.buFAQ 5.3.bxFAQ 5.3.dxFAQ 5.2.eaFAQ 5.2.esFAQ 5.1.evFAQ 5.1.gcFAQ 4.3.gmFAQ 4.3.gvFAQ 4.2.irFAQ 4.2.@.259FAQ 4.1.@.283FAQ 4.1.@.290FAQ 3.3.@.302FAQ 3.3.@.310FAQ 3.2.@.331FAQ 3.2.@.332FAQ 3.2.@.339FAQ 3.1.@.344FAQ 3.1.@.352FAQ 2.2.@.376FAQ 2.2.@.385FAQ 2.1.@.395FAQ 2.1.@.404FAQ 1.3.@.436FAQ 1.3.@.444FAQ 1.2.@.452FAQ 1.2.@.462FAQ 1.1.@.516FAQ 1.1.@.525FAQ 12.3.@.528FAQ 12.2.@.529FAQ 12.1.@.530FAQ 11.3.@.531FAQ 11.2.@.532FAQ 11.1.@.533FAQ 10.2.@.534FAQ 10.1.@.535FAQ 9.3.@.536FAQ 9.2.@.537FAQ 9.1.@.538FAQ 8.3.@.539FAQ 8.2.@.540FAQ 8.1.@.541FAQ 7.3.@.542FAQ 7.2.@.543FAQ 7.1.@.544FAQ 6.2.@.545FAQ 6.1.@.546FAQ 5.4.@.547FAQ 5.3.@.548FAQ 5.2.@.549FAQ 5.1.@.550FAQ 4.3.@.551FAQ 4.2.@.552FAQ 4.1.@.553FAQ 3.3.@.554FAQ 3.2.@.555FAQ 3.1.@.556FAQ 2.2.@.557FAQ 2.1.@.558FAQ 1.3.@.559FAQ 1.2.@.560FAQ 1.1.@.561Climate change and air quality are so intimately linked that addressing one issue can affect the other one.

FAQ 6.2.kFAQ 6.2.tFAQ 6.1.aoFAQ 6.1.axFAQ 5.4.baFAQ 5.4.bvFAQ 5.3.byFAQ 5.3.dyFAQ 5.2.ebFAQ 5.2.etFAQ 5.1.ewFAQ 5.1.gdFAQ 4.3.gnFAQ 4.3.gwFAQ 4.2.isFAQ 4.2.@.260FAQ 4.1.@.284FAQ 4.1.@.291FAQ 3.3.@.303FAQ 3.3.@.311FAQ 3.2.@.332FAQ 3.2.@.333FAQ 3.2.@.340FAQ 3.1.@.345FAQ 3.1.@.353FAQ 2.2.@.377FAQ 2.2.@.386FAQ 2.1.@.396FAQ 2.1.@.405FAQ 1.3.@.437FAQ 1.3.@.445FAQ 1.2.@.453FAQ 1.2.@.463FAQ 1.1.@.517FAQ 1.1.@.526FAQ 12.3.@.529FAQ 12.2.@.530FAQ 12.1.@.531FAQ 11.3.@.532FAQ 11.2.@.533FAQ 11.1.@.534FAQ 10.2.@.535FAQ 10.1.@.536FAQ 9.3.@.537FAQ 9.2.@.538FAQ 9.1.@.539FAQ 8.3.@.540FAQ 8.2.@.541FAQ 8.1.@.542FAQ 7.3.@.543FAQ 7.2.@.544FAQ 7.1.@.545FAQ 6.2.@.546FAQ 6.1.@.547FAQ 5.4.@.548FAQ 5.3.@.549FAQ 5.2.@.550FAQ 5.1.@.551FAQ 4.3.@.552FAQ 4.2.@.553FAQ 4.1.@.554FAQ 3.3.@.555FAQ 3.2.@.556FAQ 3.1.@.557FAQ 2.2.@.558FAQ 2.1.@.559FAQ 1.3.@.560FAQ 1.2.@.561FAQ 1.1.@.562Carbon dioxide (CO2) SulphateOrganic carbon

FAQ 6.2.lFAQ 6.2.uFAQ 6.1.apFAQ 6.1.ayFAQ 5.4.bbFAQ 5.4.bwFAQ 5.3.bzFAQ 5.3.dzFAQ 5.2.ecFAQ 5.2.euFAQ 5.1.exFAQ 5.1.geFAQ 4.3.goFAQ 4.3.gxFAQ 4.2.itFAQ 4.2.@.261FAQ 4.1.@.285FAQ 4.1.@.292FAQ 3.3.@.304FAQ 3.3.@.312FAQ 3.2.@.333FAQ 3.2.@.334FAQ 3.2.@.341FAQ 3.1.@.346FAQ 3.1.@.354FAQ 2.2.@.378FAQ 2.2.@.387FAQ 2.1.@.397FAQ 2.1.@.406FAQ 1.3.@.438FAQ 1.3.@.446FAQ 1.2.@.454FAQ 1.2.@.464FAQ 1.1.@.518FAQ 1.1.@.527FAQ 12.3.@.530FAQ 12.2.@.531FAQ 12.1.@.532FAQ 11.3.@.533FAQ 11.2.@.534FAQ 11.1.@.535FAQ 10.2.@.536FAQ 10.1.@.537FAQ 9.3.@.538FAQ 9.2.@.539FAQ 9.1.@.540FAQ 8.3.@.541FAQ 8.2.@.542FAQ 8.1.@.543FAQ 7.3.@.544FAQ 7.2.@.545FAQ 7.1.@.546FAQ 6.2.@.547FAQ 6.1.@.548FAQ 5.4.@.549FAQ 5.3.@.550FAQ 5.2.@.551FAQ 5.1.@.552FAQ 4.3.@.553FAQ 4.2.@.554FAQ 4.1.@.555FAQ 3.3.@.556FAQ 3.2.@.557FAQ 3.1.@.558FAQ 2.2.@.559FAQ 2.1.@.560FAQ 1.3.@.561FAQ 1.2.@.562FAQ 1.1.@.563NitrateNitrous oxide (N2O)

FAQ 6.2.mFAQ 6.2.vFAQ 6.1.aqFAQ 6.1.azFAQ 5.4.bcFAQ 5.4.bxFAQ 5.3.caFAQ 5.3.eaFAQ 5.2.edFAQ 5.2.evFAQ 5.1.eyFAQ 5.1.gfFAQ 4.3.gpFAQ 4.3.gyFAQ 4.2.iuFAQ 4.2.@.262FAQ 4.1.@.286FAQ 4.1.@.293FAQ 3.3.@.305FAQ 3.3.@.313FAQ 3.2.@.334FAQ 3.2.@.335FAQ 3.2.@.342FAQ 3.1.@.347FAQ 3.1.@.355FAQ 2.2.@.379FAQ 2.2.@.388FAQ 2.1.@.398FAQ 2.1.@.407FAQ 1.3.@.439FAQ 1.3.@.447FAQ 1.2.@.455FAQ 1.2.@.465FAQ 1.1.@.519FAQ 1.1.@.528FAQ 12.3.@.531FAQ 12.2.@.532FAQ 12.1.@.533FAQ 11.3.@.534FAQ 11.2.@.535FAQ 11.1.@.536FAQ 10.2.@.537FAQ 10.1.@.538FAQ 9.3.@.539FAQ 9.2.@.540FAQ 9.1.@.541FAQ 8.3.@.542FAQ 8.2.@.543FAQ 8.1.@.544FAQ 7.3.@.545FAQ 7.2.@.546FAQ 7.1.@.547FAQ 6.2.@.548FAQ 6.1.@.549FAQ 5.4.@.550FAQ 5.3.@.551FAQ 5.2.@.552FAQ 5.1.@.553FAQ 4.3.@.554FAQ 4.2.@.555FAQ 4.1.@.556FAQ 3.3.@.557FAQ 3.2.@.558FAQ 3.1.@.559FAQ 2.2.@.560FAQ 2.1.@.561FAQ 1.3.@.562FAQ 1.2.@.563FAQ 1.1.@.564Halogenated compounds

FAQ 6.2.nFAQ 6.2.wFAQ 6.1.arFAQ 6.1.baFAQ 5.4.bdFAQ 5.4.byFAQ 5.3.cbFAQ 5.3.ebFAQ 5.2.eeFAQ 5.2.ewFAQ 5.1.ezFAQ 5.1.ggFAQ 4.3.gqFAQ 4.3.gzFAQ 4.2.ivFAQ 4.2.@.263FAQ 4.1.@.287FAQ 4.1.@.294FAQ 3.3.@.306FAQ 3.3.@.314FAQ 3.2.@.335FAQ 3.2.@.336FAQ 3.2.@.343FAQ 3.1.@.348FAQ 3.1.@.356FAQ 2.2.@.380FAQ 2.2.@.389FAQ 2.1.@.399FAQ 2.1.@.408FAQ 1.3.@.440FAQ 1.3.@.448FAQ 1.2.@.456FAQ 1.2.@.466FAQ 1.1.@.520FAQ 1.1.@.529FAQ 12.3.@.532FAQ 12.2.@.533FAQ 12.1.@.534FAQ 11.3.@.535FAQ 11.2.@.536FAQ 11.1.@.537FAQ 10.2.@.538FAQ 10.1.@.539FAQ 9.3.@.540FAQ 9.2.@.541FAQ 9.1.@.542FAQ 8.3.@.543FAQ 8.2.@.544FAQ 8.1.@.545FAQ 7.3.@.546FAQ 7.2.@.547FAQ 7.1.@.548FAQ 6.2.@.549FAQ 6.1.@.550FAQ 5.4.@.551FAQ 5.3.@.552FAQ 5.2.@.553FAQ 5.1.@.554FAQ 4.3.@.555FAQ 4.2.@.556FAQ 4.1.@.557FAQ 3.3.@.558FAQ 3.2.@.559FAQ 3.1.@.560FAQ 2.2.@.561FAQ 2.1.@.562FAQ 1.3.@.563FAQ 1.2.@.564FAQ 1.1.@.565Tropospheric Ozone (O3)

FAQ 6.2.oFAQ 6.2.xFAQ 6.1.asFAQ 6.1.bbFAQ 5.4.beFAQ 5.4.bzFAQ 5.3.ccFAQ 5.3.ecFAQ 5.2.efFAQ 5.2.exFAQ 5.1.faFAQ 5.1.ghFAQ 4.3.grFAQ 4.3.haFAQ 4.2.@.256FAQ 4.2.@.264FAQ 4.1.@.288FAQ 4.1.@.295FAQ 3.3.@.307FAQ 3.3.@.315FAQ 3.2.@.336FAQ 3.2.@.337FAQ 3.2.@.344FAQ 3.1.@.349FAQ 3.1.@.357FAQ 2.2.@.381FAQ 2.2.@.390FAQ 2.1.@.400FAQ 2.1.@.409FAQ 1.3.@.441FAQ 1.3.@.449FAQ 1.2.@.457FAQ 1.2.@.467FAQ 1.1.@.521FAQ 1.1.@.530FAQ 12.3.@.533FAQ 12.2.@.534FAQ 12.1.@.535FAQ 11.3.@.536FAQ 11.2.@.537FAQ 11.1.@.538FAQ 10.2.@.539FAQ 10.1.@.540FAQ 9.3.@.541FAQ 9.2.@.542FAQ 9.1.@.543FAQ 8.3.@.544FAQ 8.2.@.545FAQ 8.1.@.546FAQ 7.3.@.547FAQ 7.2.@.548FAQ 7.1.@.549FAQ 6.2.@.550FAQ 6.1.@.551FAQ 5.4.@.552FAQ 5.3.@.553FAQ 5.2.@.554FAQ 5.1.@.555FAQ 4.3.@.556FAQ 4.2.@.557FAQ 4.1.@.558FAQ 3.3.@.559FAQ 3.2.@.560FAQ 3.1.@.561FAQ 2.2.@.562FAQ 2.1.@.563FAQ 1.3.@.564FAQ 1.2.@.565FAQ 1.1.@.566Surface particulate matter

FAQ 6.2.pFAQ 6.2.yFAQ 6.1.atFAQ 6.1.bcFAQ 5.4.bfFAQ 5.4.caFAQ 5.3.cdFAQ 5.3.edFAQ 5.2.egFAQ 5.2.eyFAQ 5.1.fbFAQ 5.1.giFAQ 4.3.gsFAQ 4.3.hbFAQ 4.2.@.257FAQ 4.2.@.265FAQ 4.1.@.289FAQ 4.1.@.296FAQ 3.3.@.308FAQ 3.3.@.316FAQ 3.2.@.337FAQ 3.2.@.338FAQ 3.2.@.345FAQ 3.1.@.350FAQ 3.1.@.358FAQ 2.2.@.382FAQ 2.2.@.391FAQ 2.1.@.401FAQ 2.1.@.410FAQ 1.3.@.442FAQ 1.3.@.450FAQ 1.2.@.458FAQ 1.2.@.468FAQ 1.1.@.522FAQ 1.1.@.531FAQ 12.3.@.534FAQ 12.2.@.535FAQ 12.1.@.536FAQ 11.3.@.537FAQ 11.2.@.538FAQ 11.1.@.539FAQ 10.2.@.540FAQ 10.1.@.541FAQ 9.3.@.542FAQ 9.2.@.543FAQ 9.1.@.544FAQ 8.3.@.545FAQ 8.2.@.546FAQ 8.1.@.547FAQ 7.3.@.548FAQ 7.2.@.549FAQ 7.1.@.550FAQ 6.2.@.551FAQ 6.1.@.552FAQ 5.4.@.553FAQ 5.3.@.554FAQ 5.2.@.555FAQ 5.1.@.556FAQ 4.3.@.557FAQ 4.2.@.558FAQ 4.1.@.559FAQ 3.3.@.560FAQ 3.2.@.561FAQ 3.1.@.562FAQ 2.2.@.563FAQ 2.1.@.564FAQ 1.3.@.565FAQ 1.2.@.566FAQ 1.1.@.567Methane (CH4)

FAQ 6.2.qFAQ 6.2.zFAQ 6.1.auFAQ 6.1.bdFAQ 5.4.bgFAQ 5.4.cbFAQ 5.3.ceFAQ 5.3.eeFAQ 5.2.ehFAQ 5.2.ezFAQ 5.1.fcFAQ 5.1.gjFAQ 4.3.gtFAQ 4.3.hcFAQ 4.2.@.258FAQ 4.2.@.266FAQ 4.1.@.290FAQ 4.1.@.297FAQ 3.3.@.309FAQ 3.3.@.317FAQ 3.2.@.338FAQ 3.2.@.339FAQ 3.2.@.346FAQ 3.1.@.351FAQ 3.1.@.359FAQ 2.2.@.383FAQ 2.2.@.392FAQ 2.1.@.402FAQ 2.1.@.411FAQ 1.3.@.443FAQ 1.3.@.451FAQ 1.2.@.459FAQ 1.2.@.469FAQ 1.1.@.523FAQ 1.1.@.532FAQ 12.3.@.535FAQ 12.2.@.536FAQ 12.1.@.537FAQ 11.3.@.538FAQ 11.2.@.539FAQ 11.1.@.540FAQ 10.2.@.541FAQ 10.1.@.542FAQ 9.3.@.543FAQ 9.2.@.544FAQ 9.1.@.545FAQ 8.3.@.546FAQ 8.2.@.547FAQ 8.1.@.548FAQ 7.3.@.549FAQ 7.2.@.550FAQ 7.1.@.551FAQ 6.2.@.552FAQ 6.1.@.553FAQ 5.4.@.554FAQ 5.3.@.555FAQ 5.2.@.556FAQ 5.1.@.557FAQ 4.3.@.558FAQ 4.2.@.559FAQ 4.1.@.560FAQ 3.3.@.561FAQ 3.2.@.562FAQ 3.1.@.563FAQ 2.2.@.564FAQ 2.1.@.565FAQ 1.3.@.566FAQ 1.2.@.567FAQ 1.1.@.568Volatile organic compounds

FAQ 6.2.rFAQ 6.2.aaFAQ 6.1.avFAQ 6.1.beFAQ 5.4.bhFAQ 5.4.ccFAQ 5.3.cfFAQ 5.3.efFAQ 5.2.eiFAQ 5.2.faFAQ 5.1.fdFAQ 5.1.gkFAQ 4.3.guFAQ 4.3.hdFAQ 4.2.@.259FAQ 4.2.@.267FAQ 4.1.@.291FAQ 4.1.@.298FAQ 3.3.@.310FAQ 3.3.@.318FAQ 3.2.@.339FAQ 3.2.@.340FAQ 3.2.@.347FAQ 3.1.@.352FAQ 3.1.@.360FAQ 2.2.@.384FAQ 2.2.@.393FAQ 2.1.@.403FAQ 2.1.@.412FAQ 1.3.@.444FAQ 1.3.@.452FAQ 1.2.@.460FAQ 1.2.@.470FAQ 1.1.@.524FAQ 1.1.@.533FAQ 12.3.@.536FAQ 12.2.@.537FAQ 12.1.@.538FAQ 11.3.@.539FAQ 11.2.@.540FAQ 11.1.@.541FAQ 10.2.@.542FAQ 10.1.@.543FAQ 9.3.@.544FAQ 9.2.@.545FAQ 9.1.@.546FAQ 8.3.@.547FAQ 8.2.@.548FAQ 8.1.@.549FAQ 7.3.@.550FAQ 7.2.@.551FAQ 7.1.@.552FAQ 6.2.@.553FAQ 6.1.@.554FAQ 5.4.@.555FAQ 5.3.@.556FAQ 5.2.@.557FAQ 5.1.@.558FAQ 4.3.@.559FAQ 4.2.@.560FAQ 4.1.@.561FAQ 3.3.@.562FAQ 3.2.@.563FAQ 3.1.@.564FAQ 2.2.@.565FAQ 2.1.@.566FAQ 1.3.@.567FAQ 1.2.@.568FAQ 1.1.@.569Carbon monoxide (CO)

FAQ 6.2.sFAQ 6.2.abFAQ 6.1.awFAQ 6.1.bfFAQ 5.4.biFAQ 5.4.cdFAQ 5.3.cgFAQ 5.3.egFAQ 5.2.ejFAQ 5.2.fbFAQ 5.1.feFAQ 5.1.glFAQ 4.3.gvFAQ 4.3.heFAQ 4.2.@.260FAQ 4.2.@.268FAQ 4.1.@.292FAQ 4.1.@.299FAQ 3.3.@.311FAQ 3.3.@.319FAQ 3.2.@.340FAQ 3.2.@.341FAQ 3.2.@.348FAQ 3.1.@.353FAQ 3.1.@.361FAQ 2.2.@.385FAQ 2.2.@.394FAQ 2.1.@.404FAQ 2.1.@.413FAQ 1.3.@.445FAQ 1.3.@.453FAQ 1.2.@.461FAQ 1.2.@.471FAQ 1.1.@.525FAQ 1.1.@.534FAQ 12.3.@.537FAQ 12.2.@.538FAQ 12.1.@.539FAQ 11.3.@.540FAQ 11.2.@.541FAQ 11.1.@.542FAQ 10.2.@.543FAQ 10.1.@.544FAQ 9.3.@.545FAQ 9.2.@.546FAQ 9.1.@.547FAQ 8.3.@.548FAQ 8.2.@.549FAQ 8.1.@.550FAQ 7.3.@.551FAQ 7.2.@.552FAQ 7.1.@.553FAQ 6.2.@.554FAQ 6.1.@.555FAQ 5.4.@.556FAQ 5.3.@.557FAQ 5.2.@.558FAQ 5.1.@.559FAQ 4.3.@.560FAQ 4.2.@.561FAQ 4.1.@.562FAQ 3.3.@.563FAQ 3.2.@.564FAQ 3.1.@.565FAQ 2.2.@.566FAQ 2.1.@.567FAQ 1.3.@.568FAQ 1.2.@.569FAQ 1.1.@.570Nitrogen oxides (NOX)

FAQ 6.2.tFAQ 6.2.acFAQ 6.1.axFAQ 6.1.bgFAQ 5.4.bjFAQ 5.4.ceFAQ 5.3.chFAQ 5.3.ehFAQ 5.2.ekFAQ 5.2.fcFAQ 5.1.ffFAQ 5.1.gmFAQ 4.3.gwFAQ 4.3.hfFAQ 4.2.@.261FAQ 4.2.@.269FAQ 4.1.@.293FAQ 4.1.@.300FAQ 3.3.@.312FAQ 3.3.@.320FAQ 3.2.@.341FAQ 3.2.@.342FAQ 3.2.@.349FAQ 3.1.@.354FAQ 3.1.@.362FAQ 2.2.@.386FAQ 2.2.@.395FAQ 2.1.@.405FAQ 2.1.@.414FAQ 1.3.@.446FAQ 1.3.@.454FAQ 1.2.@.462FAQ 1.2.@.472FAQ 1.1.@.526FAQ 1.1.@.535FAQ 12.3.@.538FAQ 12.2.@.539FAQ 12.1.@.540FAQ 11.3.@.541FAQ 11.2.@.542FAQ 11.1.@.543FAQ 10.2.@.544FAQ 10.1.@.545FAQ 9.3.@.546FAQ 9.2.@.547FAQ 9.1.@.548FAQ 8.3.@.549FAQ 8.2.@.550FAQ 8.1.@.551FAQ 7.3.@.552FAQ 7.2.@.553FAQ 7.1.@.554FAQ 6.2.@.555FAQ 6.1.@.556FAQ 5.4.@.557FAQ 5.3.@.558FAQ 5.2.@.559FAQ 5.1.@.560FAQ 4.3.@.561FAQ 4.2.@.562FAQ 4.1.@.563FAQ 3.3.@.564FAQ 3.2.@.565FAQ 3.1.@.566FAQ 2.2.@.567FAQ 2.1.@.568FAQ 1.3.@.569FAQ 1.2.@.570FAQ 1.1.@.571Black Carbon

FAQ 6.2.uFAQ 6.2.adFAQ 6.1.ayFAQ 6.1.bhFAQ 5.4.bkFAQ 5.4.cfFAQ 5.3.ciFAQ 5.3.eiFAQ 5.2.elFAQ 5.2.fdFAQ 5.1.fgFAQ 5.1.gnFAQ 4.3.gxFAQ 4.3.hgFAQ 4.2.@.262FAQ 4.2.@.270FAQ 4.1.@.294FAQ 4.1.@.301FAQ 3.3.@.313FAQ 3.3.@.321FAQ 3.2.@.342FAQ 3.2.@.343FAQ 3.2.@.350FAQ 3.1.@.355FAQ 3.1.@.363FAQ 2.2.@.387FAQ 2.2.@.396FAQ 2.1.@.406FAQ 2.1.@.415FAQ 1.3.@.447FAQ 1.3.@.455FAQ 1.2.@.463FAQ 1.2.@.473FAQ 1.1.@.527FAQ 1.1.@.536FAQ 12.3.@.539FAQ 12.2.@.540FAQ 12.1.@.541FAQ 11.3.@.542FAQ 11.2.@.543FAQ 11.1.@.544FAQ 10.2.@.545FAQ 10.1.@.546FAQ 9.3.@.547FAQ 9.2.@.548FAQ 9.1.@.549FAQ 8.3.@.550FAQ 8.2.@.551FAQ 8.1.@.552FAQ 7.3.@.553FAQ 7.2.@.554FAQ 7.1.@.555FAQ 6.2.@.556FAQ 6.1.@.557FAQ 5.4.@.558FAQ 5.3.@.559FAQ 5.2.@.560FAQ 5.1.@.561FAQ 4.3.@.562FAQ 4.2.@.563FAQ 4.1.@.564FAQ 3.3.@.565FAQ 3.2.@.566FAQ 3.1.@.567FAQ 2.2.@.568FAQ 2.1.@.569FAQ 1.3.@.570FAQ 1.2.@.571FAQ 1.1.@.572FAQ 6.2, Figure 1 | Links between actions aiming to limit climate change and actions to improve air quality. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols (orange and blue) can affect climate directly. Air pollutants (bottom) can affect human health, ecosystems and climate. All these compounds have common sources and sometimes interact with each other in the atmosphere which makes it impossible to consider them separately (dotted grey arrows).

FAQ 6.2.vFAQ 6.2.aeFAQ 6.1.azFAQ 6.1.biFAQ 5.4.blFAQ 5.4.cgFAQ 5.3.cjFAQ 5.3.ejFAQ 5.2.emFAQ 5.2.feFAQ 5.1.fhFAQ 5.1.goFAQ 4.3.gyFAQ 4.3.hhFAQ 4.2.@.263FAQ 4.2.@.271FAQ 4.1.@.295FAQ 4.1.@.302FAQ 3.3.@.314FAQ 3.3.@.322FAQ 3.2.@.343FAQ 3.2.@.344FAQ 3.2.@.351FAQ 3.1.@.356FAQ 3.1.@.364FAQ 2.2.@.388FAQ 2.2.@.397FAQ 2.1.@.407FAQ 2.1.@.416FAQ 1.3.@.448FAQ 1.3.@.456FAQ 1.2.@.464FAQ 1.2.@.474FAQ 1.1.@.528FAQ 1.1.@.537FAQ 12.3.@.540FAQ 12.2.@.541FAQ 12.1.@.542FAQ 11.3.@.543FAQ 11.2.@.544FAQ 11.1.@.545FAQ 10.2.@.546FAQ 10.1.@.547FAQ 9.3.@.548FAQ 9.2.@.549FAQ 9.1.@.550FAQ 8.3.@.551FAQ 8.2.@.552FAQ 8.1.@.553FAQ 7.3.@.554FAQ 7.2.@.555FAQ 7.1.@.556FAQ 6.2.@.557FAQ 6.1.@.558FAQ 5.4.@.559FAQ 5.3.@.560FAQ 5.2.@.561FAQ 5.1.@.562FAQ 4.3.@.563FAQ 4.2.@.564FAQ 4.1.@.565FAQ 3.3.@.566FAQ 3.2.@.567FAQ 3.1.@.568FAQ 2.2.@.569FAQ 2.1.@.570FAQ 1.3.@.571FAQ 1.2.@.572FAQ 1.1.@.573FAQ

FAQ 6.2.wFAQ 6.2.afFAQ 6.1.baFAQ 6.1.bjFAQ 5.4.bmFAQ 5.4.chFAQ 5.3.ckFAQ 5.3.ekFAQ 5.2.enFAQ 5.2.ffFAQ 5.1.fiFAQ 5.1.gpFAQ 4.3.gzFAQ 4.3.hiFAQ 4.2.@.264FAQ 4.2.@.272FAQ 4.1.@.296FAQ 4.1.@.303FAQ 3.3.@.315FAQ 3.3.@.323FAQ 3.2.@.344FAQ 3.2.@.345FAQ 3.2.@.352FAQ 3.1.@.357FAQ 3.1.@.365FAQ 2.2.@.389FAQ 2.2.@.398FAQ 2.1.@.408FAQ 2.1.@.417FAQ 1.3.@.449FAQ 1.3.@.457FAQ 1.2.@.465FAQ 1.2.@.475FAQ 1.1.@.529FAQ 1.1.@.538FAQ 12.3.@.541FAQ 12.2.@.542FAQ 12.1.@.543FAQ 11.3.@.544FAQ 11.2.@.545FAQ 11.1.@.546FAQ 10.2.@.547FAQ 10.1.@.548FAQ 9.3.@.549FAQ 9.2.@.550FAQ 9.1.@.551FAQ 8.3.@.552FAQ 8.2.@.553FAQ 8.1.@.554FAQ 7.3.@.555FAQ 7.2.@.556FAQ 7.1.@.557FAQ 6.2.@.558FAQ 6.1.@.559FAQ 5.4.@.560FAQ 5.3.@.561FAQ 5.2.@.562FAQ 5.1.@.563FAQ 4.3.@.564FAQ 4.2.@.565FAQ 4.1.@.566FAQ 3.3.@.567FAQ 3.2.@.568FAQ 3.1.@.569FAQ 2.2.@.570FAQ 2.1.@.571FAQ 1.3.@.572FAQ 1.2.@.573FAQ 1.1.@.574Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 6.2.xFAQ 6.2.agFAQ 6.1.bbFAQ 6.1.bkFAQ 5.4.bnFAQ 5.4.ciFAQ 5.3.clFAQ 5.3.elFAQ 5.2.eoFAQ 5.2.fgFAQ 5.1.fjFAQ 5.1.gqFAQ 4.3.haFAQ 4.3.hjFAQ 4.2.@.265FAQ 4.2.@.273FAQ 4.1.@.297FAQ 4.1.@.304FAQ 3.3.@.316FAQ 3.3.@.324FAQ 3.2.@.345FAQ 3.2.@.346FAQ 3.2.@.353FAQ 3.1.@.358FAQ 3.1.@.366FAQ 2.2.@.390FAQ 2.2.@.399FAQ 2.1.@.409FAQ 2.1.@.418FAQ 1.3.@.450FAQ 1.3.@.458FAQ 1.2.@.466FAQ 1.2.@.476FAQ 1.1.@.530FAQ 1.1.@.539FAQ 12.3.@.542FAQ 12.2.@.543FAQ 12.1.@.544FAQ 11.3.@.545FAQ 11.2.@.546FAQ 11.1.@.547FAQ 10.2.@.548FAQ 10.1.@.549FAQ 9.3.@.550FAQ 9.2.@.551FAQ 9.1.@.552FAQ 8.3.@.553FAQ 8.2.@.554FAQ 8.1.@.555FAQ 7.3.@.556FAQ 7.2.@.557FAQ 7.1.@.558FAQ 6.2.@.559FAQ 6.1.@.560FAQ 5.4.@.561FAQ 5.3.@.562FAQ 5.2.@.563FAQ 5.1.@.564FAQ 4.3.@.565FAQ 4.2.@.566FAQ 4.1.@.567FAQ 3.3.@.568FAQ 3.2.@.569FAQ 3.1.@.570FAQ 2.2.@.571FAQ 2.1.@.572FAQ 1.3.@.573FAQ 1.2.@.574FAQ 1.1.@.575FAQ 7.1 | What Is the Earth’s Energy Budget, and What Does It Tell Us About Climate Change?

FAQ 7.1.aFAQ 6.2.yFAQ 6.2.ahFAQ 6.1.bcFAQ 6.1.blFAQ 5.4.boFAQ 5.4.cjFAQ 5.3.cmFAQ 5.3.emFAQ 5.2.epFAQ 5.2.fhFAQ 5.1.fkFAQ 5.1.grFAQ 4.3.hbFAQ 4.3.hkFAQ 4.2.@.266FAQ 4.2.@.274FAQ 4.1.@.298FAQ 4.1.@.305FAQ 3.3.@.317FAQ 3.3.@.325FAQ 3.2.@.346FAQ 3.2.@.347FAQ 3.2.@.354FAQ 3.1.@.359FAQ 3.1.@.367FAQ 2.2.@.391FAQ 2.2.@.400FAQ 2.1.@.410FAQ 2.1.@.419FAQ 1.3.@.451FAQ 1.3.@.459FAQ 1.2.@.467FAQ 1.2.@.477FAQ 1.1.@.531FAQ 1.1.@.540FAQ 12.3.@.543FAQ 12.2.@.544FAQ 12.1.@.545FAQ 11.3.@.546FAQ 11.2.@.547FAQ 11.1.@.548FAQ 10.2.@.549FAQ 10.1.@.550FAQ 9.3.@.551FAQ 9.2.@.552FAQ 9.1.@.553FAQ 8.3.@.554FAQ 8.2.@.555FAQ 8.1.@.556FAQ 7.3.@.557FAQ 7.2.@.558FAQ 7.1.@.559FAQ 6.2.@.560FAQ 6.1.@.561FAQ 5.4.@.562FAQ 5.3.@.563FAQ 5.2.@.564FAQ 5.1.@.565FAQ 4.3.@.566FAQ 4.2.@.567FAQ 4.1.@.568FAQ 3.3.@.569FAQ 3.2.@.570FAQ 3.1.@.571FAQ 2.2.@.572FAQ 2.1.@.573FAQ 1.3.@.574FAQ 1.2.@.575FAQ 1.1.@.576The Earth’s energy budget describes the flow of energy within the climate system. Since at least 1970 there has been a persistent imbalance in the energy flows that has led to excess energy being absorbed by the climate system. By measuring and understanding these energy flows and the role that human activities play in changing them, we are better able to understand the causes of climate change and project future climate change more accurately.

FAQ 7.1.bFAQ 6.2.zFAQ 6.2.aiFAQ 6.1.bdFAQ 6.1.bmFAQ 5.4.bpFAQ 5.4.ckFAQ 5.3.cnFAQ 5.3.enFAQ 5.2.eqFAQ 5.2.fiFAQ 5.1.flFAQ 5.1.gsFAQ 4.3.hcFAQ 4.3.hlFAQ 4.2.@.267FAQ 4.2.@.275FAQ 4.1.@.299FAQ 4.1.@.306FAQ 3.3.@.318FAQ 3.3.@.326FAQ 3.2.@.347FAQ 3.2.@.348FAQ 3.2.@.355FAQ 3.1.@.360FAQ 3.1.@.368FAQ 2.2.@.392FAQ 2.2.@.401FAQ 2.1.@.411FAQ 2.1.@.420FAQ 1.3.@.452FAQ 1.3.@.460FAQ 1.2.@.468FAQ 1.2.@.478FAQ 1.1.@.532FAQ 1.1.@.541FAQ 12.3.@.544FAQ 12.2.@.545FAQ 12.1.@.546FAQ 11.3.@.547FAQ 11.2.@.548FAQ 11.1.@.549FAQ 10.2.@.550FAQ 10.1.@.551FAQ 9.3.@.552FAQ 9.2.@.553FAQ 9.1.@.554FAQ 8.3.@.555FAQ 8.2.@.556FAQ 8.1.@.557FAQ 7.3.@.558FAQ 7.2.@.559FAQ 7.1.@.560FAQ 6.2.@.561FAQ 6.1.@.562FAQ 5.4.@.563FAQ 5.3.@.564FAQ 5.2.@.565FAQ 5.1.@.566FAQ 4.3.@.567FAQ 4.2.@.568FAQ 4.1.@.569FAQ 3.3.@.570FAQ 3.2.@.571FAQ 3.1.@.572FAQ 2.2.@.573FAQ 2.1.@.574FAQ 1.3.@.575FAQ 1.2.@.576FAQ 1.1.@.577Our planet receives vast amounts of energy every day in the form of sunlight. Around a third of the sunlight is reflected back to space by clouds, by tiny particles called aerosols, and by bright surfaces such as snow and ice. The rest is absorbed by the ocean, land, ice and atmosphere. The planet then emits energy back out to space in the form of thermal radiation. In a world that was not warming or cooling, these energy flows would balance. Human activity has caused an imbalance in these energy flows.

FAQ 7.1.cFAQ 6.2.aaFAQ 6.2.ajFAQ 6.1.beFAQ 6.1.bnFAQ 5.4.bqFAQ 5.4.clFAQ 5.3.coFAQ 5.3.eoFAQ 5.2.erFAQ 5.2.fjFAQ 5.1.fmFAQ 5.1.gtFAQ 4.3.hdFAQ 4.3.hmFAQ 4.2.@.268FAQ 4.2.@.276FAQ 4.1.@.300FAQ 4.1.@.307FAQ 3.3.@.319FAQ 3.3.@.327FAQ 3.2.@.348FAQ 3.2.@.349FAQ 3.2.@.356FAQ 3.1.@.361FAQ 3.1.@.369FAQ 2.2.@.393FAQ 2.2.@.402FAQ 2.1.@.412FAQ 2.1.@.421FAQ 1.3.@.453FAQ 1.3.@.461FAQ 1.2.@.469FAQ 1.2.@.479FAQ 1.1.@.533FAQ 1.1.@.542FAQ 12.3.@.545FAQ 12.2.@.546FAQ 12.1.@.547FAQ 11.3.@.548FAQ 11.2.@.549FAQ 11.1.@.550FAQ 10.2.@.551FAQ 10.1.@.552FAQ 9.3.@.553FAQ 9.2.@.554FAQ 9.1.@.555FAQ 8.3.@.556FAQ 8.2.@.557FAQ 8.1.@.558FAQ 7.3.@.559FAQ 7.2.@.560FAQ 7.1.@.561FAQ 6.2.@.562FAQ 6.1.@.563FAQ 5.4.@.564FAQ 5.3.@.565FAQ 5.2.@.566FAQ 5.1.@.567FAQ 4.3.@.568FAQ 4.2.@.569FAQ 4.1.@.570FAQ 3.3.@.571FAQ 3.2.@.572FAQ 3.1.@.573FAQ 2.2.@.574FAQ 2.1.@.575FAQ 1.3.@.576FAQ 1.2.@.577FAQ 1.1.@.578We measure the influence of various human and natural factors on the energy flows at the top of our atmosphere in terms of radiative forcings, where a positive radiative forcing has a warming effect and a negative radiative forcing has a cooling effect. In response to these forcings, the Earth system will either warm or cool, so as to restore balance through changes in the amount of outgoing thermal radiation (the warmer the Earth, the more radiation it emits). Changes in Earth’s temperature in turn lead to additional changes in the climate system (known as climate feedbacks) that either amplify or dampen the original effect. For example, Arctic sea ice has been melting as the Earth warms, reducing the amount of reflected sunlight and adding to the initial warming (an amplifying feedback). The most uncertain of those climate feedbacks are clouds, as they respond to warming in complex ways that affect both the emission of thermal radiation and the reflection of sunlight. However, we are now more confident that cloud changes, taken together, will amplify climate warming (see FAQ 7.2).

FAQ 7.1.dFAQ 6.2.abFAQ 6.2.akFAQ 6.1.bfFAQ 6.1.boFAQ 5.4.brFAQ 5.4.cmFAQ 5.3.cpFAQ 5.3.epFAQ 5.2.esFAQ 5.2.fkFAQ 5.1.fnFAQ 5.1.guFAQ 4.3.heFAQ 4.3.hnFAQ 4.2.@.269FAQ 4.2.@.277FAQ 4.1.@.301FAQ 4.1.@.308FAQ 3.3.@.320FAQ 3.3.@.328FAQ 3.2.@.349FAQ 3.2.@.350FAQ 3.2.@.357FAQ 3.1.@.362FAQ 3.1.@.370FAQ 2.2.@.394FAQ 2.2.@.403FAQ 2.1.@.413FAQ 2.1.@.422FAQ 1.3.@.454FAQ 1.3.@.462FAQ 1.2.@.470FAQ 1.2.@.480FAQ 1.1.@.534FAQ 1.1.@.543FAQ 12.3.@.546FAQ 12.2.@.547FAQ 12.1.@.548FAQ 11.3.@.549FAQ 11.2.@.550FAQ 11.1.@.551FAQ 10.2.@.552FAQ 10.1.@.553FAQ 9.3.@.554FAQ 9.2.@.555FAQ 9.1.@.556FAQ 8.3.@.557FAQ 8.2.@.558FAQ 8.1.@.559FAQ 7.3.@.560FAQ 7.2.@.561FAQ 7.1.@.562FAQ 6.2.@.563FAQ 6.1.@.564FAQ 5.4.@.565FAQ 5.3.@.566FAQ 5.2.@.567FAQ 5.1.@.568FAQ 4.3.@.569FAQ 4.2.@.570FAQ 4.1.@.571FAQ 3.3.@.572FAQ 3.2.@.573FAQ 3.1.@.574FAQ 2.2.@.575FAQ 2.1.@.576FAQ 1.3.@.577FAQ 1.2.@.578FAQ 1.1.@.579Human activities have unbalanced these energy flows in two main ways. First, increases in greenhouse gas levels have led to more of the emitted thermal radiation being absorbed by the atmosphere, instead of being released to space. Second, increases in pollutants have increased the amount of aerosols such as sulphates in the atmosphere (see FAQ 6.1). This has led to more incoming sunlight being reflected away, by the aerosols themselves and through the formation of more cloud drops, which increases the reflectivity of clouds (see FAQ 7.2).

FAQ 7.1.eFAQ 6.2.acFAQ 6.2.alFAQ 6.1.bgFAQ 6.1.bpFAQ 5.4.bsFAQ 5.4.cnFAQ 5.3.cqFAQ 5.3.eqFAQ 5.2.etFAQ 5.2.flFAQ 5.1.foFAQ 5.1.gvFAQ 4.3.hfFAQ 4.3.hoFAQ 4.2.@.270FAQ 4.2.@.278FAQ 4.1.@.302FAQ 4.1.@.309FAQ 3.3.@.321FAQ 3.3.@.329FAQ 3.2.@.350FAQ 3.2.@.351FAQ 3.2.@.358FAQ 3.1.@.363FAQ 3.1.@.371FAQ 2.2.@.395FAQ 2.2.@.404FAQ 2.1.@.414FAQ 2.1.@.423FAQ 1.3.@.455FAQ 1.3.@.463FAQ 1.2.@.471FAQ 1.2.@.481FAQ 1.1.@.535FAQ 1.1.@.544FAQ 12.3.@.547FAQ 12.2.@.548FAQ 12.1.@.549FAQ 11.3.@.550FAQ 11.2.@.551FAQ 11.1.@.552FAQ 10.2.@.553FAQ 10.1.@.554FAQ 9.3.@.555FAQ 9.2.@.556FAQ 9.1.@.557FAQ 8.3.@.558FAQ 8.2.@.559FAQ 8.1.@.560FAQ 7.3.@.561FAQ 7.2.@.562FAQ 7.1.@.563FAQ 6.2.@.564FAQ 6.1.@.565FAQ 5.4.@.566FAQ 5.3.@.567FAQ 5.2.@.568FAQ 5.1.@.569FAQ 4.3.@.570FAQ 4.2.@.571FAQ 4.1.@.572FAQ 3.3.@.573FAQ 3.2.@.574FAQ 3.1.@.575FAQ 2.2.@.576FAQ 2.1.@.577FAQ 1.3.@.578FAQ 1.2.@.579FAQ 1.1.@.580Altogether, the global energy flow imbalance since the 1970s has been just over half a watt per square metre of the Earth’s surface. This sounds small, but because the imbalance is persistent and because Earth’s surface is large, this adds up to about 25 times the total amount of primary energy consumed by human society, compared over 1971 to 2018. Compared to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), we are now better able to quantify and track these energy flows from multiple lines of evidence, including satellite data, direct measurements of ocean temperatures, and a wide variety of other Earth system observations (see FAQ 1.1). We also have a better understanding of the processes contributing to this imbalance, including the complex interactions between aerosols, clouds and radiation.

FAQ 7.1.fFAQ 6.2.adFAQ 6.2.amFAQ 6.1.bhFAQ 6.1.bqFAQ 5.4.btFAQ 5.4.coFAQ 5.3.crFAQ 5.3.erFAQ 5.2.euFAQ 5.2.fmFAQ 5.1.fpFAQ 5.1.gwFAQ 4.3.hgFAQ 4.3.hpFAQ 4.2.@.271FAQ 4.2.@.279FAQ 4.1.@.303FAQ 4.1.@.310FAQ 3.3.@.322FAQ 3.3.@.330FAQ 3.2.@.351FAQ 3.2.@.352FAQ 3.2.@.359FAQ 3.1.@.364FAQ 3.1.@.372FAQ 2.2.@.396FAQ 2.2.@.405FAQ 2.1.@.415FAQ 2.1.@.424FAQ 1.3.@.456FAQ 1.3.@.464FAQ 1.2.@.472FAQ 1.2.@.482FAQ 1.1.@.536FAQ 1.1.@.545FAQ 12.3.@.548FAQ 12.2.@.549FAQ 12.1.@.550FAQ 11.3.@.551FAQ 11.2.@.552FAQ 11.1.@.553FAQ 10.2.@.554FAQ 10.1.@.555FAQ 9.3.@.556FAQ 9.2.@.557FAQ 9.1.@.558FAQ 8.3.@.559FAQ 8.2.@.560FAQ 8.1.@.561FAQ 7.3.@.562FAQ 7.2.@.563FAQ 7.1.@.564FAQ 6.2.@.565FAQ 6.1.@.566FAQ 5.4.@.567FAQ 5.3.@.568FAQ 5.2.@.569FAQ 5.1.@.570FAQ 4.3.@.571FAQ 4.2.@.572FAQ 4.1.@.573FAQ 3.3.@.574FAQ 3.2.@.575FAQ 3.1.@.576FAQ 2.2.@.577FAQ 2.1.@.578FAQ 1.3.@.579FAQ 1.2.@.580FAQ 1.1.@.581Research has shown that the excess energy since the 1970s has mainly gone into warming the ocean (91%), followed by the warming of land (5%) and the melting of ice sheets and glaciers (3%). The atmosphere has warmed substantially since 1970, but because it is comprised of thin gases it has absorbed only 1% of the excess energy (FAQ 7.1, Figure 1). As the ocean has absorbed the vast majority of the excess energy, especially within its top two kilometres, the deep ocean is expected to continue to warm and expand for centuries to millennia, leading to long-term sea level rise – even if atmospheric greenhouse gas levels were to decline (see FAQ 5.3). This is in addition to the sea level rise expected from melting ice sheets and glaciers.

FAQ 7.1.gFAQ 6.2.aeFAQ 6.2.anFAQ 6.1.biFAQ 6.1.brFAQ 5.4.buFAQ 5.4.cpFAQ 5.3.csFAQ 5.3.esFAQ 5.2.evFAQ 5.2.fnFAQ 5.1.fqFAQ 5.1.gxFAQ 4.3.hhFAQ 4.3.hqFAQ 4.2.@.272FAQ 4.2.@.280FAQ 4.1.@.304FAQ 4.1.@.311FAQ 3.3.@.323FAQ 3.3.@.331FAQ 3.2.@.352FAQ 3.2.@.353FAQ 3.2.@.360FAQ 3.1.@.365FAQ 3.1.@.373FAQ 2.2.@.397FAQ 2.2.@.406FAQ 2.1.@.416FAQ 2.1.@.425FAQ 1.3.@.457FAQ 1.3.@.465FAQ 1.2.@.473FAQ 1.2.@.483FAQ 1.1.@.537FAQ 1.1.@.546FAQ 12.3.@.549FAQ 12.2.@.550FAQ 12.1.@.551FAQ 11.3.@.552FAQ 11.2.@.553FAQ 11.1.@.554FAQ 10.2.@.555FAQ 10.1.@.556FAQ 9.3.@.557FAQ 9.2.@.558FAQ 9.1.@.559FAQ 8.3.@.560FAQ 8.2.@.561FAQ 8.1.@.562FAQ 7.3.@.563FAQ 7.2.@.564FAQ 7.1.@.565FAQ 6.2.@.566FAQ 6.1.@.567FAQ 5.4.@.568FAQ 5.3.@.569FAQ 5.2.@.570FAQ 5.1.@.571FAQ 4.3.@.572FAQ 4.2.@.573FAQ 4.1.@.574FAQ 3.3.@.575FAQ 3.2.@.576FAQ 3.1.@.577FAQ 2.2.@.578FAQ 2.1.@.579FAQ 1.3.@.580FAQ 1.2.@.581FAQ 1.1.@.582Understanding the Earth’s energy budget al.o helps to narrow uncertainty in future projections of climate. By testing climate models against what we know about the Earth’s energy budget, we can make more confident projections of surface temperature changes we might expect this century and beyond.

FAQ 7.1.hFAQ 6.2.afFAQ 6.2.aoFAQ 6.1.bjFAQ 6.1.bsFAQ 5.4.bvFAQ 5.4.cqFAQ 5.3.ctFAQ 5.3.etFAQ 5.2.ewFAQ 5.2.foFAQ 5.1.frFAQ 5.1.gyFAQ 4.3.hiFAQ 4.3.hrFAQ 4.2.@.273FAQ 4.2.@.281FAQ 4.1.@.305FAQ 4.1.@.312FAQ 3.3.@.324FAQ 3.3.@.332FAQ 3.2.@.353FAQ 3.2.@.354FAQ 3.2.@.361FAQ 3.1.@.366FAQ 3.1.@.374FAQ 2.2.@.398FAQ 2.2.@.407FAQ 2.1.@.417FAQ 2.1.@.426FAQ 1.3.@.458FAQ 1.3.@.466FAQ 1.2.@.474FAQ 1.2.@.484FAQ 1.1.@.538FAQ 1.1.@.547FAQ 12.3.@.550FAQ 12.2.@.551FAQ 12.1.@.552FAQ 11.3.@.553FAQ 11.2.@.554FAQ 11.1.@.555FAQ 10.2.@.556FAQ 10.1.@.557FAQ 9.3.@.558FAQ 9.2.@.559FAQ 9.1.@.560FAQ 8.3.@.561FAQ 8.2.@.562FAQ 8.1.@.563FAQ 7.3.@.564FAQ 7.2.@.565FAQ 7.1.@.566FAQ 6.2.@.567FAQ 6.1.@.568FAQ 5.4.@.569FAQ 5.3.@.570FAQ 5.2.@.571FAQ 5.1.@.572FAQ 4.3.@.573FAQ 4.2.@.574FAQ 4.1.@.575FAQ 3.3.@.576FAQ 3.2.@.577FAQ 3.1.@.578FAQ 2.2.@.579FAQ 2.1.@.580FAQ 1.3.@.581FAQ 1.2.@.582FAQ 1.1.@.583FAQ

FAQ 7.1.iFAQ 6.2.agFAQ 6.2.apFAQ 6.1.bkFAQ 6.1.btFAQ 5.4.bwFAQ 5.4.crFAQ 5.3.cuFAQ 5.3.euFAQ 5.2.exFAQ 5.2.fpFAQ 5.1.fsFAQ 5.1.gzFAQ 4.3.hjFAQ 4.3.hsFAQ 4.2.@.274FAQ 4.2.@.282FAQ 4.1.@.306FAQ 4.1.@.313FAQ 3.3.@.325FAQ 3.3.@.333FAQ 3.2.@.354FAQ 3.2.@.355FAQ 3.2.@.362FAQ 3.1.@.367FAQ 3.1.@.375FAQ 2.2.@.399FAQ 2.2.@.408FAQ 2.1.@.418FAQ 2.1.@.427FAQ 1.3.@.459FAQ 1.3.@.467FAQ 1.2.@.475FAQ 1.2.@.485FAQ 1.1.@.539FAQ 1.1.@.548FAQ 12.3.@.551FAQ 12.2.@.552FAQ 12.1.@.553FAQ 11.3.@.554FAQ 11.2.@.555FAQ 11.1.@.556FAQ 10.2.@.557FAQ 10.1.@.558FAQ 9.3.@.559FAQ 9.2.@.560FAQ 9.1.@.561FAQ 8.3.@.562FAQ 8.2.@.563FAQ 8.1.@.564FAQ 7.3.@.565FAQ 7.2.@.566FAQ 7.1.@.567FAQ 6.2.@.568FAQ 6.1.@.569FAQ 5.4.@.570FAQ 5.3.@.571FAQ 5.2.@.572FAQ 5.1.@.573FAQ 4.3.@.574FAQ 4.2.@.575FAQ 4.1.@.576FAQ 3.3.@.577FAQ 3.2.@.578FAQ 3.1.@.579FAQ 2.2.@.580FAQ 2.1.@.581FAQ 1.3.@.582FAQ 1.2.@.583FAQ 1.1.@.584FAQ 7.1 (continued)

FAQ 7.1.aFAQ 7.1.jFAQ 6.2.ahFAQ 6.2.aqFAQ 6.1.blFAQ 6.1.buFAQ 5.4.bxFAQ 5.4.csFAQ 5.3.cvFAQ 5.3.evFAQ 5.2.eyFAQ 5.2.fqFAQ 5.1.ftFAQ 5.1.haFAQ 4.3.hkFAQ 4.3.htFAQ 4.2.@.275FAQ 4.2.@.283FAQ 4.1.@.307FAQ 4.1.@.314FAQ 3.3.@.326FAQ 3.3.@.334FAQ 3.2.@.355FAQ 3.2.@.356FAQ 3.2.@.363FAQ 3.1.@.368FAQ 3.1.@.376FAQ 2.2.@.400FAQ 2.2.@.409FAQ 2.1.@.419FAQ 2.1.@.428FAQ 1.3.@.460FAQ 1.3.@.468FAQ 1.2.@.476FAQ 1.2.@.486FAQ 1.1.@.540FAQ 1.1.@.549FAQ 12.3.@.552FAQ 12.2.@.553FAQ 12.1.@.554FAQ 11.3.@.555FAQ 11.2.@.556FAQ 11.1.@.557FAQ 10.2.@.558FAQ 10.1.@.559FAQ 9.3.@.560FAQ 9.2.@.561FAQ 9.1.@.562FAQ 8.3.@.563FAQ 8.2.@.564FAQ 8.1.@.565FAQ 7.3.@.566FAQ 7.2.@.567FAQ 7.1.@.568FAQ 6.2.@.569FAQ 6.1.@.570FAQ 5.4.@.571FAQ 5.3.@.572FAQ 5.2.@.573FAQ 5.1.@.574FAQ 4.3.@.575FAQ 4.2.@.576FAQ 4.1.@.577FAQ 3.3.@.578FAQ 3.2.@.579FAQ 3.1.@.580FAQ 2.2.@.581FAQ 2.1.@.582FAQ 1.3.@.583FAQ 1.2.@.584FAQ 1.1.@.585FAQ 7.1, Figure 1 | The Earth’s energy budget compares the flows of incoming and outgoing energy that are relevant for the climate system. Since at least the 1970s, less energy is flowing out than is flowing in, which leads to excess energy being absorbed by the ocean, land, ice and atmosphere, with the ocean absorbing 91%.

FAQ 7.1.bFAQ 7.1.kFAQ 6.2.aiFAQ 6.2.arFAQ 6.1.bmFAQ 6.1.bvFAQ 5.4.byFAQ 5.4.ctFAQ 5.3.cwFAQ 5.3.ewFAQ 5.2.ezFAQ 5.2.frFAQ 5.1.fuFAQ 5.1.hbFAQ 4.3.hlFAQ 4.3.huFAQ 4.2.@.276FAQ 4.2.@.284FAQ 4.1.@.308FAQ 4.1.@.315FAQ 3.3.@.327FAQ 3.3.@.335FAQ 3.2.@.356FAQ 3.2.@.357FAQ 3.2.@.364FAQ 3.1.@.369FAQ 3.1.@.377FAQ 2.2.@.401FAQ 2.2.@.410FAQ 2.1.@.420FAQ 2.1.@.429FAQ 1.3.@.461FAQ 1.3.@.469FAQ 1.2.@.477FAQ 1.2.@.487FAQ 1.1.@.541FAQ 1.1.@.550FAQ 12.3.@.553FAQ 12.2.@.554FAQ 12.1.@.555FAQ 11.3.@.556FAQ 11.2.@.557FAQ 11.1.@.558FAQ 10.2.@.559FAQ 10.1.@.560FAQ 9.3.@.561FAQ 9.2.@.562FAQ 9.1.@.563FAQ 8.3.@.564FAQ 8.2.@.565FAQ 8.1.@.566FAQ 7.3.@.567FAQ 7.2.@.568FAQ 7.1.@.569FAQ 6.2.@.570FAQ 6.1.@.571FAQ 5.4.@.572FAQ 5.3.@.573FAQ 5.2.@.574FAQ 5.1.@.575FAQ 4.3.@.576FAQ 4.2.@.577FAQ 4.1.@.578FAQ 3.3.@.579FAQ 3.2.@.580FAQ 3.1.@.581FAQ 2.2.@.582FAQ 2.1.@.583FAQ 1.3.@.584FAQ 1.2.@.585FAQ 1.1.@.586FAQ 7.1: The Earth’s energy budget and climate changeSince at least 1970, there has been a persistent imbalance in the energy flows that has led to excess energy being absorbed by different components of the climate system.

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FAQ 7.1.lFAQ 7.1.uFAQ 6.2.asFAQ 6.2.bbFAQ 6.1.bwFAQ 6.1.cfFAQ 5.4.ciFAQ 5.4.ddFAQ 5.3.dgFAQ 5.3.fgFAQ 5.2.fjFAQ 5.2.gbFAQ 5.1.geFAQ 5.1.hlFAQ 4.3.hvFAQ 4.3.ieFAQ 4.2.@.286FAQ 4.2.@.294FAQ 4.1.@.318FAQ 4.1.@.325FAQ 3.3.@.337FAQ 3.3.@.345FAQ 3.2.@.366FAQ 3.2.@.367FAQ 3.2.@.374FAQ 3.1.@.379FAQ 3.1.@.387FAQ 2.2.@.411FAQ 2.2.@.420FAQ 2.1.@.430FAQ 2.1.@.439FAQ 1.3.@.471FAQ 1.3.@.479FAQ 1.2.@.487FAQ 1.2.@.497FAQ 1.1.@.551FAQ 1.1.@.560FAQ 12.3.@.563FAQ 12.2.@.564FAQ 12.1.@.565FAQ 11.3.@.566FAQ 11.2.@.567FAQ 11.1.@.568FAQ 10.2.@.569FAQ 10.1.@.570FAQ 9.3.@.571FAQ 9.2.@.572FAQ 9.1.@.573FAQ 8.3.@.574FAQ 8.2.@.575FAQ 8.1.@.576FAQ 7.3.@.577FAQ 7.2.@.578FAQ 7.1.@.579FAQ 6.2.@.580FAQ 6.1.@.581FAQ 5.4.@.582FAQ 5.3.@.583FAQ 5.2.@.584FAQ 5.1.@.585FAQ 4.3.@.586FAQ 4.2.@.587FAQ 4.1.@.588FAQ 3.3.@.589FAQ 3.2.@.590FAQ 3.1.@.591FAQ 2.2.@.592FAQ 2.1.@.593FAQ 1.3.@.594FAQ 1.2.@.595FAQ 1.1.@.596Stable climate: in balanceToday: imbalanced

FAQ 7.1.mFAQ 7.1.vFAQ 6.2.atFAQ 6.2.bcFAQ 6.1.bxFAQ 6.1.cgFAQ 5.4.cjFAQ 5.4.deFAQ 5.3.dhFAQ 5.3.fhFAQ 5.2.fkFAQ 5.2.gcFAQ 5.1.gfFAQ 5.1.hmFAQ 4.3.hwFAQ 4.3.ifFAQ 4.2.@.287FAQ 4.2.@.295FAQ 4.1.@.319FAQ 4.1.@.326FAQ 3.3.@.338FAQ 3.3.@.346FAQ 3.2.@.367FAQ 3.2.@.368FAQ 3.2.@.375FAQ 3.1.@.380FAQ 3.1.@.388FAQ 2.2.@.412FAQ 2.2.@.421FAQ 2.1.@.431FAQ 2.1.@.440FAQ 1.3.@.472FAQ 1.3.@.480FAQ 1.2.@.488FAQ 1.2.@.498FAQ 1.1.@.552FAQ 1.1.@.561FAQ 12.3.@.564FAQ 12.2.@.565FAQ 12.1.@.566FAQ 11.3.@.567FAQ 11.2.@.568FAQ 11.1.@.569FAQ 10.2.@.570FAQ 10.1.@.571FAQ 9.3.@.572FAQ 9.2.@.573FAQ 9.1.@.574FAQ 8.3.@.575FAQ 8.2.@.576FAQ 8.1.@.577FAQ 7.3.@.578FAQ 7.2.@.579FAQ 7.1.@.580FAQ 6.2.@.581FAQ 6.1.@.582FAQ 5.4.@.583FAQ 5.3.@.584FAQ 5.2.@.585FAQ 5.1.@.586FAQ 4.3.@.587FAQ 4.2.@.588FAQ 4.1.@.589FAQ 3.3.@.590FAQ 3.2.@.591FAQ 3.1.@.592FAQ 2.2.@.593FAQ 2.1.@.594FAQ 1.3.@.595FAQ 1.2.@.596FAQ 1.1.@.597Atmosphere 1%

FAQ 7.1.nFAQ 7.1.wFAQ 6.2.auFAQ 6.2.bdFAQ 6.1.byFAQ 6.1.chFAQ 5.4.ckFAQ 5.4.dfFAQ 5.3.diFAQ 5.3.fiFAQ 5.2.flFAQ 5.2.gdFAQ 5.1.ggFAQ 5.1.hnFAQ 4.3.hxFAQ 4.3.igFAQ 4.2.@.288FAQ 4.2.@.296FAQ 4.1.@.320FAQ 4.1.@.327FAQ 3.3.@.339FAQ 3.3.@.347FAQ 3.2.@.368FAQ 3.2.@.369FAQ 3.2.@.376FAQ 3.1.@.381FAQ 3.1.@.389FAQ 2.2.@.413FAQ 2.2.@.422FAQ 2.1.@.432FAQ 2.1.@.441FAQ 1.3.@.473FAQ 1.3.@.481FAQ 1.2.@.489FAQ 1.2.@.499FAQ 1.1.@.553FAQ 1.1.@.562FAQ 12.3.@.565FAQ 12.2.@.566FAQ 12.1.@.567FAQ 11.3.@.568FAQ 11.2.@.569FAQ 11.1.@.570FAQ 10.2.@.571FAQ 10.1.@.572FAQ 9.3.@.573FAQ 9.2.@.574FAQ 9.1.@.575FAQ 8.3.@.576FAQ 8.2.@.577FAQ 8.1.@.578FAQ 7.3.@.579FAQ 7.2.@.580FAQ 7.1.@.581FAQ 6.2.@.582FAQ 6.1.@.583FAQ 5.4.@.584FAQ 5.3.@.585FAQ 5.2.@.586FAQ 5.1.@.587FAQ 4.3.@.588FAQ 4.2.@.589FAQ 4.1.@.590FAQ 3.3.@.591FAQ 3.2.@.592FAQ 3.1.@.593FAQ 2.2.@.594FAQ 2.1.@.595FAQ 1.3.@.596FAQ 1.2.@.597FAQ 1.1.@.5985%

FAQ 7.1.oFAQ 7.1.xFAQ 6.2.avFAQ 6.2.beFAQ 6.1.bzFAQ 6.1.ciFAQ 5.4.clFAQ 5.4.dgFAQ 5.3.djFAQ 5.3.fjFAQ 5.2.fmFAQ 5.2.geFAQ 5.1.ghFAQ 5.1.hoFAQ 4.3.hyFAQ 4.3.ihFAQ 4.2.@.289FAQ 4.2.@.297FAQ 4.1.@.321FAQ 4.1.@.328FAQ 3.3.@.340FAQ 3.3.@.348FAQ 3.2.@.369FAQ 3.2.@.370FAQ 3.2.@.377FAQ 3.1.@.382FAQ 3.1.@.390FAQ 2.2.@.414FAQ 2.2.@.423FAQ 2.1.@.433FAQ 2.1.@.442FAQ 1.3.@.474FAQ 1.3.@.482FAQ 1.2.@.490FAQ 1.2.@.500FAQ 1.1.@.554FAQ 1.1.@.563FAQ 12.3.@.566FAQ 12.2.@.567FAQ 12.1.@.568FAQ 11.3.@.569FAQ 11.2.@.570FAQ 11.1.@.571FAQ 10.2.@.572FAQ 10.1.@.573FAQ 9.3.@.574FAQ 9.2.@.575FAQ 9.1.@.576FAQ 8.3.@.577FAQ 8.2.@.578FAQ 8.1.@.579FAQ 7.3.@.580FAQ 7.2.@.581FAQ 7.1.@.582FAQ 6.2.@.583FAQ 6.1.@.584FAQ 5.4.@.585FAQ 5.3.@.586FAQ 5.2.@.587FAQ 5.1.@.588FAQ 4.3.@.589FAQ 4.2.@.590FAQ 4.1.@.591FAQ 3.3.@.592FAQ 3.2.@.593FAQ 3.1.@.594FAQ 2.2.@.595FAQ 2.1.@.596FAQ 1.3.@.597FAQ 1.2.@.598FAQ 1.1.@.599FAQ

FAQ 7.1.pFAQ 7.1.yFAQ 6.2.awFAQ 6.2.bfFAQ 6.1.caFAQ 6.1.cjFAQ 5.4.cmFAQ 5.4.dhFAQ 5.3.dkFAQ 5.3.fkFAQ 5.2.fnFAQ 5.2.gfFAQ 5.1.giFAQ 5.1.hpFAQ 4.3.hzFAQ 4.3.iiFAQ 4.2.@.290FAQ 4.2.@.298FAQ 4.1.@.322FAQ 4.1.@.329FAQ 3.3.@.341FAQ 3.3.@.349FAQ 3.2.@.370FAQ 3.2.@.371FAQ 3.2.@.378FAQ 3.1.@.383FAQ 3.1.@.391FAQ 2.2.@.415FAQ 2.2.@.424FAQ 2.1.@.434FAQ 2.1.@.443FAQ 1.3.@.475FAQ 1.3.@.483FAQ 1.2.@.491FAQ 1.2.@.501FAQ 1.1.@.555FAQ 1.1.@.564FAQ 12.3.@.567FAQ 12.2.@.568FAQ 12.1.@.569FAQ 11.3.@.570FAQ 11.2.@.571FAQ 11.1.@.572FAQ 10.2.@.573FAQ 10.1.@.574FAQ 9.3.@.575FAQ 9.2.@.576FAQ 9.1.@.577FAQ 8.3.@.578FAQ 8.2.@.579FAQ 8.1.@.580FAQ 7.3.@.581FAQ 7.2.@.582FAQ 7.1.@.583FAQ 6.2.@.584FAQ 6.1.@.585FAQ 5.4.@.586FAQ 5.3.@.587FAQ 5.2.@.588FAQ 5.1.@.589FAQ 4.3.@.590FAQ 4.2.@.591FAQ 4.1.@.592FAQ 3.3.@.593FAQ 3.2.@.594FAQ 3.1.@.595FAQ 2.2.@.596FAQ 2.1.@.597FAQ 1.3.@.598FAQ 1.2.@.599FAQ 1.1.@.600Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 7.1.qFAQ 7.1.zFAQ 6.2.axFAQ 6.2.bgFAQ 6.1.cbFAQ 6.1.ckFAQ 5.4.cnFAQ 5.4.diFAQ 5.3.dlFAQ 5.3.flFAQ 5.2.foFAQ 5.2.ggFAQ 5.1.gjFAQ 5.1.hqFAQ 4.3.iaFAQ 4.3.ijFAQ 4.2.@.291FAQ 4.2.@.299FAQ 4.1.@.323FAQ 4.1.@.330FAQ 3.3.@.342FAQ 3.3.@.350FAQ 3.2.@.371FAQ 3.2.@.372FAQ 3.2.@.379FAQ 3.1.@.384FAQ 3.1.@.392FAQ 2.2.@.416FAQ 2.2.@.425FAQ 2.1.@.435FAQ 2.1.@.444FAQ 1.3.@.476FAQ 1.3.@.484FAQ 1.2.@.492FAQ 1.2.@.502FAQ 1.1.@.556FAQ 1.1.@.565FAQ 12.3.@.568FAQ 12.2.@.569FAQ 12.1.@.570FAQ 11.3.@.571FAQ 11.2.@.572FAQ 11.1.@.573FAQ 10.2.@.574FAQ 10.1.@.575FAQ 9.3.@.576FAQ 9.2.@.577FAQ 9.1.@.578FAQ 8.3.@.579FAQ 8.2.@.580FAQ 8.1.@.581FAQ 7.3.@.582FAQ 7.2.@.583FAQ 7.1.@.584FAQ 6.2.@.585FAQ 6.1.@.586FAQ 5.4.@.587FAQ 5.3.@.588FAQ 5.2.@.589FAQ 5.1.@.590FAQ 4.3.@.591FAQ 4.2.@.592FAQ 4.1.@.593FAQ 3.3.@.594FAQ 3.2.@.595FAQ 3.1.@.596FAQ 2.2.@.597FAQ 2.1.@.598FAQ 1.3.@.599FAQ 1.2.@.600FAQ 1.1.@.601FAQ 7.2 | What Is the Role of Clouds in a Warming Climate?

FAQ 7.2.aFAQ 7.1.rFAQ 7.1.aaFAQ 6.2.ayFAQ 6.2.bhFAQ 6.1.ccFAQ 6.1.clFAQ 5.4.coFAQ 5.4.djFAQ 5.3.dmFAQ 5.3.fmFAQ 5.2.fpFAQ 5.2.ghFAQ 5.1.gkFAQ 5.1.hrFAQ 4.3.ibFAQ 4.3.ikFAQ 4.2.@.292FAQ 4.2.@.300FAQ 4.1.@.324FAQ 4.1.@.331FAQ 3.3.@.343FAQ 3.3.@.351FAQ 3.2.@.372FAQ 3.2.@.373FAQ 3.2.@.380FAQ 3.1.@.385FAQ 3.1.@.393FAQ 2.2.@.417FAQ 2.2.@.426FAQ 2.1.@.436FAQ 2.1.@.445FAQ 1.3.@.477FAQ 1.3.@.485FAQ 1.2.@.493FAQ 1.2.@.503FAQ 1.1.@.557FAQ 1.1.@.566FAQ 12.3.@.569FAQ 12.2.@.570FAQ 12.1.@.571FAQ 11.3.@.572FAQ 11.2.@.573FAQ 11.1.@.574FAQ 10.2.@.575FAQ 10.1.@.576FAQ 9.3.@.577FAQ 9.2.@.578FAQ 9.1.@.579FAQ 8.3.@.580FAQ 8.2.@.581FAQ 8.1.@.582FAQ 7.3.@.583FAQ 7.2.@.584FAQ 7.1.@.585FAQ 6.2.@.586FAQ 6.1.@.587FAQ 5.4.@.588FAQ 5.3.@.589FAQ 5.2.@.590FAQ 5.1.@.591FAQ 4.3.@.592FAQ 4.2.@.593FAQ 4.1.@.594FAQ 3.3.@.595FAQ 3.2.@.596FAQ 3.1.@.597FAQ 2.2.@.598FAQ 2.1.@.599FAQ 1.3.@.600FAQ 1.2.@.601FAQ 1.1.@.602One of the biggest challenges in climate science has been to predict how clouds will change in a warming world and whether those changes will amplify or partially offset the warming caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases and other human activities. Scientists have made significant progress over the past decade and are now more confident that changes in clouds will amplify, rather than offset, global warming in the future.

FAQ 7.2.bFAQ 7.1.sFAQ 7.1.abFAQ 6.2.azFAQ 6.2.biFAQ 6.1.cdFAQ 6.1.cmFAQ 5.4.cpFAQ 5.4.dkFAQ 5.3.dnFAQ 5.3.fnFAQ 5.2.fqFAQ 5.2.giFAQ 5.1.glFAQ 5.1.hsFAQ 4.3.icFAQ 4.3.ilFAQ 4.2.@.293FAQ 4.2.@.301FAQ 4.1.@.325FAQ 4.1.@.332FAQ 3.3.@.344FAQ 3.3.@.352FAQ 3.2.@.373FAQ 3.2.@.374FAQ 3.2.@.381FAQ 3.1.@.386FAQ 3.1.@.394FAQ 2.2.@.418FAQ 2.2.@.427FAQ 2.1.@.437FAQ 2.1.@.446FAQ 1.3.@.478FAQ 1.3.@.486FAQ 1.2.@.494FAQ 1.2.@.504FAQ 1.1.@.558FAQ 1.1.@.567FAQ 12.3.@.570FAQ 12.2.@.571FAQ 12.1.@.572FAQ 11.3.@.573FAQ 11.2.@.574FAQ 11.1.@.575FAQ 10.2.@.576FAQ 10.1.@.577FAQ 9.3.@.578FAQ 9.2.@.579FAQ 9.1.@.580FAQ 8.3.@.581FAQ 8.2.@.582FAQ 8.1.@.583FAQ 7.3.@.584FAQ 7.2.@.585FAQ 7.1.@.586FAQ 6.2.@.587FAQ 6.1.@.588FAQ 5.4.@.589FAQ 5.3.@.590FAQ 5.2.@.591FAQ 5.1.@.592FAQ 4.3.@.593FAQ 4.2.@.594FAQ 4.1.@.595FAQ 3.3.@.596FAQ 3.2.@.597FAQ 3.1.@.598FAQ 2.2.@.599FAQ 2.1.@.600FAQ 1.3.@.601FAQ 1.2.@.602FAQ 1.1.@.603Clouds cover roughly two-thirds of the Earth’s surface. They consist of small droplets and/or ice crystals, which form when water vapour condenses or deposits around tiny particles called aerosols (such as salt, dust, or smoke). Clouds play a critical role in the Earth’s energy budget at the top of our atmosphere and therefore influence Earth’s surface temperature (see FAQ 7.1). The interactions between clouds and the climate are complex and varied. Clouds at low altitudes tend to reflect incoming solar energy back to space, creating a cooling effect by preventing this energy from reaching and warming the Earth. On the other hand, higher clouds tend to trap (i.e., absorb and then emit at a lower temperature) some of the energy leaving the Earth, leading to a warming effect. On average, clouds reflect back more incoming energy than the amount of outgoing energy they trap, resulting in an overall net cooling effect on the present climate. Human activities since the pre-industrial era have altered this climate effect of clouds in two different ways: by changing the abundance of the aerosol particles in the atmosphere and by warming the Earth’s surface, primarily as a result of increases in greenhouse gas emissions.

FAQ 7.2.cFAQ 7.1.tFAQ 7.1.acFAQ 6.2.baFAQ 6.2.bjFAQ 6.1.ceFAQ 6.1.cnFAQ 5.4.cqFAQ 5.4.dlFAQ 5.3.doFAQ 5.3.foFAQ 5.2.frFAQ 5.2.gjFAQ 5.1.gmFAQ 5.1.htFAQ 4.3.idFAQ 4.3.imFAQ 4.2.@.294FAQ 4.2.@.302FAQ 4.1.@.326FAQ 4.1.@.333FAQ 3.3.@.345FAQ 3.3.@.353FAQ 3.2.@.374FAQ 3.2.@.375FAQ 3.2.@.382FAQ 3.1.@.387FAQ 3.1.@.395FAQ 2.2.@.419FAQ 2.2.@.428FAQ 2.1.@.438FAQ 2.1.@.447FAQ 1.3.@.479FAQ 1.3.@.487FAQ 1.2.@.495FAQ 1.2.@.505FAQ 1.1.@.559FAQ 1.1.@.568FAQ 12.3.@.571FAQ 12.2.@.572FAQ 12.1.@.573FAQ 11.3.@.574FAQ 11.2.@.575FAQ 11.1.@.576FAQ 10.2.@.577FAQ 10.1.@.578FAQ 9.3.@.579FAQ 9.2.@.580FAQ 9.1.@.581FAQ 8.3.@.582FAQ 8.2.@.583FAQ 8.1.@.584FAQ 7.3.@.585FAQ 7.2.@.586FAQ 7.1.@.587FAQ 6.2.@.588FAQ 6.1.@.589FAQ 5.4.@.590FAQ 5.3.@.591FAQ 5.2.@.592FAQ 5.1.@.593FAQ 4.3.@.594FAQ 4.2.@.595FAQ 4.1.@.596FAQ 3.3.@.597FAQ 3.2.@.598FAQ 3.1.@.599FAQ 2.2.@.600FAQ 2.1.@.601FAQ 1.3.@.602FAQ 1.2.@.603FAQ 1.1.@.604The concentration of aerosols in the atmosphere has markedly increased since the pre-industrial era, and this has had two important effects on clouds. First, clouds now reflect more incoming energy because cloud droplets have become more numerous and smaller. Second, smaller droplets may delay rain formation, thereby making the clouds last longer, although this effect remains uncertain. Hence, aerosols released by human activities have had a cooling effect, counteracting a considerable portion of the warming caused by increases in greenhouse gases over the last century (see FAQ 3.1). Nevertheless, this cooling effect is expected to diminish in the future, as air pollution policies progress worldwide, reducing the amount of aerosols released into the atmosphere.

FAQ 7.2.dFAQ 7.1.uFAQ 7.1.adFAQ 6.2.bbFAQ 6.2.bkFAQ 6.1.cfFAQ 6.1.coFAQ 5.4.crFAQ 5.4.dmFAQ 5.3.dpFAQ 5.3.fpFAQ 5.2.fsFAQ 5.2.gkFAQ 5.1.gnFAQ 5.1.huFAQ 4.3.ieFAQ 4.3.inFAQ 4.2.@.295FAQ 4.2.@.303FAQ 4.1.@.327FAQ 4.1.@.334FAQ 3.3.@.346FAQ 3.3.@.354FAQ 3.2.@.375FAQ 3.2.@.376FAQ 3.2.@.383FAQ 3.1.@.388FAQ 3.1.@.396FAQ 2.2.@.420FAQ 2.2.@.429FAQ 2.1.@.439FAQ 2.1.@.448FAQ 1.3.@.480FAQ 1.3.@.488FAQ 1.2.@.496FAQ 1.2.@.506FAQ 1.1.@.560FAQ 1.1.@.569FAQ 12.3.@.572FAQ 12.2.@.573FAQ 12.1.@.574FAQ 11.3.@.575FAQ 11.2.@.576FAQ 11.1.@.577FAQ 10.2.@.578FAQ 10.1.@.579FAQ 9.3.@.580FAQ 9.2.@.581FAQ 9.1.@.582FAQ 8.3.@.583FAQ 8.2.@.584FAQ 8.1.@.585FAQ 7.3.@.586FAQ 7.2.@.587FAQ 7.1.@.588FAQ 6.2.@.589FAQ 6.1.@.590FAQ 5.4.@.591FAQ 5.3.@.592FAQ 5.2.@.593FAQ 5.1.@.594FAQ 4.3.@.595FAQ 4.2.@.596FAQ 4.1.@.597FAQ 3.3.@.598FAQ 3.2.@.599FAQ 3.1.@.600FAQ 2.2.@.601FAQ 2.1.@.602FAQ 1.3.@.603FAQ 1.2.@.604FAQ 1.1.@.605Since the pre-industrial period, the Earth’s surface and atmosphere have warmed, altering the properties of clouds, such as their altitude, amount and composition (water or ice), thereby affecting the Earth’s energy budget and, in turn, changing temperature. This cascading effect of clouds, known as the cloud feedback, could either amplify or offset some of the future warming and has long been the biggest source of uncertainty in climate projections. The problem stems from the fact that clouds can change in many ways and that their processes occur on much smaller scales than global climate models can explicitly represent. As a result, global climate models have disagreed on how clouds, particularly over the subtropical ocean, will change in the future and whether the change will amplify or suppress the global warming.

FAQ 7.2.eFAQ 7.1.vFAQ 7.1.aeFAQ 6.2.bcFAQ 6.2.blFAQ 6.1.cgFAQ 6.1.cpFAQ 5.4.csFAQ 5.4.dnFAQ 5.3.dqFAQ 5.3.fqFAQ 5.2.ftFAQ 5.2.glFAQ 5.1.goFAQ 5.1.hvFAQ 4.3.ifFAQ 4.3.ioFAQ 4.2.@.296FAQ 4.2.@.304FAQ 4.1.@.328FAQ 4.1.@.335FAQ 3.3.@.347FAQ 3.3.@.355FAQ 3.2.@.376FAQ 3.2.@.377FAQ 3.2.@.384FAQ 3.1.@.389FAQ 3.1.@.397FAQ 2.2.@.421FAQ 2.2.@.430FAQ 2.1.@.440FAQ 2.1.@.449FAQ 1.3.@.481FAQ 1.3.@.489FAQ 1.2.@.497FAQ 1.2.@.507FAQ 1.1.@.561FAQ 1.1.@.570FAQ 12.3.@.573FAQ 12.2.@.574FAQ 12.1.@.575FAQ 11.3.@.576FAQ 11.2.@.577FAQ 11.1.@.578FAQ 10.2.@.579FAQ 10.1.@.580FAQ 9.3.@.581FAQ 9.2.@.582FAQ 9.1.@.583FAQ 8.3.@.584FAQ 8.2.@.585FAQ 8.1.@.586FAQ 7.3.@.587FAQ 7.2.@.588FAQ 7.1.@.589FAQ 6.2.@.590FAQ 6.1.@.591FAQ 5.4.@.592FAQ 5.3.@.593FAQ 5.2.@.594FAQ 5.1.@.595FAQ 4.3.@.596FAQ 4.2.@.597FAQ 4.1.@.598FAQ 3.3.@.599FAQ 3.2.@.600FAQ 3.1.@.601FAQ 2.2.@.602FAQ 2.1.@.603FAQ 1.3.@.604FAQ 1.2.@.605FAQ 1.1.@.606Since the last IPCC Report in 2013 (the Fifth Assessment Report, or AR5), understanding of cloud processes has advanced with better observations, new analysis approaches and explicit high-resolution numerical simulation of clouds. Also, current global climate models simulate cloud behaviour better than previous models, due both to advances in computational capabilities and process understanding. Altogether, this has helped to build a more complete picture of how clouds will change as the climate warms (FAQ 7.2, Figure 1). For example, the amount of low-clouds will reduce over the subtropical ocean, leading to less reflection of incoming solar energy, and the altitude of high-clouds will rise, making them more prone to trapping outgoing energy; both processes have a warming effect. In contrast, clouds in high latitudes will be increasingly made of water droplets rather than ice crystals. This shift from fewer, larger ice crystals to smaller but more numerous water droplets will result in more of the incoming solar energy being reflected back to space and produce a cooling effect. Better understanding of how clouds respond to warming has led to more confidence than before that future changes in clouds will, overall, cause additional warming (i.e., by weakening the current cooling effect of clouds). This is called a positive net cloud feedback.

FAQ 7.2.fFAQ 7.1.wFAQ 7.1.afFAQ 6.2.bdFAQ 6.2.bmFAQ 6.1.chFAQ 6.1.cqFAQ 5.4.ctFAQ 5.4.doFAQ 5.3.drFAQ 5.3.frFAQ 5.2.fuFAQ 5.2.gmFAQ 5.1.gpFAQ 5.1.hwFAQ 4.3.igFAQ 4.3.ipFAQ 4.2.@.297FAQ 4.2.@.305FAQ 4.1.@.329FAQ 4.1.@.336FAQ 3.3.@.348FAQ 3.3.@.356FAQ 3.2.@.377FAQ 3.2.@.378FAQ 3.2.@.385FAQ 3.1.@.390FAQ 3.1.@.398FAQ 2.2.@.422FAQ 2.2.@.431FAQ 2.1.@.441FAQ 2.1.@.450FAQ 1.3.@.482FAQ 1.3.@.490FAQ 1.2.@.498FAQ 1.2.@.508FAQ 1.1.@.562FAQ 1.1.@.571FAQ 12.3.@.574FAQ 12.2.@.575FAQ 12.1.@.576FAQ 11.3.@.577FAQ 11.2.@.578FAQ 11.1.@.579FAQ 10.2.@.580FAQ 10.1.@.581FAQ 9.3.@.582FAQ 9.2.@.583FAQ 9.1.@.584FAQ 8.3.@.585FAQ 8.2.@.586FAQ 8.1.@.587FAQ 7.3.@.588FAQ 7.2.@.589FAQ 7.1.@.590FAQ 6.2.@.591FAQ 6.1.@.592FAQ 5.4.@.593FAQ 5.3.@.594FAQ 5.2.@.595FAQ 5.1.@.596FAQ 4.3.@.597FAQ 4.2.@.598FAQ 4.1.@.599FAQ 3.3.@.600FAQ 3.2.@.601FAQ 3.1.@.602FAQ 2.2.@.603FAQ 2.1.@.604FAQ 1.3.@.605FAQ 1.2.@.606FAQ 1.1.@.607In summary, clouds will amplify rather than suppress the warming of the climate system in the future, as more greenhouse gases and fewer aerosols are released to the atmosphere by human activities.

FAQ 7.2.gFAQ 7.1.xFAQ 7.1.agFAQ 6.2.beFAQ 6.2.bnFAQ 6.1.ciFAQ 6.1.crFAQ 5.4.cuFAQ 5.4.dpFAQ 5.3.dsFAQ 5.3.fsFAQ 5.2.fvFAQ 5.2.gnFAQ 5.1.gqFAQ 5.1.hxFAQ 4.3.ihFAQ 4.3.iqFAQ 4.2.@.298FAQ 4.2.@.306FAQ 4.1.@.330FAQ 4.1.@.337FAQ 3.3.@.349FAQ 3.3.@.357FAQ 3.2.@.378FAQ 3.2.@.379FAQ 3.2.@.386FAQ 3.1.@.391FAQ 3.1.@.399FAQ 2.2.@.423FAQ 2.2.@.432FAQ 2.1.@.442FAQ 2.1.@.451FAQ 1.3.@.483FAQ 1.3.@.491FAQ 1.2.@.499FAQ 1.2.@.509FAQ 1.1.@.563FAQ 1.1.@.572FAQ 12.3.@.575FAQ 12.2.@.576FAQ 12.1.@.577FAQ 11.3.@.578FAQ 11.2.@.579FAQ 11.1.@.580FAQ 10.2.@.581FAQ 10.1.@.582FAQ 9.3.@.583FAQ 9.2.@.584FAQ 9.1.@.585FAQ 8.3.@.586FAQ 8.2.@.587FAQ 8.1.@.588FAQ 7.3.@.589FAQ 7.2.@.590FAQ 7.1.@.591FAQ 6.2.@.592FAQ 6.1.@.593FAQ 5.4.@.594FAQ 5.3.@.595FAQ 5.2.@.596FAQ 5.1.@.597FAQ 4.3.@.598FAQ 4.2.@.599FAQ 4.1.@.600FAQ 3.3.@.601FAQ 3.2.@.602FAQ 3.1.@.603FAQ 2.2.@.604FAQ 2.1.@.605FAQ 1.3.@.606FAQ 1.2.@.607FAQ 1.1.@.608FAQ

FAQ 7.2.hFAQ 7.1.yFAQ 7.1.ahFAQ 6.2.bfFAQ 6.2.boFAQ 6.1.cjFAQ 6.1.csFAQ 5.4.cvFAQ 5.4.dqFAQ 5.3.dtFAQ 5.3.ftFAQ 5.2.fwFAQ 5.2.goFAQ 5.1.grFAQ 5.1.hyFAQ 4.3.iiFAQ 4.3.irFAQ 4.2.@.299FAQ 4.2.@.307FAQ 4.1.@.331FAQ 4.1.@.338FAQ 3.3.@.350FAQ 3.3.@.358FAQ 3.2.@.379FAQ 3.2.@.380FAQ 3.2.@.387FAQ 3.1.@.392FAQ 3.1.@.400FAQ 2.2.@.424FAQ 2.2.@.433FAQ 2.1.@.443FAQ 2.1.@.452FAQ 1.3.@.484FAQ 1.3.@.492FAQ 1.2.@.500FAQ 1.2.@.510FAQ 1.1.@.564FAQ 1.1.@.573FAQ 12.3.@.576FAQ 12.2.@.577FAQ 12.1.@.578FAQ 11.3.@.579FAQ 11.2.@.580FAQ 11.1.@.581FAQ 10.2.@.582FAQ 10.1.@.583FAQ 9.3.@.584FAQ 9.2.@.585FAQ 9.1.@.586FAQ 8.3.@.587FAQ 8.2.@.588FAQ 8.1.@.589FAQ 7.3.@.590FAQ 7.2.@.591FAQ 7.1.@.592FAQ 6.2.@.593FAQ 6.1.@.594FAQ 5.4.@.595FAQ 5.3.@.596FAQ 5.2.@.597FAQ 5.1.@.598FAQ 4.3.@.599FAQ 4.2.@.600FAQ 4.1.@.601FAQ 3.3.@.602FAQ 3.2.@.603FAQ 3.1.@.604FAQ 2.2.@.605FAQ 2.1.@.606FAQ 1.3.@.607FAQ 1.2.@.608FAQ 1.1.@.609FAQ 7.2 (continued)

FAQ 7.2.aFAQ 7.2.iFAQ 7.1.zFAQ 7.1.aiFAQ 6.2.bgFAQ 6.2.bpFAQ 6.1.ckFAQ 6.1.ctFAQ 5.4.cwFAQ 5.4.drFAQ 5.3.duFAQ 5.3.fuFAQ 5.2.fxFAQ 5.2.gpFAQ 5.1.gsFAQ 5.1.hzFAQ 4.3.ijFAQ 4.3.isFAQ 4.2.@.300FAQ 4.2.@.308FAQ 4.1.@.332FAQ 4.1.@.339FAQ 3.3.@.351FAQ 3.3.@.359FAQ 3.2.@.380FAQ 3.2.@.381FAQ 3.2.@.388FAQ 3.1.@.393FAQ 3.1.@.401FAQ 2.2.@.425FAQ 2.2.@.434FAQ 2.1.@.444FAQ 2.1.@.453FAQ 1.3.@.485FAQ 1.3.@.493FAQ 1.2.@.501FAQ 1.2.@.511FAQ 1.1.@.565FAQ 1.1.@.574FAQ 12.3.@.577FAQ 12.2.@.578FAQ 12.1.@.579FAQ 11.3.@.580FAQ 11.2.@.581FAQ 11.1.@.582FAQ 10.2.@.583FAQ 10.1.@.584FAQ 9.3.@.585FAQ 9.2.@.586FAQ 9.1.@.587FAQ 8.3.@.588FAQ 8.2.@.589FAQ 8.1.@.590FAQ 7.3.@.591FAQ 7.2.@.592FAQ 7.1.@.593FAQ 6.2.@.594FAQ 6.1.@.595FAQ 5.4.@.596FAQ 5.3.@.597FAQ 5.2.@.598FAQ 5.1.@.599FAQ 4.3.@.600FAQ 4.2.@.601FAQ 4.1.@.602FAQ 3.3.@.603FAQ 3.2.@.604FAQ 3.1.@.605FAQ 2.2.@.606FAQ 2.1.@.607FAQ 1.3.@.608FAQ 1.2.@.609FAQ 1.1.@.610FAQ 7.2, Figure 1 | Interactions between clouds and the climate, today and in a warmer future. Global warming is expected to alter the altitude (left) and the amount (centre) of clouds, which will amplify warming. On the other hand, cloud composition will change (right), offsetting some of the warming. Overall, clouds are expected to amplify future warming.

FAQ 7.2.bFAQ 7.2.jFAQ 7.1.aaFAQ 7.1.ajFAQ 6.2.bhFAQ 6.2.bqFAQ 6.1.clFAQ 6.1.cuFAQ 5.4.cxFAQ 5.4.dsFAQ 5.3.dvFAQ 5.3.fvFAQ 5.2.fyFAQ 5.2.gqFAQ 5.1.gtFAQ 5.1.iaFAQ 4.3.ikFAQ 4.3.itFAQ 4.2.@.301FAQ 4.2.@.309FAQ 4.1.@.333FAQ 4.1.@.340FAQ 3.3.@.352FAQ 3.3.@.360FAQ 3.2.@.381FAQ 3.2.@.382FAQ 3.2.@.389FAQ 3.1.@.394FAQ 3.1.@.402FAQ 2.2.@.426FAQ 2.2.@.435FAQ 2.1.@.445FAQ 2.1.@.454FAQ 1.3.@.486FAQ 1.3.@.494FAQ 1.2.@.502FAQ 1.2.@.512FAQ 1.1.@.566FAQ 1.1.@.575FAQ 12.3.@.578FAQ 12.2.@.579FAQ 12.1.@.580FAQ 11.3.@.581FAQ 11.2.@.582FAQ 11.1.@.583FAQ 10.2.@.584FAQ 10.1.@.585FAQ 9.3.@.586FAQ 9.2.@.587FAQ 9.1.@.588FAQ 8.3.@.589FAQ 8.2.@.590FAQ 8.1.@.591FAQ 7.3.@.592FAQ 7.2.@.593FAQ 7.1.@.594FAQ 6.2.@.595FAQ 6.1.@.596FAQ 5.4.@.597FAQ 5.3.@.598FAQ 5.2.@.599FAQ 5.1.@.600FAQ 4.3.@.601FAQ 4.2.@.602FAQ 4.1.@.603FAQ 3.3.@.604FAQ 3.2.@.605FAQ 3.1.@.606FAQ 2.2.@.607FAQ 2.1.@.608FAQ 1.3.@.609FAQ 1.2.@.610FAQ 1.1.@.611Altitude (Warming)Amount (Warming)Composition (Cooling)

FAQ 7.2.cFAQ 7.2.kFAQ 7.1.abFAQ 7.1.akFAQ 6.2.biFAQ 6.2.brFAQ 6.1.cmFAQ 6.1.cvFAQ 5.4.cyFAQ 5.4.dtFAQ 5.3.dwFAQ 5.3.fwFAQ 5.2.fzFAQ 5.2.grFAQ 5.1.guFAQ 5.1.ibFAQ 4.3.ilFAQ 4.3.iuFAQ 4.2.@.302FAQ 4.2.@.310FAQ 4.1.@.334FAQ 4.1.@.341FAQ 3.3.@.353FAQ 3.3.@.361FAQ 3.2.@.382FAQ 3.2.@.383FAQ 3.2.@.390FAQ 3.1.@.395FAQ 3.1.@.403FAQ 2.2.@.427FAQ 2.2.@.436FAQ 2.1.@.446FAQ 2.1.@.455FAQ 1.3.@.487FAQ 1.3.@.495FAQ 1.2.@.503FAQ 1.2.@.513FAQ 1.1.@.567FAQ 1.1.@.576FAQ 12.3.@.579FAQ 12.2.@.580FAQ 12.1.@.581FAQ 11.3.@.582FAQ 11.2.@.583FAQ 11.1.@.584FAQ 10.2.@.585FAQ 10.1.@.586FAQ 9.3.@.587FAQ 9.2.@.588FAQ 9.1.@.589FAQ 8.3.@.590FAQ 8.2.@.591FAQ 8.1.@.592FAQ 7.3.@.593FAQ 7.2.@.594FAQ 7.1.@.595FAQ 6.2.@.596FAQ 6.1.@.597FAQ 5.4.@.598FAQ 5.3.@.599FAQ 5.2.@.600FAQ 5.1.@.601FAQ 4.3.@.602FAQ 4.2.@.603FAQ 4.1.@.604FAQ 3.3.@.605FAQ 3.2.@.606FAQ 3.1.@.607FAQ 2.2.@.608FAQ 2.1.@.609FAQ 1.3.@.610FAQ 1.2.@.611FAQ 1.1.@.612Fewer (low level) cloudsHigher cloudsMore water droplets

FAQ 7.2.dFAQ 7.2.lFAQ 7.1.acFAQ 7.1.alFAQ 6.2.bjFAQ 6.2.bsFAQ 6.1.cnFAQ 6.1.cwFAQ 5.4.czFAQ 5.4.duFAQ 5.3.dxFAQ 5.3.fxFAQ 5.2.gaFAQ 5.2.gsFAQ 5.1.gvFAQ 5.1.icFAQ 4.3.imFAQ 4.3.ivFAQ 4.2.@.303FAQ 4.2.@.311FAQ 4.1.@.335FAQ 4.1.@.342FAQ 3.3.@.354FAQ 3.3.@.362FAQ 3.2.@.383FAQ 3.2.@.384FAQ 3.2.@.391FAQ 3.1.@.396FAQ 3.1.@.404FAQ 2.2.@.428FAQ 2.2.@.437FAQ 2.1.@.447FAQ 2.1.@.456FAQ 1.3.@.488FAQ 1.3.@.496FAQ 1.2.@.504FAQ 1.2.@.514FAQ 1.1.@.568FAQ 1.1.@.577FAQ 12.3.@.580FAQ 12.2.@.581FAQ 12.1.@.582FAQ 11.3.@.583FAQ 11.2.@.584FAQ 11.1.@.585FAQ 10.2.@.586FAQ 10.1.@.587FAQ 9.3.@.588FAQ 9.2.@.589FAQ 9.1.@.590FAQ 8.3.@.591FAQ 8.2.@.592FAQ 8.1.@.593FAQ 7.3.@.594FAQ 7.2.@.595FAQ 7.1.@.596FAQ 6.2.@.597FAQ 6.1.@.598FAQ 5.4.@.599FAQ 5.3.@.600FAQ 5.2.@.601FAQ 5.1.@.602FAQ 4.3.@.603FAQ 4.2.@.604FAQ 4.1.@.605FAQ 3.3.@.606FAQ 3.2.@.607FAQ 3.1.@.608FAQ 2.2.@.609FAQ 2.1.@.610FAQ 1.3.@.611FAQ 1.2.@.612FAQ 1.1.@.613Incoming solar energy

FAQ 7.2.eFAQ 7.2.mFAQ 7.1.adFAQ 7.1.amFAQ 6.2.bkFAQ 6.2.btFAQ 6.1.coFAQ 6.1.cxFAQ 5.4.daFAQ 5.4.dvFAQ 5.3.dyFAQ 5.3.fyFAQ 5.2.gbFAQ 5.2.gtFAQ 5.1.gwFAQ 5.1.idFAQ 4.3.inFAQ 4.3.@.256FAQ 4.2.@.304FAQ 4.2.@.312FAQ 4.1.@.336FAQ 4.1.@.343FAQ 3.3.@.355FAQ 3.3.@.363FAQ 3.2.@.384FAQ 3.2.@.385FAQ 3.2.@.392FAQ 3.1.@.397FAQ 3.1.@.405FAQ 2.2.@.429FAQ 2.2.@.438FAQ 2.1.@.448FAQ 2.1.@.457FAQ 1.3.@.489FAQ 1.3.@.497FAQ 1.2.@.505FAQ 1.2.@.515FAQ 1.1.@.569FAQ 1.1.@.578FAQ 12.3.@.581FAQ 12.2.@.582FAQ 12.1.@.583FAQ 11.3.@.584FAQ 11.2.@.585FAQ 11.1.@.586FAQ 10.2.@.587FAQ 10.1.@.588FAQ 9.3.@.589FAQ 9.2.@.590FAQ 9.1.@.591FAQ 8.3.@.592FAQ 8.2.@.593FAQ 8.1.@.594FAQ 7.3.@.595FAQ 7.2.@.596FAQ 7.1.@.597FAQ 6.2.@.598FAQ 6.1.@.599FAQ 5.4.@.600FAQ 5.3.@.601FAQ 5.2.@.602FAQ 5.1.@.603FAQ 4.3.@.604FAQ 4.2.@.605FAQ 4.1.@.606FAQ 3.3.@.607FAQ 3.2.@.608FAQ 3.1.@.609FAQ 2.2.@.610FAQ 2.1.@.611FAQ 1.3.@.612FAQ 1.2.@.613FAQ 1.1.@.614Incoming solar energy

FAQ 7.2.fFAQ 7.2.nFAQ 7.1.aeFAQ 7.1.anFAQ 6.2.blFAQ 6.2.buFAQ 6.1.cpFAQ 6.1.cyFAQ 5.4.dbFAQ 5.4.dwFAQ 5.3.dzFAQ 5.3.fzFAQ 5.2.gcFAQ 5.2.guFAQ 5.1.gxFAQ 5.1.ieFAQ 4.3.ioFAQ 4.3.@.257FAQ 4.2.@.305FAQ 4.2.@.313FAQ 4.1.@.337FAQ 4.1.@.344FAQ 3.3.@.356FAQ 3.3.@.364FAQ 3.2.@.385FAQ 3.2.@.386FAQ 3.2.@.393FAQ 3.1.@.398FAQ 3.1.@.406FAQ 2.2.@.430FAQ 2.2.@.439FAQ 2.1.@.449FAQ 2.1.@.458FAQ 1.3.@.490FAQ 1.3.@.498FAQ 1.2.@.506FAQ 1.2.@.516FAQ 1.1.@.570FAQ 1.1.@.579FAQ 12.3.@.582FAQ 12.2.@.583FAQ 12.1.@.584FAQ 11.3.@.585FAQ 11.2.@.586FAQ 11.1.@.587FAQ 10.2.@.588FAQ 10.1.@.589FAQ 9.3.@.590FAQ 9.2.@.591FAQ 9.1.@.592FAQ 8.3.@.593FAQ 8.2.@.594FAQ 8.1.@.595FAQ 7.3.@.596FAQ 7.2.@.597FAQ 7.1.@.598FAQ 6.2.@.599FAQ 6.1.@.600FAQ 5.4.@.601FAQ 5.3.@.602FAQ 5.2.@.603FAQ 5.1.@.604FAQ 4.3.@.605FAQ 4.2.@.606FAQ 4.1.@.607FAQ 3.3.@.608FAQ 3.2.@.609FAQ 3.1.@.610FAQ 2.2.@.611FAQ 2.1.@.612FAQ 1.3.@.613FAQ 1.2.@.614FAQ 1.1.@.615Outgoing energy

FAQ 7.2.gFAQ 7.2.oFAQ 7.1.afFAQ 7.1.aoFAQ 6.2.bmFAQ 6.2.bvFAQ 6.1.cqFAQ 6.1.czFAQ 5.4.dcFAQ 5.4.dxFAQ 5.3.eaFAQ 5.3.gaFAQ 5.2.gdFAQ 5.2.gvFAQ 5.1.gyFAQ 5.1.ifFAQ 4.3.ipFAQ 4.3.@.258FAQ 4.2.@.306FAQ 4.2.@.314FAQ 4.1.@.338FAQ 4.1.@.345FAQ 3.3.@.357FAQ 3.3.@.365FAQ 3.2.@.386FAQ 3.2.@.387FAQ 3.2.@.394FAQ 3.1.@.399FAQ 3.1.@.407FAQ 2.2.@.431FAQ 2.2.@.440FAQ 2.1.@.450FAQ 2.1.@.459FAQ 1.3.@.491FAQ 1.3.@.499FAQ 1.2.@.507FAQ 1.2.@.517FAQ 1.1.@.571FAQ 1.1.@.580FAQ 12.3.@.583FAQ 12.2.@.584FAQ 12.1.@.585FAQ 11.3.@.586FAQ 11.2.@.587FAQ 11.1.@.588FAQ 10.2.@.589FAQ 10.1.@.590FAQ 9.3.@.591FAQ 9.2.@.592FAQ 9.1.@.593FAQ 8.3.@.594FAQ 8.2.@.595FAQ 8.1.@.596FAQ 7.3.@.597FAQ 7.2.@.598FAQ 7.1.@.599FAQ 6.2.@.600FAQ 6.1.@.601FAQ 5.4.@.602FAQ 5.3.@.603FAQ 5.2.@.604FAQ 5.1.@.605FAQ 4.3.@.606FAQ 4.2.@.607FAQ 4.1.@.608FAQ 3.3.@.609FAQ 3.2.@.610FAQ 3.1.@.611FAQ 2.2.@.612FAQ 2.1.@.613FAQ 1.3.@.614FAQ 1.2.@.615FAQ 1.1.@.616Less incoming energy reflected back to spaceMore incoming energy reflected back to space

FAQ 7.2.hFAQ 7.2.pFAQ 7.1.agFAQ 7.1.apFAQ 6.2.bnFAQ 6.2.bwFAQ 6.1.crFAQ 6.1.daFAQ 5.4.ddFAQ 5.4.dyFAQ 5.3.ebFAQ 5.3.gbFAQ 5.2.geFAQ 5.2.gwFAQ 5.1.gzFAQ 5.1.igFAQ 4.3.iqFAQ 4.3.@.259FAQ 4.2.@.307FAQ 4.2.@.315FAQ 4.1.@.339FAQ 4.1.@.346FAQ 3.3.@.358FAQ 3.3.@.366FAQ 3.2.@.387FAQ 3.2.@.388FAQ 3.2.@.395FAQ 3.1.@.400FAQ 3.1.@.408FAQ 2.2.@.432FAQ 2.2.@.441FAQ 2.1.@.451FAQ 2.1.@.460FAQ 1.3.@.492FAQ 1.3.@.500FAQ 1.2.@.508FAQ 1.2.@.518FAQ 1.1.@.572FAQ 1.1.@.581FAQ 12.3.@.584FAQ 12.2.@.585FAQ 12.1.@.586FAQ 11.3.@.587FAQ 11.2.@.588FAQ 11.1.@.589FAQ 10.2.@.590FAQ 10.1.@.591FAQ 9.3.@.592FAQ 9.2.@.593FAQ 9.1.@.594FAQ 8.3.@.595FAQ 8.2.@.596FAQ 8.1.@.597FAQ 7.3.@.598FAQ 7.2.@.599FAQ 7.1.@.600FAQ 6.2.@.601FAQ 6.1.@.602FAQ 5.4.@.603FAQ 5.3.@.604FAQ 5.2.@.605FAQ 5.1.@.606FAQ 4.3.@.607FAQ 4.2.@.608FAQ 4.1.@.609FAQ 3.3.@.610FAQ 3.2.@.611FAQ 3.1.@.612FAQ 2.2.@.613FAQ 2.1.@.614FAQ 1.3.@.615FAQ 1.2.@.616FAQ 1.1.@.617FAQ 7.2:What is the role of clouds in a warming climate?Clouds affect and are affected by climate change. Overall, scientists expect clouds to amplify future warming.

FAQ 7.2.iFAQ 7.2.qFAQ 7.1.ahFAQ 7.1.aqFAQ 6.2.boFAQ 6.2.bxFAQ 6.1.csFAQ 6.1.dbFAQ 5.4.deFAQ 5.4.dzFAQ 5.3.ecFAQ 5.3.gcFAQ 5.2.gfFAQ 5.2.gxFAQ 5.1.haFAQ 5.1.ihFAQ 4.3.irFAQ 4.3.@.260FAQ 4.2.@.308FAQ 4.2.@.316FAQ 4.1.@.340FAQ 4.1.@.347FAQ 3.3.@.359FAQ 3.3.@.367FAQ 3.2.@.388FAQ 3.2.@.389FAQ 3.2.@.396FAQ 3.1.@.401FAQ 3.1.@.409FAQ 2.2.@.433FAQ 2.2.@.442FAQ 2.1.@.452FAQ 2.1.@.461FAQ 1.3.@.493FAQ 1.3.@.501FAQ 1.2.@.509FAQ 1.2.@.519FAQ 1.1.@.573FAQ 1.1.@.582FAQ 12.3.@.585FAQ 12.2.@.586FAQ 12.1.@.587FAQ 11.3.@.588FAQ 11.2.@.589FAQ 11.1.@.590FAQ 10.2.@.591FAQ 10.1.@.592FAQ 9.3.@.593FAQ 9.2.@.594FAQ 9.1.@.595FAQ 8.3.@.596FAQ 8.2.@.597FAQ 8.1.@.598FAQ 7.3.@.599FAQ 7.2.@.600FAQ 7.1.@.601FAQ 6.2.@.602FAQ 6.1.@.603FAQ 5.4.@.604FAQ 5.3.@.605FAQ 5.2.@.606FAQ 5.1.@.607FAQ 4.3.@.608FAQ 4.2.@.609FAQ 4.1.@.610FAQ 3.3.@.611FAQ 3.2.@.612FAQ 3.1.@.613FAQ 2.2.@.614FAQ 2.1.@.615FAQ 1.3.@.616FAQ 1.2.@.617FAQ 1.1.@.618Future climatePresent climateFuture climatePresent climate Future climatePresent climate

FAQ 7.2.jFAQ 7.2.rFAQ 7.1.aiFAQ 7.1.arFAQ 6.2.bpFAQ 6.2.byFAQ 6.1.ctFAQ 6.1.dcFAQ 5.4.dfFAQ 5.4.eaFAQ 5.3.edFAQ 5.3.gdFAQ 5.2.ggFAQ 5.2.gyFAQ 5.1.hbFAQ 5.1.iiFAQ 4.3.isFAQ 4.3.@.261FAQ 4.2.@.309FAQ 4.2.@.317FAQ 4.1.@.341FAQ 4.1.@.348FAQ 3.3.@.360FAQ 3.3.@.368FAQ 3.2.@.389FAQ 3.2.@.390FAQ 3.2.@.397FAQ 3.1.@.402FAQ 3.1.@.410FAQ 2.2.@.434FAQ 2.2.@.443FAQ 2.1.@.453FAQ 2.1.@.462FAQ 1.3.@.494FAQ 1.3.@.502FAQ 1.2.@.510FAQ 1.2.@.520FAQ 1.1.@.574FAQ 1.1.@.583FAQ 12.3.@.586FAQ 12.2.@.587FAQ 12.1.@.588FAQ 11.3.@.589FAQ 11.2.@.590FAQ 11.1.@.591FAQ 10.2.@.592FAQ 10.1.@.593FAQ 9.3.@.594FAQ 9.2.@.595FAQ 9.1.@.596FAQ 8.3.@.597FAQ 8.2.@.598FAQ 8.1.@.599FAQ 7.3.@.600FAQ 7.2.@.601FAQ 7.1.@.602FAQ 6.2.@.603FAQ 6.1.@.604FAQ 5.4.@.605FAQ 5.3.@.606FAQ 5.2.@.607FAQ 5.1.@.608FAQ 4.3.@.609FAQ 4.2.@.610FAQ 4.1.@.611FAQ 3.3.@.612FAQ 3.2.@.613FAQ 3.1.@.614FAQ 2.2.@.615FAQ 2.1.@.616FAQ 1.3.@.617FAQ 1.2.@.618FAQ 1.1.@.619Surface

FAQ 7.2.kFAQ 7.2.sFAQ 7.1.ajFAQ 7.1.asFAQ 6.2.bqFAQ 6.2.bzFAQ 6.1.cuFAQ 6.1.ddFAQ 5.4.dgFAQ 5.4.ebFAQ 5.3.eeFAQ 5.3.geFAQ 5.2.ghFAQ 5.2.gzFAQ 5.1.hcFAQ 5.1.ijFAQ 4.3.itFAQ 4.3.@.262FAQ 4.2.@.310FAQ 4.2.@.318FAQ 4.1.@.342FAQ 4.1.@.349FAQ 3.3.@.361FAQ 3.3.@.369FAQ 3.2.@.390FAQ 3.2.@.391FAQ 3.2.@.398FAQ 3.1.@.403FAQ 3.1.@.411FAQ 2.2.@.435FAQ 2.2.@.444FAQ 2.1.@.454FAQ 2.1.@.463FAQ 1.3.@.495FAQ 1.3.@.503FAQ 1.2.@.511FAQ 1.2.@.521FAQ 1.1.@.575FAQ 1.1.@.584FAQ 12.3.@.587FAQ 12.2.@.588FAQ 12.1.@.589FAQ 11.3.@.590FAQ 11.2.@.591FAQ 11.1.@.592FAQ 10.2.@.593FAQ 10.1.@.594FAQ 9.3.@.595FAQ 9.2.@.596FAQ 9.1.@.597FAQ 8.3.@.598FAQ 8.2.@.599FAQ 8.1.@.600FAQ 7.3.@.601FAQ 7.2.@.602FAQ 7.1.@.603FAQ 6.2.@.604FAQ 6.1.@.605FAQ 5.4.@.606FAQ 5.3.@.607FAQ 5.2.@.608FAQ 5.1.@.609FAQ 4.3.@.610FAQ 4.2.@.611FAQ 4.1.@.612FAQ 3.3.@.613FAQ 3.2.@.614FAQ 3.1.@.615FAQ 2.2.@.616FAQ 2.1.@.617FAQ 1.3.@.618FAQ 1.2.@.619FAQ 1.1.@.620More outgoing energy trapped by clouds

FAQ 7.2.lFAQ 7.2.tFAQ 7.1.akFAQ 7.1.atFAQ 6.2.brFAQ 6.2.caFAQ 6.1.cvFAQ 6.1.deFAQ 5.4.dhFAQ 5.4.ecFAQ 5.3.efFAQ 5.3.gfFAQ 5.2.giFAQ 5.2.haFAQ 5.1.hdFAQ 5.1.ikFAQ 4.3.iuFAQ 4.3.@.263FAQ 4.2.@.311FAQ 4.2.@.319FAQ 4.1.@.343FAQ 4.1.@.350FAQ 3.3.@.362FAQ 3.3.@.370FAQ 3.2.@.391FAQ 3.2.@.392FAQ 3.2.@.399FAQ 3.1.@.404FAQ 3.1.@.412FAQ 2.2.@.436FAQ 2.2.@.445FAQ 2.1.@.455FAQ 2.1.@.464FAQ 1.3.@.496FAQ 1.3.@.504FAQ 1.2.@.512FAQ 1.2.@.522FAQ 1.1.@.576FAQ 1.1.@.585FAQ 12.3.@.588FAQ 12.2.@.589FAQ 12.1.@.590FAQ 11.3.@.591FAQ 11.2.@.592FAQ 11.1.@.593FAQ 10.2.@.594FAQ 10.1.@.595FAQ 9.3.@.596FAQ 9.2.@.597FAQ 9.1.@.598FAQ 8.3.@.599FAQ 8.2.@.600FAQ 8.1.@.601FAQ 7.3.@.602FAQ 7.2.@.603FAQ 7.1.@.604FAQ 6.2.@.605FAQ 6.1.@.606FAQ 5.4.@.607FAQ 5.3.@.608FAQ 5.2.@.609FAQ 5.1.@.610FAQ 4.3.@.611FAQ 4.2.@.612FAQ 4.1.@.613FAQ 3.3.@.614FAQ 3.2.@.615FAQ 3.1.@.616FAQ 2.2.@.617FAQ 2.1.@.618FAQ 1.3.@.619FAQ 1.2.@.620FAQ 1.1.@.621FAQ

FAQ 7.2.mFAQ 7.2.uFAQ 7.1.alFAQ 7.1.auFAQ 6.2.bsFAQ 6.2.cbFAQ 6.1.cwFAQ 6.1.dfFAQ 5.4.diFAQ 5.4.edFAQ 5.3.egFAQ 5.3.ggFAQ 5.2.gjFAQ 5.2.hbFAQ 5.1.heFAQ 5.1.ilFAQ 4.3.ivFAQ 4.3.@.264FAQ 4.2.@.312FAQ 4.2.@.320FAQ 4.1.@.344FAQ 4.1.@.351FAQ 3.3.@.363FAQ 3.3.@.371FAQ 3.2.@.392FAQ 3.2.@.393FAQ 3.2.@.400FAQ 3.1.@.405FAQ 3.1.@.413FAQ 2.2.@.437FAQ 2.2.@.446FAQ 2.1.@.456FAQ 2.1.@.465FAQ 1.3.@.497FAQ 1.3.@.505FAQ 1.2.@.513FAQ 1.2.@.523FAQ 1.1.@.577FAQ 1.1.@.586FAQ 12.3.@.589FAQ 12.2.@.590FAQ 12.1.@.591FAQ 11.3.@.592FAQ 11.2.@.593FAQ 11.1.@.594FAQ 10.2.@.595FAQ 10.1.@.596FAQ 9.3.@.597FAQ 9.2.@.598FAQ 9.1.@.599FAQ 8.3.@.600FAQ 8.2.@.601FAQ 8.1.@.602FAQ 7.3.@.603FAQ 7.2.@.604FAQ 7.1.@.605FAQ 6.2.@.606FAQ 6.1.@.607FAQ 5.4.@.608FAQ 5.3.@.609FAQ 5.2.@.610FAQ 5.1.@.611FAQ 4.3.@.612FAQ 4.2.@.613FAQ 4.1.@.614FAQ 3.3.@.615FAQ 3.2.@.616FAQ 3.1.@.617FAQ 2.2.@.618FAQ 2.1.@.619FAQ 1.3.@.620FAQ 1.2.@.621FAQ 1.1.@.622Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 7.2.nFAQ 7.2.vFAQ 7.1.amFAQ 7.1.avFAQ 6.2.btFAQ 6.2.ccFAQ 6.1.cxFAQ 6.1.dgFAQ 5.4.djFAQ 5.4.eeFAQ 5.3.ehFAQ 5.3.ghFAQ 5.2.gkFAQ 5.2.hcFAQ 5.1.hfFAQ 5.1.imFAQ 4.3.@.256FAQ 4.3.@.265FAQ 4.2.@.313FAQ 4.2.@.321FAQ 4.1.@.345FAQ 4.1.@.352FAQ 3.3.@.364FAQ 3.3.@.372FAQ 3.2.@.393FAQ 3.2.@.394FAQ 3.2.@.401FAQ 3.1.@.406FAQ 3.1.@.414FAQ 2.2.@.438FAQ 2.2.@.447FAQ 2.1.@.457FAQ 2.1.@.466FAQ 1.3.@.498FAQ 1.3.@.506FAQ 1.2.@.514FAQ 1.2.@.524FAQ 1.1.@.578FAQ 1.1.@.587FAQ 12.3.@.590FAQ 12.2.@.591FAQ 12.1.@.592FAQ 11.3.@.593FAQ 11.2.@.594FAQ 11.1.@.595FAQ 10.2.@.596FAQ 10.1.@.597FAQ 9.3.@.598FAQ 9.2.@.599FAQ 9.1.@.600FAQ 8.3.@.601FAQ 8.2.@.602FAQ 8.1.@.603FAQ 7.3.@.604FAQ 7.2.@.605FAQ 7.1.@.606FAQ 6.2.@.607FAQ 6.1.@.608FAQ 5.4.@.609FAQ 5.3.@.610FAQ 5.2.@.611FAQ 5.1.@.612FAQ 4.3.@.613FAQ 4.2.@.614FAQ 4.1.@.615FAQ 3.3.@.616FAQ 3.2.@.617FAQ 3.1.@.618FAQ 2.2.@.619FAQ 2.1.@.620FAQ 1.3.@.621FAQ 1.2.@.622FAQ 1.1.@.623FAQ 7.3 | What Is Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity and How Does It Relate to Future Warming?

FAQ 7.3.aFAQ 7.2.oFAQ 7.2.wFAQ 7.1.anFAQ 7.1.awFAQ 6.2.buFAQ 6.2.cdFAQ 6.1.cyFAQ 6.1.dhFAQ 5.4.dkFAQ 5.4.efFAQ 5.3.eiFAQ 5.3.giFAQ 5.2.glFAQ 5.2.hdFAQ 5.1.hgFAQ 5.1.inFAQ 4.3.@.257FAQ 4.3.@.266FAQ 4.2.@.314FAQ 4.2.@.322FAQ 4.1.@.346FAQ 4.1.@.353FAQ 3.3.@.365FAQ 3.3.@.373FAQ 3.2.@.394FAQ 3.2.@.395FAQ 3.2.@.402FAQ 3.1.@.407FAQ 3.1.@.415FAQ 2.2.@.439FAQ 2.2.@.448FAQ 2.1.@.458FAQ 2.1.@.467FAQ 1.3.@.499FAQ 1.3.@.507FAQ 1.2.@.515FAQ 1.2.@.525FAQ 1.1.@.579FAQ 1.1.@.588FAQ 12.3.@.591FAQ 12.2.@.592FAQ 12.1.@.593FAQ 11.3.@.594FAQ 11.2.@.595FAQ 11.1.@.596FAQ 10.2.@.597FAQ 10.1.@.598FAQ 9.3.@.599FAQ 9.2.@.600FAQ 9.1.@.601FAQ 8.3.@.602FAQ 8.2.@.603FAQ 8.1.@.604FAQ 7.3.@.605FAQ 7.2.@.606FAQ 7.1.@.607FAQ 6.2.@.608FAQ 6.1.@.609FAQ 5.4.@.610FAQ 5.3.@.611FAQ 5.2.@.612FAQ 5.1.@.613FAQ 4.3.@.614FAQ 4.2.@.615FAQ 4.1.@.616FAQ 3.3.@.617FAQ 3.2.@.618FAQ 3.1.@.619FAQ 2.2.@.620FAQ 2.1.@.621FAQ 1.3.@.622FAQ 1.2.@.623FAQ 1.1.@.624For a given future scenario, climate models project a range of changes in global surface temperature. This range is closely related to equilibrium climate sensitivity, or ECS, which measures how climate models respond to a doubling of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Models with high climate sensitivity project stronger future warming. Some climate models of the new generation are more sensitive than the range assessed in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. This leads to end-of-century global warming in some simulations of up to 2°C–3°C above the current IPCC best estimate. Although these higher warming levels are not expected to occur, high-ECS models are useful for exploring low-likelihood, high-impact futures.

FAQ 7.3.bFAQ 7.2.pFAQ 7.2.xFAQ 7.1.aoFAQ 7.1.axFAQ 6.2.bvFAQ 6.2.ceFAQ 6.1.czFAQ 6.1.diFAQ 5.4.dlFAQ 5.4.egFAQ 5.3.ejFAQ 5.3.gjFAQ 5.2.gmFAQ 5.2.heFAQ 5.1.hhFAQ 5.1.ioFAQ 4.3.@.258FAQ 4.3.@.267FAQ 4.2.@.315FAQ 4.2.@.323FAQ 4.1.@.347FAQ 4.1.@.354FAQ 3.3.@.366FAQ 3.3.@.374FAQ 3.2.@.395FAQ 3.2.@.396FAQ 3.2.@.403FAQ 3.1.@.408FAQ 3.1.@.416FAQ 2.2.@.440FAQ 2.2.@.449FAQ 2.1.@.459FAQ 2.1.@.468FAQ 1.3.@.500FAQ 1.3.@.508FAQ 1.2.@.516FAQ 1.2.@.526FAQ 1.1.@.580FAQ 1.1.@.589FAQ 12.3.@.592FAQ 12.2.@.593FAQ 12.1.@.594FAQ 11.3.@.595FAQ 11.2.@.596FAQ 11.1.@.597FAQ 10.2.@.598FAQ 10.1.@.599FAQ 9.3.@.600FAQ 9.2.@.601FAQ 9.1.@.602FAQ 8.3.@.603FAQ 8.2.@.604FAQ 8.1.@.605FAQ 7.3.@.606FAQ 7.2.@.607FAQ 7.1.@.608FAQ 6.2.@.609FAQ 6.1.@.610FAQ 5.4.@.611FAQ 5.3.@.612FAQ 5.2.@.613FAQ 5.1.@.614FAQ 4.3.@.615FAQ 4.2.@.616FAQ 4.1.@.617FAQ 3.3.@.618FAQ 3.2.@.619FAQ 3.1.@.620FAQ 2.2.@.621FAQ 2.1.@.622FAQ 1.3.@.623FAQ 1.2.@.624FAQ 1.1.@.625The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) is defined as the long-term global warming caused by a doubling of carbon dioxide above its pre-industrial concentration. For a given emissions scenario, much of the uncertainty in projections of future warming can be explained by the uncertainty in ECS (FAQ 7.3, Figure 1). The significance of equilibrium climate sensitivity has long been recognized, and the first estimate was presented by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

FAQ 7.3.cFAQ 7.2.qFAQ 7.2.yFAQ 7.1.apFAQ 7.1.ayFAQ 6.2.bwFAQ 6.2.cfFAQ 6.1.daFAQ 6.1.djFAQ 5.4.dmFAQ 5.4.ehFAQ 5.3.ekFAQ 5.3.gkFAQ 5.2.gnFAQ 5.2.hfFAQ 5.1.hiFAQ 5.1.ipFAQ 4.3.@.259FAQ 4.3.@.268FAQ 4.2.@.316FAQ 4.2.@.324FAQ 4.1.@.348FAQ 4.1.@.355FAQ 3.3.@.367FAQ 3.3.@.375FAQ 3.2.@.396FAQ 3.2.@.397FAQ 3.2.@.404FAQ 3.1.@.409FAQ 3.1.@.417FAQ 2.2.@.441FAQ 2.2.@.450FAQ 2.1.@.460FAQ 2.1.@.469FAQ 1.3.@.501FAQ 1.3.@.509FAQ 1.2.@.517FAQ 1.2.@.527FAQ 1.1.@.581FAQ 1.1.@.590FAQ 12.3.@.593FAQ 12.2.@.594FAQ 12.1.@.595FAQ 11.3.@.596FAQ 11.2.@.597FAQ 11.1.@.598FAQ 10.2.@.599FAQ 10.1.@.600FAQ 9.3.@.601FAQ 9.2.@.602FAQ 9.1.@.603FAQ 8.3.@.604FAQ 8.2.@.605FAQ 8.1.@.606FAQ 7.3.@.607FAQ 7.2.@.608FAQ 7.1.@.609FAQ 6.2.@.610FAQ 6.1.@.611FAQ 5.4.@.612FAQ 5.3.@.613FAQ 5.2.@.614FAQ 5.1.@.615FAQ 4.3.@.616FAQ 4.2.@.617FAQ 4.1.@.618FAQ 3.3.@.619FAQ 3.2.@.620FAQ 3.1.@.621FAQ 2.2.@.622FAQ 2.1.@.623FAQ 1.3.@.624FAQ 1.2.@.625FAQ 1.1.@.626This Sixth Assessment Report concludes that there is a 90% or more chance (very likely) that the ECS is between 2°C and 5°C. This represents a significant reduction in uncertainty compared to the Fifth Assessment Report, which gave a 66% chance (likely) of ECS being between 1.5°C and 4.5°C. This reduction in uncertainty has been possible not through a single breakthrough or discovery but instead by combining evidence from many different sources and by better understanding their strengths and weaknesses.

FAQ 7.3.dFAQ 7.2.rFAQ 7.2.zFAQ 7.1.aqFAQ 7.1.azFAQ 6.2.bxFAQ 6.2.cgFAQ 6.1.dbFAQ 6.1.dkFAQ 5.4.dnFAQ 5.4.eiFAQ 5.3.elFAQ 5.3.glFAQ 5.2.goFAQ 5.2.hgFAQ 5.1.hjFAQ 5.1.iqFAQ 4.3.@.260FAQ 4.3.@.269FAQ 4.2.@.317FAQ 4.2.@.325FAQ 4.1.@.349FAQ 4.1.@.356FAQ 3.3.@.368FAQ 3.3.@.376FAQ 3.2.@.397FAQ 3.2.@.398FAQ 3.2.@.405FAQ 3.1.@.410FAQ 3.1.@.418FAQ 2.2.@.442FAQ 2.2.@.451FAQ 2.1.@.461FAQ 2.1.@.470FAQ 1.3.@.502FAQ 1.3.@.510FAQ 1.2.@.518FAQ 1.2.@.528FAQ 1.1.@.582FAQ 1.1.@.591FAQ 12.3.@.594FAQ 12.2.@.595FAQ 12.1.@.596FAQ 11.3.@.597FAQ 11.2.@.598FAQ 11.1.@.599FAQ 10.2.@.600FAQ 10.1.@.601FAQ 9.3.@.602FAQ 9.2.@.603FAQ 9.1.@.604FAQ 8.3.@.605FAQ 8.2.@.606FAQ 8.1.@.607FAQ 7.3.@.608FAQ 7.2.@.609FAQ 7.1.@.610FAQ 6.2.@.611FAQ 6.1.@.612FAQ 5.4.@.613FAQ 5.3.@.614FAQ 5.2.@.615FAQ 5.1.@.616FAQ 4.3.@.617FAQ 4.2.@.618FAQ 4.1.@.619FAQ 3.3.@.620FAQ 3.2.@.621FAQ 3.1.@.622FAQ 2.2.@.623FAQ 2.1.@.624FAQ 1.3.@.625FAQ 1.2.@.626FAQ 1.1.@.627There are four main lines of evidence for ECS.

FAQ 7.3.eFAQ 7.2.sFAQ 7.2.aaFAQ 7.1.arFAQ 7.1.baFAQ 6.2.byFAQ 6.2.chFAQ 6.1.dcFAQ 6.1.dlFAQ 5.4.doFAQ 5.4.ejFAQ 5.3.emFAQ 5.3.gmFAQ 5.2.gpFAQ 5.2.hhFAQ 5.1.hkFAQ 5.1.irFAQ 4.3.@.261FAQ 4.3.@.270FAQ 4.2.@.318FAQ 4.2.@.326FAQ 4.1.@.350FAQ 4.1.@.357FAQ 3.3.@.369FAQ 3.3.@.377FAQ 3.2.@.398FAQ 3.2.@.399FAQ 3.2.@.406FAQ 3.1.@.411FAQ 3.1.@.419FAQ 2.2.@.443FAQ 2.2.@.452FAQ 2.1.@.462FAQ 2.1.@.471FAQ 1.3.@.503FAQ 1.3.@.511FAQ 1.2.@.519FAQ 1.2.@.529FAQ 1.1.@.583FAQ 1.1.@.592FAQ 12.3.@.595FAQ 12.2.@.596FAQ 12.1.@.597FAQ 11.3.@.598FAQ 11.2.@.599FAQ 11.1.@.600FAQ 10.2.@.601FAQ 10.1.@.602FAQ 9.3.@.603FAQ 9.2.@.604FAQ 9.1.@.605FAQ 8.3.@.606FAQ 8.2.@.607FAQ 8.1.@.608FAQ 7.3.@.609FAQ 7.2.@.610FAQ 7.1.@.611FAQ 6.2.@.612FAQ 6.1.@.613FAQ 5.4.@.614FAQ 5.3.@.615FAQ 5.2.@.616FAQ 5.1.@.617FAQ 4.3.@.618FAQ 4.2.@.619FAQ 4.1.@.620FAQ 3.3.@.621FAQ 3.2.@.622FAQ 3.1.@.623FAQ 2.2.@.624FAQ 2.1.@.625FAQ 1.3.@.626FAQ 1.2.@.627FAQ 1.1.@.628• The self-reinforcing processes, called feedback loops, that amplify or dampen the warming in response to increasing carbon dioxide are now better understood. For example, warming in the Arctic melts sea ice, resulting in more open ocean area, which is darker and therefore absorbs more sunlight, further intensifying the initial warming. It remains challenging to represent realistically all the processes involved in these feedback loops, particularly those related to clouds (see FAQ 7.2). Such identified model errors are now taken into account, and other known, but generally weak, feedback loops that are typically not included in models are now included in the assessment of ECS.• Historical warming since early industrialisation provides strong evidence that climate sensitivity is not small. Since 1850, the concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases have increased, and as a result the Earth has warmed by about 1.1°C. However, relying on this industrial-era warming to estimate ECS is challenging, partly because some of the warming from greenhouse gases was offset by cooling from aerosol particles and partly because the ocean is still responding to past increases in carbon dioxide.• Evidence from ancient climates that had reached equilibrium with greenhouse gas concentrations, such as the coldest period of the last ice age around 20,000 years ago, or warmer periods further back in time, provide useful data on the ECS of the climate system (see FAQ 1.3).• Statistical approaches linking model ECS values with observed changes, such as global warming since the 1970s, provide complementary evidence.

FAQ 7.3.fFAQ 7.2.tFAQ 7.2.abFAQ 7.1.asFAQ 7.1.bbFAQ 6.2.bzFAQ 6.2.ciFAQ 6.1.ddFAQ 6.1.dmFAQ 5.4.dpFAQ 5.4.ekFAQ 5.3.enFAQ 5.3.gnFAQ 5.2.gqFAQ 5.2.hiFAQ 5.1.hlFAQ 5.1.isFAQ 4.3.@.262FAQ 4.3.@.271FAQ 4.2.@.319FAQ 4.2.@.327FAQ 4.1.@.351FAQ 4.1.@.358FAQ 3.3.@.370FAQ 3.3.@.378FAQ 3.2.@.399FAQ 3.2.@.400FAQ 3.2.@.407FAQ 3.1.@.412FAQ 3.1.@.420FAQ 2.2.@.444FAQ 2.2.@.453FAQ 2.1.@.463FAQ 2.1.@.472FAQ 1.3.@.504FAQ 1.3.@.512FAQ 1.2.@.520FAQ 1.2.@.530FAQ 1.1.@.584FAQ 1.1.@.593FAQ 12.3.@.596FAQ 12.2.@.597FAQ 12.1.@.598FAQ 11.3.@.599FAQ 11.2.@.600FAQ 11.1.@.601FAQ 10.2.@.602FAQ 10.1.@.603FAQ 9.3.@.604FAQ 9.2.@.605FAQ 9.1.@.606FAQ 8.3.@.607FAQ 8.2.@.608FAQ 8.1.@.609FAQ 7.3.@.610FAQ 7.2.@.611FAQ 7.1.@.612FAQ 6.2.@.613FAQ 6.1.@.614FAQ 5.4.@.615FAQ 5.3.@.616FAQ 5.2.@.617FAQ 5.1.@.618FAQ 4.3.@.619FAQ 4.2.@.620FAQ 4.1.@.621FAQ 3.3.@.622FAQ 3.2.@.623FAQ 3.1.@.624FAQ 2.2.@.625FAQ 2.1.@.626FAQ 1.3.@.627FAQ 1.2.@.628FAQ 1.1.@.629All four lines of evidence rely, to some extent, on climate models, and interpreting the evidence often benefits from model diversity and spread in modelled climate sensitivity. Furthermore, high-sensitivity models can provide important insights into futures that have a low likelihood of occurring but that could result in large impacts. But, unlike in previous assessments, climate models are not considered a line of evidence in their own right in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report.

FAQ 7.3.gFAQ 7.2.uFAQ 7.2.acFAQ 7.1.atFAQ 7.1.bcFAQ 6.2.caFAQ 6.2.cjFAQ 6.1.deFAQ 6.1.dnFAQ 5.4.dqFAQ 5.4.elFAQ 5.3.eoFAQ 5.3.goFAQ 5.2.grFAQ 5.2.hjFAQ 5.1.hmFAQ 5.1.itFAQ 4.3.@.263FAQ 4.3.@.272FAQ 4.2.@.320FAQ 4.2.@.328FAQ 4.1.@.352FAQ 4.1.@.359FAQ 3.3.@.371FAQ 3.3.@.379FAQ 3.2.@.400FAQ 3.2.@.401FAQ 3.2.@.408FAQ 3.1.@.413FAQ 3.1.@.421FAQ 2.2.@.445FAQ 2.2.@.454FAQ 2.1.@.464FAQ 2.1.@.473FAQ 1.3.@.505FAQ 1.3.@.513FAQ 1.2.@.521FAQ 1.2.@.531FAQ 1.1.@.585FAQ 1.1.@.594FAQ 12.3.@.597FAQ 12.2.@.598FAQ 12.1.@.599FAQ 11.3.@.600FAQ 11.2.@.601FAQ 11.1.@.602FAQ 10.2.@.603FAQ 10.1.@.604FAQ 9.3.@.605FAQ 9.2.@.606FAQ 9.1.@.607FAQ 8.3.@.608FAQ 8.2.@.609FAQ 8.1.@.610FAQ 7.3.@.611FAQ 7.2.@.612FAQ 7.1.@.613FAQ 6.2.@.614FAQ 6.1.@.615FAQ 5.4.@.616FAQ 5.3.@.617FAQ 5.2.@.618FAQ 5.1.@.619FAQ 4.3.@.620FAQ 4.2.@.621FAQ 4.1.@.622FAQ 3.3.@.623FAQ 3.2.@.624FAQ 3.1.@.625FAQ 2.2.@.626FAQ 2.1.@.627FAQ 1.3.@.628FAQ 1.2.@.629FAQ 1.1.@.630The ECS of the latest climate models is, on average, higher than that of the previous generation of models and also higher than this Report’s best estimate of 3.0°C. Furthermore, the ECS values in some of the new models are both above and below the 2°C to 5°C very likely range, and although such models cannot be ruled out as implausible solely based on their ECS, some simulations display climate change that is inconsistent with the observed changes when tested with ancient climates. A slight mismatch between models and this Report’s assessment is only natural because this Report’s assessment is largely based on observations and an improved understanding of the climate system.

FAQ 7.3.hFAQ 7.2.vFAQ 7.2.adFAQ 7.1.auFAQ 7.1.bdFAQ 6.2.cbFAQ 6.2.ckFAQ 6.1.dfFAQ 6.1.doFAQ 5.4.drFAQ 5.4.emFAQ 5.3.epFAQ 5.3.gpFAQ 5.2.gsFAQ 5.2.hkFAQ 5.1.hnFAQ 5.1.iuFAQ 4.3.@.264FAQ 4.3.@.273FAQ 4.2.@.321FAQ 4.2.@.329FAQ 4.1.@.353FAQ 4.1.@.360FAQ 3.3.@.372FAQ 3.3.@.380FAQ 3.2.@.401FAQ 3.2.@.402FAQ 3.2.@.409FAQ 3.1.@.414FAQ 3.1.@.422FAQ 2.2.@.446FAQ 2.2.@.455FAQ 2.1.@.465FAQ 2.1.@.474FAQ 1.3.@.506FAQ 1.3.@.514FAQ 1.2.@.522FAQ 1.2.@.532FAQ 1.1.@.586FAQ 1.1.@.595FAQ 12.3.@.598FAQ 12.2.@.599FAQ 12.1.@.600FAQ 11.3.@.601FAQ 11.2.@.602FAQ 11.1.@.603FAQ 10.2.@.604FAQ 10.1.@.605FAQ 9.3.@.606FAQ 9.2.@.607FAQ 9.1.@.608FAQ 8.3.@.609FAQ 8.2.@.610FAQ 8.1.@.611FAQ 7.3.@.612FAQ 7.2.@.613FAQ 7.1.@.614FAQ 6.2.@.615FAQ 6.1.@.616FAQ 5.4.@.617FAQ 5.3.@.618FAQ 5.2.@.619FAQ 5.1.@.620FAQ 4.3.@.621FAQ 4.2.@.622FAQ 4.1.@.623FAQ 3.3.@.624FAQ 3.2.@.625FAQ 3.1.@.626FAQ 2.2.@.627FAQ 2.1.@.628FAQ 1.3.@.629FAQ 1.2.@.630FAQ 1.1.@.631FAQ

FAQ 7.3.iFAQ 7.2.wFAQ 7.2.aeFAQ 7.1.avFAQ 7.1.beFAQ 6.2.ccFAQ 6.2.clFAQ 6.1.dgFAQ 6.1.dpFAQ 5.4.dsFAQ 5.4.enFAQ 5.3.eqFAQ 5.3.gqFAQ 5.2.gtFAQ 5.2.hlFAQ 5.1.hoFAQ 5.1.ivFAQ 4.3.@.265FAQ 4.3.@.274FAQ 4.2.@.322FAQ 4.2.@.330FAQ 4.1.@.354FAQ 4.1.@.361FAQ 3.3.@.373FAQ 3.3.@.381FAQ 3.2.@.402FAQ 3.2.@.403FAQ 3.2.@.410FAQ 3.1.@.415FAQ 3.1.@.423FAQ 2.2.@.447FAQ 2.2.@.456FAQ 2.1.@.466FAQ 2.1.@.475FAQ 1.3.@.507FAQ 1.3.@.515FAQ 1.2.@.523FAQ 1.2.@.533FAQ 1.1.@.587FAQ 1.1.@.596FAQ 12.3.@.599FAQ 12.2.@.600FAQ 12.1.@.601FAQ 11.3.@.602FAQ 11.2.@.603FAQ 11.1.@.604FAQ 10.2.@.605FAQ 10.1.@.606FAQ 9.3.@.607FAQ 9.2.@.608FAQ 9.1.@.609FAQ 8.3.@.610FAQ 8.2.@.611FAQ 8.1.@.612FAQ 7.3.@.613FAQ 7.2.@.614FAQ 7.1.@.615FAQ 6.2.@.616FAQ 6.1.@.617FAQ 5.4.@.618FAQ 5.3.@.619FAQ 5.2.@.620FAQ 5.1.@.621FAQ 4.3.@.622FAQ 4.2.@.623FAQ 4.1.@.624FAQ 3.3.@.625FAQ 3.2.@.626FAQ 3.1.@.627FAQ 2.2.@.628FAQ 2.1.@.629FAQ 1.3.@.630FAQ 1.2.@.631FAQ 1.1.@.632FAQ 7.3 (continued)

FAQ 7.3.aFAQ 7.3.jFAQ 7.2.xFAQ 7.2.afFAQ 7.1.awFAQ 7.1.bfFAQ 6.2.cdFAQ 6.2.cmFAQ 6.1.dhFAQ 6.1.dqFAQ 5.4.dtFAQ 5.4.eoFAQ 5.3.erFAQ 5.3.grFAQ 5.2.guFAQ 5.2.hmFAQ 5.1.hpFAQ 5.1.@.256FAQ 4.3.@.266FAQ 4.3.@.275FAQ 4.2.@.323FAQ 4.2.@.331FAQ 4.1.@.355FAQ 4.1.@.362FAQ 3.3.@.374FAQ 3.3.@.382FAQ 3.2.@.403FAQ 3.2.@.404FAQ 3.2.@.411FAQ 3.1.@.416FAQ 3.1.@.424FAQ 2.2.@.448FAQ 2.2.@.457FAQ 2.1.@.467FAQ 2.1.@.476FAQ 1.3.@.508FAQ 1.3.@.516FAQ 1.2.@.524FAQ 1.2.@.534FAQ 1.1.@.588FAQ 1.1.@.597FAQ 12.3.@.600FAQ 12.2.@.601FAQ 12.1.@.602FAQ 11.3.@.603FAQ 11.2.@.604FAQ 11.1.@.605FAQ 10.2.@.606FAQ 10.1.@.607FAQ 9.3.@.608FAQ 9.2.@.609FAQ 9.1.@.610FAQ 8.3.@.611FAQ 8.2.@.612FAQ 8.1.@.613FAQ 7.3.@.614FAQ 7.2.@.615FAQ 7.1.@.616FAQ 6.2.@.617FAQ 6.1.@.618FAQ 5.4.@.619FAQ 5.3.@.620FAQ 5.2.@.621FAQ 5.1.@.622FAQ 4.3.@.623FAQ 4.2.@.624FAQ 4.1.@.625FAQ 3.3.@.626FAQ 3.2.@.627FAQ 3.1.@.628FAQ 2.2.@.629FAQ 2.1.@.630FAQ 1.3.@.631FAQ 1.2.@.632FAQ 1.1.@.633FAQ 7.3, Figure 1 | Equilibrium climate sensitivity and future warming. (left) Equilibrium climate sensitivities for the current generation (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6, CMIP6) climate models, and the previous (CMIP5) generation. The assessed range in this Report (AR6) is also shown. (right) Climate projections of CMIP5, CMIP6 and AR6 for the very high-emissions scenarios RCP8.5, and SSP5-8.5, respectively. The thick horizontal lines represent the multi-model average and the thin horizontal lines represent the results of individual models. The boxes represent the model ranges for CMIP5 and CMIP6 and the range assessed in AR6.

FAQ 7.3.bFAQ 7.3.kFAQ 7.2.yFAQ 7.2.agFAQ 7.1.axFAQ 7.1.bgFAQ 6.2.ceFAQ 6.2.cnFAQ 6.1.diFAQ 6.1.drFAQ 5.4.duFAQ 5.4.epFAQ 5.3.esFAQ 5.3.gsFAQ 5.2.gvFAQ 5.2.hnFAQ 5.1.hqFAQ 5.1.@.257FAQ 4.3.@.267FAQ 4.3.@.276FAQ 4.2.@.324FAQ 4.2.@.332FAQ 4.1.@.356FAQ 4.1.@.363FAQ 3.3.@.375FAQ 3.3.@.383FAQ 3.2.@.404FAQ 3.2.@.405FAQ 3.2.@.412FAQ 3.1.@.417FAQ 3.1.@.425FAQ 2.2.@.449FAQ 2.2.@.458FAQ 2.1.@.468FAQ 2.1.@.477FAQ 1.3.@.509FAQ 1.3.@.517FAQ 1.2.@.525FAQ 1.2.@.535FAQ 1.1.@.589FAQ 1.1.@.598FAQ 12.3.@.601FAQ 12.2.@.602FAQ 12.1.@.603FAQ 11.3.@.604FAQ 11.2.@.605FAQ 11.1.@.606FAQ 10.2.@.607FAQ 10.1.@.608FAQ 9.3.@.609FAQ 9.2.@.610FAQ 9.1.@.611FAQ 8.3.@.612FAQ 8.2.@.613FAQ 8.1.@.614FAQ 7.3.@.615FAQ 7.2.@.616FAQ 7.1.@.617FAQ 6.2.@.618FAQ 6.1.@.619FAQ 5.4.@.620FAQ 5.3.@.621FAQ 5.2.@.622FAQ 5.1.@.623FAQ 4.3.@.624FAQ 4.2.@.625FAQ 4.1.@.626FAQ 3.3.@.627FAQ 3.2.@.628FAQ 3.1.@.629FAQ 2.2.@.630FAQ 2.1.@.631FAQ 1.3.@.632FAQ 1.2.@.633FAQ 1.1.@.634FAQ

FAQ 7.3.cFAQ 7.3.lFAQ 7.2.zFAQ 7.2.ahFAQ 7.1.ayFAQ 7.1.bhFAQ 6.2.cfFAQ 6.2.coFAQ 6.1.djFAQ 6.1.dsFAQ 5.4.dvFAQ 5.4.eqFAQ 5.3.etFAQ 5.3.gtFAQ 5.2.gwFAQ 5.2.hoFAQ 5.1.hrFAQ 5.1.@.258FAQ 4.3.@.268FAQ 4.3.@.277FAQ 4.2.@.325FAQ 4.2.@.333FAQ 4.1.@.357FAQ 4.1.@.364FAQ 3.3.@.376FAQ 3.3.@.384FAQ 3.2.@.405FAQ 3.2.@.406FAQ 3.2.@.413FAQ 3.1.@.418FAQ 3.1.@.426FAQ 2.2.@.450FAQ 2.2.@.459FAQ 2.1.@.469FAQ 2.1.@.478FAQ 1.3.@.510FAQ 1.3.@.518FAQ 1.2.@.526FAQ 1.2.@.536FAQ 1.1.@.590FAQ 1.1.@.599FAQ 12.3.@.602FAQ 12.2.@.603FAQ 12.1.@.604FAQ 11.3.@.605FAQ 11.2.@.606FAQ 11.1.@.607FAQ 10.2.@.608FAQ 10.1.@.609FAQ 9.3.@.610FAQ 9.2.@.611FAQ 9.1.@.612FAQ 8.3.@.613FAQ 8.2.@.614FAQ 8.1.@.615FAQ 7.3.@.616FAQ 7.2.@.617FAQ 7.1.@.618FAQ 6.2.@.619FAQ 6.1.@.620FAQ 5.4.@.621FAQ 5.3.@.622FAQ 5.2.@.623FAQ 5.1.@.624FAQ 4.3.@.625FAQ 4.2.@.626FAQ 4.1.@.627FAQ 3.3.@.628FAQ 3.2.@.629FAQ 3.1.@.630FAQ 2.2.@.631FAQ 2.1.@.632FAQ 1.3.@.633FAQ 1.2.@.634FAQ 1.1.@.635Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 7.3.dFAQ 7.3.mFAQ 7.2.aaFAQ 7.2.aiFAQ 7.1.azFAQ 7.1.biFAQ 6.2.cgFAQ 6.2.cpFAQ 6.1.dkFAQ 6.1.dtFAQ 5.4.dwFAQ 5.4.erFAQ 5.3.euFAQ 5.3.guFAQ 5.2.gxFAQ 5.2.hpFAQ 5.1.hsFAQ 5.1.@.259FAQ 4.3.@.269FAQ 4.3.@.278FAQ 4.2.@.326FAQ 4.2.@.334FAQ 4.1.@.358FAQ 4.1.@.365FAQ 3.3.@.377FAQ 3.3.@.385FAQ 3.2.@.406FAQ 3.2.@.407FAQ 3.2.@.414FAQ 3.1.@.419FAQ 3.1.@.427FAQ 2.2.@.451FAQ 2.2.@.460FAQ 2.1.@.470FAQ 2.1.@.479FAQ 1.3.@.511FAQ 1.3.@.519FAQ 1.2.@.527FAQ 1.2.@.537FAQ 1.1.@.591FAQ 1.1.@.600FAQ 12.3.@.603FAQ 12.2.@.604FAQ 12.1.@.605FAQ 11.3.@.606FAQ 11.2.@.607FAQ 11.1.@.608FAQ 10.2.@.609FAQ 10.1.@.610FAQ 9.3.@.611FAQ 9.2.@.612FAQ 9.1.@.613FAQ 8.3.@.614FAQ 8.2.@.615FAQ 8.1.@.616FAQ 7.3.@.617FAQ 7.2.@.618FAQ 7.1.@.619FAQ 6.2.@.620FAQ 6.1.@.621FAQ 5.4.@.622FAQ 5.3.@.623FAQ 5.2.@.624FAQ 5.1.@.625FAQ 4.3.@.626FAQ 4.2.@.627FAQ 4.1.@.628FAQ 3.3.@.629FAQ 3.2.@.630FAQ 3.1.@.631FAQ 2.2.@.632FAQ 2.1.@.633FAQ 1.3.@.634FAQ 1.2.@.635FAQ 1.1.@.636FAQ 8.1 | How Does Land Use Change Alter the Water Cycle?

FAQ 8.1.aFAQ 7.3.eFAQ 7.3.nFAQ 7.2.abFAQ 7.2.ajFAQ 7.1.baFAQ 7.1.bjFAQ 6.2.chFAQ 6.2.cqFAQ 6.1.dlFAQ 6.1.duFAQ 5.4.dxFAQ 5.4.esFAQ 5.3.evFAQ 5.3.gvFAQ 5.2.gyFAQ 5.2.hqFAQ 5.1.htFAQ 5.1.@.260FAQ 4.3.@.270FAQ 4.3.@.279FAQ 4.2.@.327FAQ 4.2.@.335FAQ 4.1.@.359FAQ 4.1.@.366FAQ 3.3.@.378FAQ 3.3.@.386FAQ 3.2.@.407FAQ 3.2.@.408FAQ 3.2.@.415FAQ 3.1.@.420FAQ 3.1.@.428FAQ 2.2.@.452FAQ 2.2.@.461FAQ 2.1.@.471FAQ 2.1.@.480FAQ 1.3.@.512FAQ 1.3.@.520FAQ 1.2.@.528FAQ 1.2.@.538FAQ 1.1.@.592FAQ 1.1.@.601FAQ 12.3.@.604FAQ 12.2.@.605FAQ 12.1.@.606FAQ 11.3.@.607FAQ 11.2.@.608FAQ 11.1.@.609FAQ 10.2.@.610FAQ 10.1.@.611FAQ 9.3.@.612FAQ 9.2.@.613FAQ 9.1.@.614FAQ 8.3.@.615FAQ 8.2.@.616FAQ 8.1.@.617FAQ 7.3.@.618FAQ 7.2.@.619FAQ 7.1.@.620FAQ 6.2.@.621FAQ 6.1.@.622FAQ 5.4.@.623FAQ 5.3.@.624FAQ 5.2.@.625FAQ 5.1.@.626FAQ 4.3.@.627FAQ 4.2.@.628FAQ 4.1.@.629FAQ 3.3.@.630FAQ 3.2.@.631FAQ 3.1.@.632FAQ 2.2.@.633FAQ 2.1.@.634FAQ 1.3.@.635FAQ 1.2.@.636FAQ 1.1.@.637The ways in which humans use and change land cover, for example by converting fields to urban areas or clearing forests, can affect every aspect of the water cycle. Land-use changes can alter precipitation patterns and how water is absorbed into the ground, flows into streams and rivers, or floods the land surface, as well as how moisture evaporates back into the air. Changes in any of these aspects of the interconnected water cycle can affect the entire cycle and the availability of freshwater resources.

FAQ 8.1.bFAQ 7.3.fFAQ 7.3.oFAQ 7.2.acFAQ 7.2.akFAQ 7.1.bbFAQ 7.1.bkFAQ 6.2.ciFAQ 6.2.crFAQ 6.1.dmFAQ 6.1.dvFAQ 5.4.dyFAQ 5.4.etFAQ 5.3.ewFAQ 5.3.gwFAQ 5.2.gzFAQ 5.2.hrFAQ 5.1.huFAQ 5.1.@.261FAQ 4.3.@.271FAQ 4.3.@.280FAQ 4.2.@.328FAQ 4.2.@.336FAQ 4.1.@.360FAQ 4.1.@.367FAQ 3.3.@.379FAQ 3.3.@.387FAQ 3.2.@.408FAQ 3.2.@.409FAQ 3.2.@.416FAQ 3.1.@.421FAQ 3.1.@.429FAQ 2.2.@.453FAQ 2.2.@.462FAQ 2.1.@.472FAQ 2.1.@.481FAQ 1.3.@.513FAQ 1.3.@.521FAQ 1.2.@.529FAQ 1.2.@.539FAQ 1.1.@.593FAQ 1.1.@.602FAQ 12.3.@.605FAQ 12.2.@.606FAQ 12.1.@.607FAQ 11.3.@.608FAQ 11.2.@.609FAQ 11.1.@.610FAQ 10.2.@.611FAQ 10.1.@.612FAQ 9.3.@.613FAQ 9.2.@.614FAQ 9.1.@.615FAQ 8.3.@.616FAQ 8.2.@.617FAQ 8.1.@.618FAQ 7.3.@.619FAQ 7.2.@.620FAQ 7.1.@.621FAQ 6.2.@.622FAQ 6.1.@.623FAQ 5.4.@.624FAQ 5.3.@.625FAQ 5.2.@.626FAQ 5.1.@.627FAQ 4.3.@.628FAQ 4.2.@.629FAQ 4.1.@.630FAQ 3.3.@.631FAQ 3.2.@.632FAQ 3.1.@.633FAQ 2.2.@.634FAQ 2.1.@.635FAQ 1.3.@.636FAQ 1.2.@.637FAQ 1.1.@.638Land use describes the combination of activities and ground cover defining each area of the Earth’s continental surface. Altering land use can modify the exchange of water between the atmosphere, soil and subsurface (FAQ 8.1, Figure 1).

FAQ 8.1.cFAQ 7.3.gFAQ 7.3.pFAQ 7.2.adFAQ 7.2.alFAQ 7.1.bcFAQ 7.1.blFAQ 6.2.cjFAQ 6.2.csFAQ 6.1.dnFAQ 6.1.dwFAQ 5.4.dzFAQ 5.4.euFAQ 5.3.exFAQ 5.3.gxFAQ 5.2.haFAQ 5.2.hsFAQ 5.1.hvFAQ 5.1.@.262FAQ 4.3.@.272FAQ 4.3.@.281FAQ 4.2.@.329FAQ 4.2.@.337FAQ 4.1.@.361FAQ 4.1.@.368FAQ 3.3.@.380FAQ 3.3.@.388FAQ 3.2.@.409FAQ 3.2.@.410FAQ 3.2.@.417FAQ 3.1.@.422FAQ 3.1.@.430FAQ 2.2.@.454FAQ 2.2.@.463FAQ 2.1.@.473FAQ 2.1.@.482FAQ 1.3.@.514FAQ 1.3.@.522FAQ 1.2.@.530FAQ 1.2.@.540FAQ 1.1.@.594FAQ 1.1.@.603FAQ 12.3.@.606FAQ 12.2.@.607FAQ 12.1.@.608FAQ 11.3.@.609FAQ 11.2.@.610FAQ 11.1.@.611FAQ 10.2.@.612FAQ 10.1.@.613FAQ 9.3.@.614FAQ 9.2.@.615FAQ 9.1.@.616FAQ 8.3.@.617FAQ 8.2.@.618FAQ 8.1.@.619FAQ 7.3.@.620FAQ 7.2.@.621FAQ 7.1.@.622FAQ 6.2.@.623FAQ 6.1.@.624FAQ 5.4.@.625FAQ 5.3.@.626FAQ 5.2.@.627FAQ 5.1.@.628FAQ 4.3.@.629FAQ 4.2.@.630FAQ 4.1.@.631FAQ 3.3.@.632FAQ 3.2.@.633FAQ 3.1.@.634FAQ 2.2.@.635FAQ 2.1.@.636FAQ 1.3.@.637FAQ 1.2.@.638FAQ 1.1.@.639For instance, changes in land cover can affect the ability of soils to soak up surface water (infiltration). When soil loses its capacity to soak up water, precipitation that would normally infiltrate and contribute to groundwater reserves will instead overflow, increasing surface water (runoff) and the likelihood of flooding. For example, changing from vegetation to urban cover can cause water to flow rapidly over buildings, roads and driveways and into drains rather than soaking into the ground. Deforestation over wide areas can also directly reduce soil moisture, evaporation and rainfall locally but can also cause regional temperature changes that affect rainfall patterns.

FAQ 8.1.dFAQ 7.3.hFAQ 7.3.qFAQ 7.2.aeFAQ 7.2.amFAQ 7.1.bdFAQ 7.1.bmFAQ 6.2.ckFAQ 6.2.ctFAQ 6.1.doFAQ 6.1.dxFAQ 5.4.eaFAQ 5.4.evFAQ 5.3.eyFAQ 5.3.gyFAQ 5.2.hbFAQ 5.2.htFAQ 5.1.hwFAQ 5.1.@.263FAQ 4.3.@.273FAQ 4.3.@.282FAQ 4.2.@.330FAQ 4.2.@.338FAQ 4.1.@.362FAQ 4.1.@.369FAQ 3.3.@.381FAQ 3.3.@.389FAQ 3.2.@.410FAQ 3.2.@.411FAQ 3.2.@.418FAQ 3.1.@.423FAQ 3.1.@.431FAQ 2.2.@.455FAQ 2.2.@.464FAQ 2.1.@.474FAQ 2.1.@.483FAQ 1.3.@.515FAQ 1.3.@.523FAQ 1.2.@.531FAQ 1.2.@.541FAQ 1.1.@.595FAQ 1.1.@.604FAQ 12.3.@.607FAQ 12.2.@.608FAQ 12.1.@.609FAQ 11.3.@.610FAQ 11.2.@.611FAQ 11.1.@.612FAQ 10.2.@.613FAQ 10.1.@.614FAQ 9.3.@.615FAQ 9.2.@.616FAQ 9.1.@.617FAQ 8.3.@.618FAQ 8.2.@.619FAQ 8.1.@.620FAQ 7.3.@.621FAQ 7.2.@.622FAQ 7.1.@.623FAQ 6.2.@.624FAQ 6.1.@.625FAQ 5.4.@.626FAQ 5.3.@.627FAQ 5.2.@.628FAQ 5.1.@.629FAQ 4.3.@.630FAQ 4.2.@.631FAQ 4.1.@.632FAQ 3.3.@.633FAQ 3.2.@.634FAQ 3.1.@.635FAQ 2.2.@.636FAQ 2.1.@.637FAQ 1.3.@.638FAQ 1.2.@.639FAQ 1.1.@.640Extracting water from the ground and river systems for agriculture, industry and drinking water depletes groundwater and can increase surface evaporation because water that was previously in the ground is now in direct contact with the atmosphere, being available for evaporation.

FAQ 8.1.eFAQ 7.3.iFAQ 7.3.rFAQ 7.2.afFAQ 7.2.anFAQ 7.1.beFAQ 7.1.bnFAQ 6.2.clFAQ 6.2.cuFAQ 6.1.dpFAQ 6.1.dyFAQ 5.4.ebFAQ 5.4.ewFAQ 5.3.ezFAQ 5.3.gzFAQ 5.2.hcFAQ 5.2.huFAQ 5.1.hxFAQ 5.1.@.264FAQ 4.3.@.274FAQ 4.3.@.283FAQ 4.2.@.331FAQ 4.2.@.339FAQ 4.1.@.363FAQ 4.1.@.370FAQ 3.3.@.382FAQ 3.3.@.390FAQ 3.2.@.411FAQ 3.2.@.412FAQ 3.2.@.419FAQ 3.1.@.424FAQ 3.1.@.432FAQ 2.2.@.456FAQ 2.2.@.465FAQ 2.1.@.475FAQ 2.1.@.484FAQ 1.3.@.516FAQ 1.3.@.524FAQ 1.2.@.532FAQ 1.2.@.542FAQ 1.1.@.596FAQ 1.1.@.605FAQ 12.3.@.608FAQ 12.2.@.609FAQ 12.1.@.610FAQ 11.3.@.611FAQ 11.2.@.612FAQ 11.1.@.613FAQ 10.2.@.614FAQ 10.1.@.615FAQ 9.3.@.616FAQ 9.2.@.617FAQ 9.1.@.618FAQ 8.3.@.619FAQ 8.2.@.620FAQ 8.1.@.621FAQ 7.3.@.622FAQ 7.2.@.623FAQ 7.1.@.624FAQ 6.2.@.625FAQ 6.1.@.626FAQ 5.4.@.627FAQ 5.3.@.628FAQ 5.2.@.629FAQ 5.1.@.630FAQ 4.3.@.631FAQ 4.2.@.632FAQ 4.1.@.633FAQ 3.3.@.634FAQ 3.2.@.635FAQ 3.1.@.636FAQ 2.2.@.637FAQ 2.1.@.638FAQ 1.3.@.639FAQ 1.2.@.640FAQ 1.1.@.641Changing land use can also alter how wet the soil is, influencing how quickly the ground heats up and cools down and the local water cycle. Drier soils evaporate less water into the air but heat up more in the day. This can lead to warmer, more buoyant plumes of air that can promote cloud development and precipitation if there is enough moisture in the air.

FAQ 8.1.fFAQ 7.3.jFAQ 7.3.sFAQ 7.2.agFAQ 7.2.aoFAQ 7.1.bfFAQ 7.1.boFAQ 6.2.cmFAQ 6.2.cvFAQ 6.1.dqFAQ 6.1.dzFAQ 5.4.ecFAQ 5.4.exFAQ 5.3.faFAQ 5.3.haFAQ 5.2.hdFAQ 5.2.hvFAQ 5.1.hyFAQ 5.1.@.265FAQ 4.3.@.275FAQ 4.3.@.284FAQ 4.2.@.332FAQ 4.2.@.340FAQ 4.1.@.364FAQ 4.1.@.371FAQ 3.3.@.383FAQ 3.3.@.391FAQ 3.2.@.412FAQ 3.2.@.413FAQ 3.2.@.420FAQ 3.1.@.425FAQ 3.1.@.433FAQ 2.2.@.457FAQ 2.2.@.466FAQ 2.1.@.476FAQ 2.1.@.485FAQ 1.3.@.517FAQ 1.3.@.525FAQ 1.2.@.533FAQ 1.2.@.543FAQ 1.1.@.597FAQ 1.1.@.606FAQ 12.3.@.609FAQ 12.2.@.610FAQ 12.1.@.611FAQ 11.3.@.612FAQ 11.2.@.613FAQ 11.1.@.614FAQ 10.2.@.615FAQ 10.1.@.616FAQ 9.3.@.617FAQ 9.2.@.618FAQ 9.1.@.619FAQ 8.3.@.620FAQ 8.2.@.621FAQ 8.1.@.622FAQ 7.3.@.623FAQ 7.2.@.624FAQ 7.1.@.625FAQ 6.2.@.626FAQ 6.1.@.627FAQ 5.4.@.628FAQ 5.3.@.629FAQ 5.2.@.630FAQ 5.1.@.631FAQ 4.3.@.632FAQ 4.2.@.633FAQ 4.1.@.634FAQ 3.3.@.635FAQ 3.2.@.636FAQ 3.1.@.637FAQ 2.2.@.638FAQ 2.1.@.639FAQ 1.3.@.640FAQ 1.2.@.641FAQ 1.1.@.642Changes in land use can also modify the amount of tiny aerosol particles in the air. For instance, industrial and domestic activities can contribute to aerosol emissions, as do natural environments such as forests or salt lakes. Aerosols cool down global temperature by blocking out sunlight but can also affect the formation of clouds and therefore the occurrence of precipitation (see FAQ 7.2).

FAQ 8.1.gFAQ 7.3.kFAQ 7.3.tFAQ 7.2.ahFAQ 7.2.apFAQ 7.1.bgFAQ 7.1.bpFAQ 6.2.cnFAQ 6.2.cwFAQ 6.1.drFAQ 6.1.eaFAQ 5.4.edFAQ 5.4.eyFAQ 5.3.fbFAQ 5.3.hbFAQ 5.2.heFAQ 5.2.hwFAQ 5.1.hzFAQ 5.1.@.266FAQ 4.3.@.276FAQ 4.3.@.285FAQ 4.2.@.333FAQ 4.2.@.341FAQ 4.1.@.365FAQ 4.1.@.372FAQ 3.3.@.384FAQ 3.3.@.392FAQ 3.2.@.413FAQ 3.2.@.414FAQ 3.2.@.421FAQ 3.1.@.426FAQ 3.1.@.434FAQ 2.2.@.458FAQ 2.2.@.467FAQ 2.1.@.477FAQ 2.1.@.486FAQ 1.3.@.518FAQ 1.3.@.526FAQ 1.2.@.534FAQ 1.2.@.544FAQ 1.1.@.598FAQ 1.1.@.607FAQ 12.3.@.610FAQ 12.2.@.611FAQ 12.1.@.612FAQ 11.3.@.613FAQ 11.2.@.614FAQ 11.1.@.615FAQ 10.2.@.616FAQ 10.1.@.617FAQ 9.3.@.618FAQ 9.2.@.619FAQ 9.1.@.620FAQ 8.3.@.621FAQ 8.2.@.622FAQ 8.1.@.623FAQ 7.3.@.624FAQ 7.2.@.625FAQ 7.1.@.626FAQ 6.2.@.627FAQ 6.1.@.628FAQ 5.4.@.629FAQ 5.3.@.630FAQ 5.2.@.631FAQ 5.1.@.632FAQ 4.3.@.633FAQ 4.2.@.634FAQ 4.1.@.635FAQ 3.3.@.636FAQ 3.2.@.637FAQ 3.1.@.638FAQ 2.2.@.639FAQ 2.1.@.640FAQ 1.3.@.641FAQ 1.2.@.642FAQ 1.1.@.643Vegetation plays an important role in soaking up soil moisture and evaporating water into the air (transpiration) through tiny holes (stomata) that allow the plants to take in carbon dioxide. Some plants are better at retaining water than others, so changes in vegetation can affect how much water infiltrates into the ground, flows into streams and rivers, or is evaporated.

FAQ 8.1.hFAQ 7.3.lFAQ 7.3.uFAQ 7.2.aiFAQ 7.2.aqFAQ 7.1.bhFAQ 7.1.bqFAQ 6.2.coFAQ 6.2.cxFAQ 6.1.dsFAQ 6.1.ebFAQ 5.4.eeFAQ 5.4.ezFAQ 5.3.fcFAQ 5.3.hcFAQ 5.2.hfFAQ 5.2.hxFAQ 5.1.iaFAQ 5.1.@.267FAQ 4.3.@.277FAQ 4.3.@.286FAQ 4.2.@.334FAQ 4.2.@.342FAQ 4.1.@.366FAQ 4.1.@.373FAQ 3.3.@.385FAQ 3.3.@.393FAQ 3.2.@.414FAQ 3.2.@.415FAQ 3.2.@.422FAQ 3.1.@.427FAQ 3.1.@.435FAQ 2.2.@.459FAQ 2.2.@.468FAQ 2.1.@.478FAQ 2.1.@.487FAQ 1.3.@.519FAQ 1.3.@.527FAQ 1.2.@.535FAQ 1.2.@.545FAQ 1.1.@.599FAQ 1.1.@.608FAQ 12.3.@.611FAQ 12.2.@.612FAQ 12.1.@.613FAQ 11.3.@.614FAQ 11.2.@.615FAQ 11.1.@.616FAQ 10.2.@.617FAQ 10.1.@.618FAQ 9.3.@.619FAQ 9.2.@.620FAQ 9.1.@.621FAQ 8.3.@.622FAQ 8.2.@.623FAQ 8.1.@.624FAQ 7.3.@.625FAQ 7.2.@.626FAQ 7.1.@.627FAQ 6.2.@.628FAQ 6.1.@.629FAQ 5.4.@.630FAQ 5.3.@.631FAQ 5.2.@.632FAQ 5.1.@.633FAQ 4.3.@.634FAQ 4.2.@.635FAQ 4.1.@.636FAQ 3.3.@.637FAQ 3.2.@.638FAQ 3.1.@.639FAQ 2.2.@.640FAQ 2.1.@.641FAQ 1.3.@.642FAQ 1.2.@.643FAQ 1.1.@.644More globally, land-use change is currently responsible for about 15% of the emissions of carbon dioxide from human activities, leading to global warming, which in turn affects precipitation, evaporation, and plant transpiration. In addition, higher atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide due to human activities can make plants more efficient at retaining water because the stomata do not need to open so widely. Improved land and water management (e.g., reforestation, sustainable irrigation) can also contribute to reducing climate change and adapting to some of its adverse consequences.

FAQ 8.1.iFAQ 7.3.mFAQ 7.3.vFAQ 7.2.ajFAQ 7.2.arFAQ 7.1.biFAQ 7.1.brFAQ 6.2.cpFAQ 6.2.cyFAQ 6.1.dtFAQ 6.1.ecFAQ 5.4.efFAQ 5.4.faFAQ 5.3.fdFAQ 5.3.hdFAQ 5.2.hgFAQ 5.2.hyFAQ 5.1.ibFAQ 5.1.@.268FAQ 4.3.@.278FAQ 4.3.@.287FAQ 4.2.@.335FAQ 4.2.@.343FAQ 4.1.@.367FAQ 4.1.@.374FAQ 3.3.@.386FAQ 3.3.@.394FAQ 3.2.@.415FAQ 3.2.@.416FAQ 3.2.@.423FAQ 3.1.@.428FAQ 3.1.@.436FAQ 2.2.@.460FAQ 2.2.@.469FAQ 2.1.@.479FAQ 2.1.@.488FAQ 1.3.@.520FAQ 1.3.@.528FAQ 1.2.@.536FAQ 1.2.@.546FAQ 1.1.@.600FAQ 1.1.@.609FAQ 12.3.@.612FAQ 12.2.@.613FAQ 12.1.@.614FAQ 11.3.@.615FAQ 11.2.@.616FAQ 11.1.@.617FAQ 10.2.@.618FAQ 10.1.@.619FAQ 9.3.@.620FAQ 9.2.@.621FAQ 9.1.@.622FAQ 8.3.@.623FAQ 8.2.@.624FAQ 8.1.@.625FAQ 7.3.@.626FAQ 7.2.@.627FAQ 7.1.@.628FAQ 6.2.@.629FAQ 6.1.@.630FAQ 5.4.@.631FAQ 5.3.@.632FAQ 5.2.@.633FAQ 5.1.@.634FAQ 4.3.@.635FAQ 4.2.@.636FAQ 4.1.@.637FAQ 3.3.@.638FAQ 3.2.@.639FAQ 3.1.@.640FAQ 2.2.@.641FAQ 2.1.@.642FAQ 1.3.@.643FAQ 1.2.@.644FAQ 1.1.@.645In summary, there is abundant evidence that changes in land use and land cover alter the water cycle globally, regionally and locally, by changing precipitation, evaporation, flooding, groundwater, and the availability of freshwater for a variety of uses. Since all the components of the water cycle are connected (and linked to the carbon cycle), changes in land use trickle down to many other components of the water cycle and climate system.

FAQ 8.1.jFAQ 7.3.nFAQ 7.3.wFAQ 7.2.akFAQ 7.2.asFAQ 7.1.bjFAQ 7.1.bsFAQ 6.2.cqFAQ 6.2.czFAQ 6.1.duFAQ 6.1.edFAQ 5.4.egFAQ 5.4.fbFAQ 5.3.feFAQ 5.3.heFAQ 5.2.hhFAQ 5.2.hzFAQ 5.1.icFAQ 5.1.@.269FAQ 4.3.@.279FAQ 4.3.@.288FAQ 4.2.@.336FAQ 4.2.@.344FAQ 4.1.@.368FAQ 4.1.@.375FAQ 3.3.@.387FAQ 3.3.@.395FAQ 3.2.@.416FAQ 3.2.@.417FAQ 3.2.@.424FAQ 3.1.@.429FAQ 3.1.@.437FAQ 2.2.@.461FAQ 2.2.@.470FAQ 2.1.@.480FAQ 2.1.@.489FAQ 1.3.@.521FAQ 1.3.@.529FAQ 1.2.@.537FAQ 1.2.@.547FAQ 1.1.@.601FAQ 1.1.@.610FAQ 12.3.@.613FAQ 12.2.@.614FAQ 12.1.@.615FAQ 11.3.@.616FAQ 11.2.@.617FAQ 11.1.@.618FAQ 10.2.@.619FAQ 10.1.@.620FAQ 9.3.@.621FAQ 9.2.@.622FAQ 9.1.@.623FAQ 8.3.@.624FAQ 8.2.@.625FAQ 8.1.@.626FAQ 7.3.@.627FAQ 7.2.@.628FAQ 7.1.@.629FAQ 6.2.@.630FAQ 6.1.@.631FAQ 5.4.@.632FAQ 5.3.@.633FAQ 5.2.@.634FAQ 5.1.@.635FAQ 4.3.@.636FAQ 4.2.@.637FAQ 4.1.@.638FAQ 3.3.@.639FAQ 3.2.@.640FAQ 3.1.@.641FAQ 2.2.@.642FAQ 2.1.@.643FAQ 1.3.@.644FAQ 1.2.@.645FAQ 1.1.@.646FAQ

FAQ 8.1.kFAQ 7.3.oFAQ 7.3.xFAQ 7.2.alFAQ 7.2.atFAQ 7.1.bkFAQ 7.1.btFAQ 6.2.crFAQ 6.2.daFAQ 6.1.dvFAQ 6.1.eeFAQ 5.4.ehFAQ 5.4.fcFAQ 5.3.ffFAQ 5.3.hfFAQ 5.2.hiFAQ 5.2.iaFAQ 5.1.idFAQ 5.1.@.270FAQ 4.3.@.280FAQ 4.3.@.289FAQ 4.2.@.337FAQ 4.2.@.345FAQ 4.1.@.369FAQ 4.1.@.376FAQ 3.3.@.388FAQ 3.3.@.396FAQ 3.2.@.417FAQ 3.2.@.418FAQ 3.2.@.425FAQ 3.1.@.430FAQ 3.1.@.438FAQ 2.2.@.462FAQ 2.2.@.471FAQ 2.1.@.481FAQ 2.1.@.490FAQ 1.3.@.522FAQ 1.3.@.530FAQ 1.2.@.538FAQ 1.2.@.548FAQ 1.1.@.602FAQ 1.1.@.611FAQ 12.3.@.614FAQ 12.2.@.615FAQ 12.1.@.616FAQ 11.3.@.617FAQ 11.2.@.618FAQ 11.1.@.619FAQ 10.2.@.620FAQ 10.1.@.621FAQ 9.3.@.622FAQ 9.2.@.623FAQ 9.1.@.624FAQ 8.3.@.625FAQ 8.2.@.626FAQ 8.1.@.627FAQ 7.3.@.628FAQ 7.2.@.629FAQ 7.1.@.630FAQ 6.2.@.631FAQ 6.1.@.632FAQ 5.4.@.633FAQ 5.3.@.634FAQ 5.2.@.635FAQ 5.1.@.636FAQ 4.3.@.637FAQ 4.2.@.638FAQ 4.1.@.639FAQ 3.3.@.640FAQ 3.2.@.641FAQ 3.1.@.642FAQ 2.2.@.643FAQ 2.1.@.644FAQ 1.3.@.645FAQ 1.2.@.646FAQ 1.1.@.647FAQ 8.1 (continued)

FAQ 8.1.aFAQ 8.1.lFAQ 7.3.pFAQ 7.3.yFAQ 7.2.amFAQ 7.2.auFAQ 7.1.blFAQ 7.1.buFAQ 6.2.csFAQ 6.2.dbFAQ 6.1.dwFAQ 6.1.efFAQ 5.4.eiFAQ 5.4.fdFAQ 5.3.fgFAQ 5.3.hgFAQ 5.2.hjFAQ 5.2.ibFAQ 5.1.ieFAQ 5.1.@.271FAQ 4.3.@.281FAQ 4.3.@.290FAQ 4.2.@.338FAQ 4.2.@.346FAQ 4.1.@.370FAQ 4.1.@.377FAQ 3.3.@.389FAQ 3.3.@.397FAQ 3.2.@.418FAQ 3.2.@.419FAQ 3.2.@.426FAQ 3.1.@.431FAQ 3.1.@.439FAQ 2.2.@.463FAQ 2.2.@.472FAQ 2.1.@.482FAQ 2.1.@.491FAQ 1.3.@.523FAQ 1.3.@.531FAQ 1.2.@.539FAQ 1.2.@.549FAQ 1.1.@.603FAQ 1.1.@.612FAQ 12.3.@.615FAQ 12.2.@.616FAQ 12.1.@.617FAQ 11.3.@.618FAQ 11.2.@.619FAQ 11.1.@.620FAQ 10.2.@.621FAQ 10.1.@.622FAQ 9.3.@.623FAQ 9.2.@.624FAQ 9.1.@.625FAQ 8.3.@.626FAQ 8.2.@.627FAQ 8.1.@.628FAQ 7.3.@.629FAQ 7.2.@.630FAQ 7.1.@.631FAQ 6.2.@.632FAQ 6.1.@.633FAQ 5.4.@.634FAQ 5.3.@.635FAQ 5.2.@.636FAQ 5.1.@.637FAQ 4.3.@.638FAQ 4.2.@.639FAQ 4.1.@.640FAQ 3.3.@.641FAQ 3.2.@.642FAQ 3.1.@.643FAQ 2.2.@.644FAQ 2.1.@.645FAQ 1.3.@.646FAQ 1.2.@.647FAQ 1.1.@.648FAQ 8.1: How do land use changes affect the water cycle?

FAQ 8.1.bFAQ 8.1.mFAQ 7.3.qFAQ 7.3.zFAQ 7.2.anFAQ 7.2.avFAQ 7.1.bmFAQ 7.1.bvFAQ 6.2.ctFAQ 6.2.dcFAQ 6.1.dxFAQ 6.1.egFAQ 5.4.ejFAQ 5.4.feFAQ 5.3.fhFAQ 5.3.hhFAQ 5.2.hkFAQ 5.2.icFAQ 5.1.ifFAQ 5.1.@.272FAQ 4.3.@.282FAQ 4.3.@.291FAQ 4.2.@.339FAQ 4.2.@.347FAQ 4.1.@.371FAQ 4.1.@.378FAQ 3.3.@.390FAQ 3.3.@.398FAQ 3.2.@.419FAQ 3.2.@.420FAQ 3.2.@.427FAQ 3.1.@.432FAQ 3.1.@.440FAQ 2.2.@.464FAQ 2.2.@.473FAQ 2.1.@.483FAQ 2.1.@.492FAQ 1.3.@.524FAQ 1.3.@.532FAQ 1.2.@.540FAQ 1.2.@.550FAQ 1.1.@.604FAQ 1.1.@.613FAQ 12.3.@.616FAQ 12.2.@.617FAQ 12.1.@.618FAQ 11.3.@.619FAQ 11.2.@.620FAQ 11.1.@.621FAQ 10.2.@.622FAQ 10.1.@.623FAQ 9.3.@.624FAQ 9.2.@.625FAQ 9.1.@.626FAQ 8.3.@.627FAQ 8.2.@.628FAQ 8.1.@.629FAQ 7.3.@.630FAQ 7.2.@.631FAQ 7.1.@.632FAQ 6.2.@.633FAQ 6.1.@.634FAQ 5.4.@.635FAQ 5.3.@.636FAQ 5.2.@.637FAQ 5.1.@.638FAQ 4.3.@.639FAQ 4.2.@.640FAQ 4.1.@.641FAQ 3.3.@.642FAQ 3.2.@.643FAQ 3.1.@.644FAQ 2.2.@.645FAQ 2.1.@.646FAQ 1.3.@.647FAQ 1.2.@.648FAQ 1.1.@.649Land-use changes and consequencesWater cycle effects

FAQ 8.1.cFAQ 8.1.nFAQ 7.3.rFAQ 7.3.aaFAQ 7.2.aoFAQ 7.2.awFAQ 7.1.bnFAQ 7.1.bwFAQ 6.2.cuFAQ 6.2.ddFAQ 6.1.dyFAQ 6.1.ehFAQ 5.4.ekFAQ 5.4.ffFAQ 5.3.fiFAQ 5.3.hiFAQ 5.2.hlFAQ 5.2.idFAQ 5.1.igFAQ 5.1.@.273FAQ 4.3.@.283FAQ 4.3.@.292FAQ 4.2.@.340FAQ 4.2.@.348FAQ 4.1.@.372FAQ 4.1.@.379FAQ 3.3.@.391FAQ 3.3.@.399FAQ 3.2.@.420FAQ 3.2.@.421FAQ 3.2.@.428FAQ 3.1.@.433FAQ 3.1.@.441FAQ 2.2.@.465FAQ 2.2.@.474FAQ 2.1.@.484FAQ 2.1.@.493FAQ 1.3.@.525FAQ 1.3.@.533FAQ 1.2.@.541FAQ 1.2.@.551FAQ 1.1.@.605FAQ 1.1.@.614FAQ 12.3.@.617FAQ 12.2.@.618FAQ 12.1.@.619FAQ 11.3.@.620FAQ 11.2.@.621FAQ 11.1.@.622FAQ 10.2.@.623FAQ 10.1.@.624FAQ 9.3.@.625FAQ 9.2.@.626FAQ 9.1.@.627FAQ 8.3.@.628FAQ 8.2.@.629FAQ 8.1.@.630FAQ 7.3.@.631FAQ 7.2.@.632FAQ 7.1.@.633FAQ 6.2.@.634FAQ 6.1.@.635FAQ 5.4.@.636FAQ 5.3.@.637FAQ 5.2.@.638FAQ 5.1.@.639FAQ 4.3.@.640FAQ 4.2.@.641FAQ 4.1.@.642FAQ 3.3.@.643FAQ 3.2.@.644FAQ 3.1.@.645FAQ 2.2.@.646FAQ 2.1.@.647FAQ 1.3.@.648FAQ 1.2.@.649FAQ 1.1.@.650Altering land use affects the water cycle in many ways, with subsequent consequences for the whole cycle.

FAQ 8.1.dFAQ 8.1.oFAQ 7.3.sFAQ 7.3.abFAQ 7.2.apFAQ 7.2.axFAQ 7.1.boFAQ 7.1.bxFAQ 6.2.cvFAQ 6.2.deFAQ 6.1.dzFAQ 6.1.eiFAQ 5.4.elFAQ 5.4.fgFAQ 5.3.fjFAQ 5.3.hjFAQ 5.2.hmFAQ 5.2.ieFAQ 5.1.ihFAQ 5.1.@.274FAQ 4.3.@.284FAQ 4.3.@.293FAQ 4.2.@.341FAQ 4.2.@.349FAQ 4.1.@.373FAQ 4.1.@.380FAQ 3.3.@.392FAQ 3.3.@.400FAQ 3.2.@.421FAQ 3.2.@.422FAQ 3.2.@.429FAQ 3.1.@.434FAQ 3.1.@.442FAQ 2.2.@.466FAQ 2.2.@.475FAQ 2.1.@.485FAQ 2.1.@.494FAQ 1.3.@.526FAQ 1.3.@.534FAQ 1.2.@.542FAQ 1.2.@.552FAQ 1.1.@.606FAQ 1.1.@.615FAQ 12.3.@.618FAQ 12.2.@.619FAQ 12.1.@.620FAQ 11.3.@.621FAQ 11.2.@.622FAQ 11.1.@.623FAQ 10.2.@.624FAQ 10.1.@.625FAQ 9.3.@.626FAQ 9.2.@.627FAQ 9.1.@.628FAQ 8.3.@.629FAQ 8.2.@.630FAQ 8.1.@.631FAQ 7.3.@.632FAQ 7.2.@.633FAQ 7.1.@.634FAQ 6.2.@.635FAQ 6.1.@.636FAQ 5.4.@.637FAQ 5.3.@.638FAQ 5.2.@.639FAQ 5.1.@.640FAQ 4.3.@.641FAQ 4.2.@.642FAQ 4.1.@.643FAQ 3.3.@.644FAQ 3.2.@.645FAQ 3.1.@.646FAQ 2.2.@.647FAQ 2.1.@.648FAQ 1.3.@.649FAQ 1.2.@.650FAQ 1.1.@.651Urban cover

FAQ 8.1.eFAQ 8.1.pFAQ 7.3.tFAQ 7.3.acFAQ 7.2.aqFAQ 7.2.ayFAQ 7.1.bpFAQ 7.1.byFAQ 6.2.cwFAQ 6.2.dfFAQ 6.1.eaFAQ 6.1.ejFAQ 5.4.emFAQ 5.4.fhFAQ 5.3.fkFAQ 5.3.hkFAQ 5.2.hnFAQ 5.2.ifFAQ 5.1.iiFAQ 5.1.@.275FAQ 4.3.@.285FAQ 4.3.@.294FAQ 4.2.@.342FAQ 4.2.@.350FAQ 4.1.@.374FAQ 4.1.@.381FAQ 3.3.@.393FAQ 3.3.@.401FAQ 3.2.@.422FAQ 3.2.@.423FAQ 3.2.@.430FAQ 3.1.@.435FAQ 3.1.@.443FAQ 2.2.@.467FAQ 2.2.@.476FAQ 2.1.@.486FAQ 2.1.@.495FAQ 1.3.@.527FAQ 1.3.@.535FAQ 1.2.@.543FAQ 1.2.@.553FAQ 1.1.@.607FAQ 1.1.@.616FAQ 12.3.@.619FAQ 12.2.@.620FAQ 12.1.@.621FAQ 11.3.@.622FAQ 11.2.@.623FAQ 11.1.@.624FAQ 10.2.@.625FAQ 10.1.@.626FAQ 9.3.@.627FAQ 9.2.@.628FAQ 9.1.@.629FAQ 8.3.@.630FAQ 8.2.@.631FAQ 8.1.@.632FAQ 7.3.@.633FAQ 7.2.@.634FAQ 7.1.@.635FAQ 6.2.@.636FAQ 6.1.@.637FAQ 5.4.@.638FAQ 5.3.@.639FAQ 5.2.@.640FAQ 5.1.@.641FAQ 4.3.@.642FAQ 4.2.@.643FAQ 4.1.@.644FAQ 3.3.@.645FAQ 3.2.@.646FAQ 3.1.@.647FAQ 2.2.@.648FAQ 2.1.@.649FAQ 1.3.@.650FAQ 1.2.@.651FAQ 1.1.@.652Soil moisture

FAQ 8.1.fFAQ 8.1.qFAQ 7.3.uFAQ 7.3.adFAQ 7.2.arFAQ 7.2.azFAQ 7.1.bqFAQ 7.1.bzFAQ 6.2.cxFAQ 6.2.dgFAQ 6.1.ebFAQ 6.1.ekFAQ 5.4.enFAQ 5.4.fiFAQ 5.3.flFAQ 5.3.hlFAQ 5.2.hoFAQ 5.2.igFAQ 5.1.ijFAQ 5.1.@.276FAQ 4.3.@.286FAQ 4.3.@.295FAQ 4.2.@.343FAQ 4.2.@.351FAQ 4.1.@.375FAQ 4.1.@.382FAQ 3.3.@.394FAQ 3.3.@.402FAQ 3.2.@.423FAQ 3.2.@.424FAQ 3.2.@.431FAQ 3.1.@.436FAQ 3.1.@.444FAQ 2.2.@.468FAQ 2.2.@.477FAQ 2.1.@.487FAQ 2.1.@.496FAQ 1.3.@.528FAQ 1.3.@.536FAQ 1.2.@.544FAQ 1.2.@.554FAQ 1.1.@.608FAQ 1.1.@.617FAQ 12.3.@.620FAQ 12.2.@.621FAQ 12.1.@.622FAQ 11.3.@.623FAQ 11.2.@.624FAQ 11.1.@.625FAQ 10.2.@.626FAQ 10.1.@.627FAQ 9.3.@.628FAQ 9.2.@.629FAQ 9.1.@.630FAQ 8.3.@.631FAQ 8.2.@.632FAQ 8.1.@.633FAQ 7.3.@.634FAQ 7.2.@.635FAQ 7.1.@.636FAQ 6.2.@.637FAQ 6.1.@.638FAQ 5.4.@.639FAQ 5.3.@.640FAQ 5.2.@.641FAQ 5.1.@.642FAQ 4.3.@.643FAQ 4.2.@.644FAQ 4.1.@.645FAQ 3.3.@.646FAQ 3.2.@.647FAQ 3.1.@.648FAQ 2.2.@.649FAQ 2.1.@.650FAQ 1.3.@.651FAQ 1.2.@.652FAQ 1.1.@.653Aerosols

FAQ 8.1.gFAQ 8.1.rFAQ 7.3.vFAQ 7.3.aeFAQ 7.2.asFAQ 7.2.baFAQ 7.1.brFAQ 7.1.caFAQ 6.2.cyFAQ 6.2.dhFAQ 6.1.ecFAQ 6.1.elFAQ 5.4.eoFAQ 5.4.fjFAQ 5.3.fmFAQ 5.3.hmFAQ 5.2.hpFAQ 5.2.ihFAQ 5.1.ikFAQ 5.1.@.277FAQ 4.3.@.287FAQ 4.3.@.296FAQ 4.2.@.344FAQ 4.2.@.352FAQ 4.1.@.376FAQ 4.1.@.383FAQ 3.3.@.395FAQ 3.3.@.403FAQ 3.2.@.424FAQ 3.2.@.425FAQ 3.2.@.432FAQ 3.1.@.437FAQ 3.1.@.445FAQ 2.2.@.469FAQ 2.2.@.478FAQ 2.1.@.488FAQ 2.1.@.497FAQ 1.3.@.529FAQ 1.3.@.537FAQ 1.2.@.545FAQ 1.2.@.555FAQ 1.1.@.609FAQ 1.1.@.618FAQ 12.3.@.621FAQ 12.2.@.622FAQ 12.1.@.623FAQ 11.3.@.624FAQ 11.2.@.625FAQ 11.1.@.626FAQ 10.2.@.627FAQ 10.1.@.628FAQ 9.3.@.629FAQ 9.2.@.630FAQ 9.1.@.631FAQ 8.3.@.632FAQ 8.2.@.633FAQ 8.1.@.634FAQ 7.3.@.635FAQ 7.2.@.636FAQ 7.1.@.637FAQ 6.2.@.638FAQ 6.1.@.639FAQ 5.4.@.640FAQ 5.3.@.641FAQ 5.2.@.642FAQ 5.1.@.643FAQ 4.3.@.644FAQ 4.2.@.645FAQ 4.1.@.646FAQ 3.3.@.647FAQ 3.2.@.648FAQ 3.1.@.649FAQ 2.2.@.650FAQ 2.1.@.651FAQ 1.3.@.652FAQ 1.2.@.653FAQ 1.1.@.654Water extraction

FAQ 8.1.hFAQ 8.1.sFAQ 7.3.wFAQ 7.3.afFAQ 7.2.atFAQ 7.2.bbFAQ 7.1.bsFAQ 7.1.cbFAQ 6.2.czFAQ 6.2.diFAQ 6.1.edFAQ 6.1.emFAQ 5.4.epFAQ 5.4.fkFAQ 5.3.fnFAQ 5.3.hnFAQ 5.2.hqFAQ 5.2.iiFAQ 5.1.ilFAQ 5.1.@.278FAQ 4.3.@.288FAQ 4.3.@.297FAQ 4.2.@.345FAQ 4.2.@.353FAQ 4.1.@.377FAQ 4.1.@.384FAQ 3.3.@.396FAQ 3.3.@.404FAQ 3.2.@.425FAQ 3.2.@.426FAQ 3.2.@.433FAQ 3.1.@.438FAQ 3.1.@.446FAQ 2.2.@.470FAQ 2.2.@.479FAQ 2.1.@.489FAQ 2.1.@.498FAQ 1.3.@.530FAQ 1.3.@.538FAQ 1.2.@.546FAQ 1.2.@.556FAQ 1.1.@.610FAQ 1.1.@.619FAQ 12.3.@.622FAQ 12.2.@.623FAQ 12.1.@.624FAQ 11.3.@.625FAQ 11.2.@.626FAQ 11.1.@.627FAQ 10.2.@.628FAQ 10.1.@.629FAQ 9.3.@.630FAQ 9.2.@.631FAQ 9.1.@.632FAQ 8.3.@.633FAQ 8.2.@.634FAQ 8.1.@.635FAQ 7.3.@.636FAQ 7.2.@.637FAQ 7.1.@.638FAQ 6.2.@.639FAQ 6.1.@.640FAQ 5.4.@.641FAQ 5.3.@.642FAQ 5.2.@.643FAQ 5.1.@.644FAQ 4.3.@.645FAQ 4.2.@.646FAQ 4.1.@.647FAQ 3.3.@.648FAQ 3.2.@.649FAQ 3.1.@.650FAQ 2.2.@.651FAQ 2.1.@.652FAQ 1.3.@.653FAQ 1.2.@.654FAQ 1.1.@.655Vegetation

FAQ 8.1.iFAQ 8.1.tFAQ 7.3.xFAQ 7.3.agFAQ 7.2.auFAQ 7.2.bcFAQ 7.1.btFAQ 7.1.ccFAQ 6.2.daFAQ 6.2.djFAQ 6.1.eeFAQ 6.1.enFAQ 5.4.eqFAQ 5.4.flFAQ 5.3.foFAQ 5.3.hoFAQ 5.2.hrFAQ 5.2.ijFAQ 5.1.imFAQ 5.1.@.279FAQ 4.3.@.289FAQ 4.3.@.298FAQ 4.2.@.346FAQ 4.2.@.354FAQ 4.1.@.378FAQ 4.1.@.385FAQ 3.3.@.397FAQ 3.3.@.405FAQ 3.2.@.426FAQ 3.2.@.427FAQ 3.2.@.434FAQ 3.1.@.439FAQ 3.1.@.447FAQ 2.2.@.471FAQ 2.2.@.480FAQ 2.1.@.490FAQ 2.1.@.499FAQ 1.3.@.531FAQ 1.3.@.539FAQ 1.2.@.547FAQ 1.2.@.557FAQ 1.1.@.611FAQ 1.1.@.620FAQ 12.3.@.623FAQ 12.2.@.624FAQ 12.1.@.625FAQ 11.3.@.626FAQ 11.2.@.627FAQ 11.1.@.628FAQ 10.2.@.629FAQ 10.1.@.630FAQ 9.3.@.631FAQ 9.2.@.632FAQ 9.1.@.633FAQ 8.3.@.634FAQ 8.2.@.635FAQ 8.1.@.636FAQ 7.3.@.637FAQ 7.2.@.638FAQ 7.1.@.639FAQ 6.2.@.640FAQ 6.1.@.641FAQ 5.4.@.642FAQ 5.3.@.643FAQ 5.2.@.644FAQ 5.1.@.645FAQ 4.3.@.646FAQ 4.2.@.647FAQ 4.1.@.648FAQ 3.3.@.649FAQ 3.2.@.650FAQ 3.1.@.651FAQ 2.2.@.652FAQ 2.1.@.653FAQ 1.3.@.654FAQ 1.2.@.655FAQ 1.1.@.656Global warming

FAQ 8.1.jFAQ 8.1.uFAQ 7.3.yFAQ 7.3.ahFAQ 7.2.avFAQ 7.2.bdFAQ 7.1.buFAQ 7.1.cdFAQ 6.2.dbFAQ 6.2.dkFAQ 6.1.efFAQ 6.1.eoFAQ 5.4.erFAQ 5.4.fmFAQ 5.3.fpFAQ 5.3.hpFAQ 5.2.hsFAQ 5.2.ikFAQ 5.1.inFAQ 5.1.@.280FAQ 4.3.@.290FAQ 4.3.@.299FAQ 4.2.@.347FAQ 4.2.@.355FAQ 4.1.@.379FAQ 4.1.@.386FAQ 3.3.@.398FAQ 3.3.@.406FAQ 3.2.@.427FAQ 3.2.@.428FAQ 3.2.@.435FAQ 3.1.@.440FAQ 3.1.@.448FAQ 2.2.@.472FAQ 2.2.@.481FAQ 2.1.@.491FAQ 2.1.@.500FAQ 1.3.@.532FAQ 1.3.@.540FAQ 1.2.@.548FAQ 1.2.@.558FAQ 1.1.@.612FAQ 1.1.@.621FAQ 12.3.@.624FAQ 12.2.@.625FAQ 12.1.@.626FAQ 11.3.@.627FAQ 11.2.@.628FAQ 11.1.@.629FAQ 10.2.@.630FAQ 10.1.@.631FAQ 9.3.@.632FAQ 9.2.@.633FAQ 9.1.@.634FAQ 8.3.@.635FAQ 8.2.@.636FAQ 8.1.@.637FAQ 7.3.@.638FAQ 7.2.@.639FAQ 7.1.@.640FAQ 6.2.@.641FAQ 6.1.@.642FAQ 5.4.@.643FAQ 5.3.@.644FAQ 5.2.@.645FAQ 5.1.@.646FAQ 4.3.@.647FAQ 4.2.@.648FAQ 4.1.@.649FAQ 3.3.@.650FAQ 3.2.@.651FAQ 3.1.@.652FAQ 2.2.@.653FAQ 2.1.@.654FAQ 1.3.@.655FAQ 1.2.@.656FAQ 1.1.@.657Precipitation

FAQ 8.1.kFAQ 8.1.vFAQ 7.3.zFAQ 7.3.aiFAQ 7.2.awFAQ 7.2.beFAQ 7.1.bvFAQ 7.1.ceFAQ 6.2.dcFAQ 6.2.dlFAQ 6.1.egFAQ 6.1.epFAQ 5.4.esFAQ 5.4.fnFAQ 5.3.fqFAQ 5.3.hqFAQ 5.2.htFAQ 5.2.ilFAQ 5.1.ioFAQ 5.1.@.281FAQ 4.3.@.291FAQ 4.3.@.300FAQ 4.2.@.348FAQ 4.2.@.356FAQ 4.1.@.380FAQ 4.1.@.387FAQ 3.3.@.399FAQ 3.3.@.407FAQ 3.2.@.428FAQ 3.2.@.429FAQ 3.2.@.436FAQ 3.1.@.441FAQ 3.1.@.449FAQ 2.2.@.473FAQ 2.2.@.482FAQ 2.1.@.492FAQ 2.1.@.501FAQ 1.3.@.533FAQ 1.3.@.541FAQ 1.2.@.549FAQ 1.2.@.559FAQ 1.1.@.613FAQ 1.1.@.622FAQ 12.3.@.625FAQ 12.2.@.626FAQ 12.1.@.627FAQ 11.3.@.628FAQ 11.2.@.629FAQ 11.1.@.630FAQ 10.2.@.631FAQ 10.1.@.632FAQ 9.3.@.633FAQ 9.2.@.634FAQ 9.1.@.635FAQ 8.3.@.636FAQ 8.2.@.637FAQ 8.1.@.638FAQ 7.3.@.639FAQ 7.2.@.640FAQ 7.1.@.641FAQ 6.2.@.642FAQ 6.1.@.643FAQ 5.4.@.644FAQ 5.3.@.645FAQ 5.2.@.646FAQ 5.1.@.647FAQ 4.3.@.648FAQ 4.2.@.649FAQ 4.1.@.650FAQ 3.3.@.651FAQ 3.2.@.652FAQ 3.1.@.653FAQ 2.2.@.654FAQ 2.1.@.655FAQ 1.3.@.656FAQ 1.2.@.657FAQ 1.1.@.658Runoff

FAQ 8.1.lFAQ 8.1.wFAQ 7.3.aaFAQ 7.3.ajFAQ 7.2.axFAQ 7.2.bfFAQ 7.1.bwFAQ 7.1.cfFAQ 6.2.ddFAQ 6.2.dmFAQ 6.1.ehFAQ 6.1.eqFAQ 5.4.etFAQ 5.4.foFAQ 5.3.frFAQ 5.3.hrFAQ 5.2.huFAQ 5.2.imFAQ 5.1.ipFAQ 5.1.@.282FAQ 4.3.@.292FAQ 4.3.@.301FAQ 4.2.@.349FAQ 4.2.@.357FAQ 4.1.@.381FAQ 4.1.@.388FAQ 3.3.@.400FAQ 3.3.@.408FAQ 3.2.@.429FAQ 3.2.@.430FAQ 3.2.@.437FAQ 3.1.@.442FAQ 3.1.@.450FAQ 2.2.@.474FAQ 2.2.@.483FAQ 2.1.@.493FAQ 2.1.@.502FAQ 1.3.@.534FAQ 1.3.@.542FAQ 1.2.@.550FAQ 1.2.@.560FAQ 1.1.@.614FAQ 1.1.@.623FAQ 12.3.@.626FAQ 12.2.@.627FAQ 12.1.@.628FAQ 11.3.@.629FAQ 11.2.@.630FAQ 11.1.@.631FAQ 10.2.@.632FAQ 10.1.@.633FAQ 9.3.@.634FAQ 9.2.@.635FAQ 9.1.@.636FAQ 8.3.@.637FAQ 8.2.@.638FAQ 8.1.@.639FAQ 7.3.@.640FAQ 7.2.@.641FAQ 7.1.@.642FAQ 6.2.@.643FAQ 6.1.@.644FAQ 5.4.@.645FAQ 5.3.@.646FAQ 5.2.@.647FAQ 5.1.@.648FAQ 4.3.@.649FAQ 4.2.@.650FAQ 4.1.@.651FAQ 3.3.@.652FAQ 3.2.@.653FAQ 3.1.@.654FAQ 2.2.@.655FAQ 2.1.@.656FAQ 1.3.@.657FAQ 1.2.@.658FAQ 1.1.@.659Infiltration

FAQ 8.1.mFAQ 8.1.xFAQ 7.3.abFAQ 7.3.akFAQ 7.2.ayFAQ 7.2.bgFAQ 7.1.bxFAQ 7.1.cgFAQ 6.2.deFAQ 6.2.dnFAQ 6.1.eiFAQ 6.1.erFAQ 5.4.euFAQ 5.4.fpFAQ 5.3.fsFAQ 5.3.hsFAQ 5.2.hvFAQ 5.2.inFAQ 5.1.iqFAQ 5.1.@.283FAQ 4.3.@.293FAQ 4.3.@.302FAQ 4.2.@.350FAQ 4.2.@.358FAQ 4.1.@.382FAQ 4.1.@.389FAQ 3.3.@.401FAQ 3.3.@.409FAQ 3.2.@.430FAQ 3.2.@.431FAQ 3.2.@.438FAQ 3.1.@.443FAQ 3.1.@.451FAQ 2.2.@.475FAQ 2.2.@.484FAQ 2.1.@.494FAQ 2.1.@.503FAQ 1.3.@.535FAQ 1.3.@.543FAQ 1.2.@.551FAQ 1.2.@.561FAQ 1.1.@.615FAQ 1.1.@.624FAQ 12.3.@.627FAQ 12.2.@.628FAQ 12.1.@.629FAQ 11.3.@.630FAQ 11.2.@.631FAQ 11.1.@.632FAQ 10.2.@.633FAQ 10.1.@.634FAQ 9.3.@.635FAQ 9.2.@.636FAQ 9.1.@.637FAQ 8.3.@.638FAQ 8.2.@.639FAQ 8.1.@.640FAQ 7.3.@.641FAQ 7.2.@.642FAQ 7.1.@.643FAQ 6.2.@.644FAQ 6.1.@.645FAQ 5.4.@.646FAQ 5.3.@.647FAQ 5.2.@.648FAQ 5.1.@.649FAQ 4.3.@.650FAQ 4.2.@.651FAQ 4.1.@.652FAQ 3.3.@.653FAQ 3.2.@.654FAQ 3.1.@.655FAQ 2.2.@.656FAQ 2.1.@.657FAQ 1.3.@.658FAQ 1.2.@.659FAQ 1.1.@.660Groundwater

FAQ 8.1.nFAQ 8.1.yFAQ 7.3.acFAQ 7.3.alFAQ 7.2.azFAQ 7.2.bhFAQ 7.1.byFAQ 7.1.chFAQ 6.2.dfFAQ 6.2.doFAQ 6.1.ejFAQ 6.1.esFAQ 5.4.evFAQ 5.4.fqFAQ 5.3.ftFAQ 5.3.htFAQ 5.2.hwFAQ 5.2.ioFAQ 5.1.irFAQ 5.1.@.284FAQ 4.3.@.294FAQ 4.3.@.303FAQ 4.2.@.351FAQ 4.2.@.359FAQ 4.1.@.383FAQ 4.1.@.390FAQ 3.3.@.402FAQ 3.3.@.410FAQ 3.2.@.431FAQ 3.2.@.432FAQ 3.2.@.439FAQ 3.1.@.444FAQ 3.1.@.452FAQ 2.2.@.476FAQ 2.2.@.485FAQ 2.1.@.495FAQ 2.1.@.504FAQ 1.3.@.536FAQ 1.3.@.544FAQ 1.2.@.552FAQ 1.2.@.562FAQ 1.1.@.616FAQ 1.1.@.625FAQ 12.3.@.628FAQ 12.2.@.629FAQ 12.1.@.630FAQ 11.3.@.631FAQ 11.2.@.632FAQ 11.1.@.633FAQ 10.2.@.634FAQ 10.1.@.635FAQ 9.3.@.636FAQ 9.2.@.637FAQ 9.1.@.638FAQ 8.3.@.639FAQ 8.2.@.640FAQ 8.1.@.641FAQ 7.3.@.642FAQ 7.2.@.643FAQ 7.1.@.644FAQ 6.2.@.645FAQ 6.1.@.646FAQ 5.4.@.647FAQ 5.3.@.648FAQ 5.2.@.649FAQ 5.1.@.650FAQ 4.3.@.651FAQ 4.2.@.652FAQ 4.1.@.653FAQ 3.3.@.654FAQ 3.2.@.655FAQ 3.1.@.656FAQ 2.2.@.657FAQ 2.1.@.658FAQ 1.3.@.659FAQ 1.2.@.660FAQ 1.1.@.661Surface evaporation

FAQ 8.1.oFAQ 8.1.zFAQ 7.3.adFAQ 7.3.amFAQ 7.2.baFAQ 7.2.biFAQ 7.1.bzFAQ 7.1.ciFAQ 6.2.dgFAQ 6.2.dpFAQ 6.1.ekFAQ 6.1.etFAQ 5.4.ewFAQ 5.4.frFAQ 5.3.fuFAQ 5.3.huFAQ 5.2.hxFAQ 5.2.ipFAQ 5.1.isFAQ 5.1.@.285FAQ 4.3.@.295FAQ 4.3.@.304FAQ 4.2.@.352FAQ 4.2.@.360FAQ 4.1.@.384FAQ 4.1.@.391FAQ 3.3.@.403FAQ 3.3.@.411FAQ 3.2.@.432FAQ 3.2.@.433FAQ 3.2.@.440FAQ 3.1.@.445FAQ 3.1.@.453FAQ 2.2.@.477FAQ 2.2.@.486FAQ 2.1.@.496FAQ 2.1.@.505FAQ 1.3.@.537FAQ 1.3.@.545FAQ 1.2.@.553FAQ 1.2.@.563FAQ 1.1.@.617FAQ 1.1.@.626FAQ 12.3.@.629FAQ 12.2.@.630FAQ 12.1.@.631FAQ 11.3.@.632FAQ 11.2.@.633FAQ 11.1.@.634FAQ 10.2.@.635FAQ 10.1.@.636FAQ 9.3.@.637FAQ 9.2.@.638FAQ 9.1.@.639FAQ 8.3.@.640FAQ 8.2.@.641FAQ 8.1.@.642FAQ 7.3.@.643FAQ 7.2.@.644FAQ 7.1.@.645FAQ 6.2.@.646FAQ 6.1.@.647FAQ 5.4.@.648FAQ 5.3.@.649FAQ 5.2.@.650FAQ 5.1.@.651FAQ 4.3.@.652FAQ 4.2.@.653FAQ 4.1.@.654FAQ 3.3.@.655FAQ 3.2.@.656FAQ 3.1.@.657FAQ 2.2.@.658FAQ 2.1.@.659FAQ 1.3.@.660FAQ 1.2.@.661FAQ 1.1.@.662Plant transpiration

FAQ 8.1.pFAQ 8.1.aaFAQ 7.3.aeFAQ 7.3.anFAQ 7.2.bbFAQ 7.2.bjFAQ 7.1.caFAQ 7.1.cjFAQ 6.2.dhFAQ 6.2.dqFAQ 6.1.elFAQ 6.1.euFAQ 5.4.exFAQ 5.4.fsFAQ 5.3.fvFAQ 5.3.hvFAQ 5.2.hyFAQ 5.2.iqFAQ 5.1.itFAQ 5.1.@.286FAQ 4.3.@.296FAQ 4.3.@.305FAQ 4.2.@.353FAQ 4.2.@.361FAQ 4.1.@.385FAQ 4.1.@.392FAQ 3.3.@.404FAQ 3.3.@.412FAQ 3.2.@.433FAQ 3.2.@.434FAQ 3.2.@.441FAQ 3.1.@.446FAQ 3.1.@.454FAQ 2.2.@.478FAQ 2.2.@.487FAQ 2.1.@.497FAQ 2.1.@.506FAQ 1.3.@.538FAQ 1.3.@.546FAQ 1.2.@.554FAQ 1.2.@.564FAQ 1.1.@.618FAQ 1.1.@.627FAQ 12.3.@.630FAQ 12.2.@.631FAQ 12.1.@.632FAQ 11.3.@.633FAQ 11.2.@.634FAQ 11.1.@.635FAQ 10.2.@.636FAQ 10.1.@.637FAQ 9.3.@.638FAQ 9.2.@.639FAQ 9.1.@.640FAQ 8.3.@.641FAQ 8.2.@.642FAQ 8.1.@.643FAQ 7.3.@.644FAQ 7.2.@.645FAQ 7.1.@.646FAQ 6.2.@.647FAQ 6.1.@.648FAQ 5.4.@.649FAQ 5.3.@.650FAQ 5.2.@.651FAQ 5.1.@.652FAQ 4.3.@.653FAQ 4.2.@.654FAQ 4.1.@.655FAQ 3.3.@.656FAQ 3.2.@.657FAQ 3.1.@.658FAQ 2.2.@.659FAQ 2.1.@.660FAQ 1.3.@.661FAQ 1.2.@.662FAQ 1.1.@.663FAQ 8.1, Figure 1 | Land-use changes and their consequences on the water cycle. As all the components or the water cycle are tightly connected, changes in one aspect of the cycle affects almost all the cycle.

FAQ 8.1.qFAQ 8.1.abFAQ 7.3.afFAQ 7.3.aoFAQ 7.2.bcFAQ 7.2.bkFAQ 7.1.cbFAQ 7.1.ckFAQ 6.2.diFAQ 6.2.drFAQ 6.1.emFAQ 6.1.evFAQ 5.4.eyFAQ 5.4.ftFAQ 5.3.fwFAQ 5.3.hwFAQ 5.2.hzFAQ 5.2.irFAQ 5.1.iuFAQ 5.1.@.287FAQ 4.3.@.297FAQ 4.3.@.306FAQ 4.2.@.354FAQ 4.2.@.362FAQ 4.1.@.386FAQ 4.1.@.393FAQ 3.3.@.405FAQ 3.3.@.413FAQ 3.2.@.434FAQ 3.2.@.435FAQ 3.2.@.442FAQ 3.1.@.447FAQ 3.1.@.455FAQ 2.2.@.479FAQ 2.2.@.488FAQ 2.1.@.498FAQ 2.1.@.507FAQ 1.3.@.539FAQ 1.3.@.547FAQ 1.2.@.555FAQ 1.2.@.565FAQ 1.1.@.619FAQ 1.1.@.628FAQ 12.3.@.631FAQ 12.2.@.632FAQ 12.1.@.633FAQ 11.3.@.634FAQ 11.2.@.635FAQ 11.1.@.636FAQ 10.2.@.637FAQ 10.1.@.638FAQ 9.3.@.639FAQ 9.2.@.640FAQ 9.1.@.641FAQ 8.3.@.642FAQ 8.2.@.643FAQ 8.1.@.644FAQ 7.3.@.645FAQ 7.2.@.646FAQ 7.1.@.647FAQ 6.2.@.648FAQ 6.1.@.649FAQ 5.4.@.650FAQ 5.3.@.651FAQ 5.2.@.652FAQ 5.1.@.653FAQ 4.3.@.654FAQ 4.2.@.655FAQ 4.1.@.656FAQ 3.3.@.657FAQ 3.2.@.658FAQ 3.1.@.659FAQ 2.2.@.660FAQ 2.1.@.661FAQ 1.3.@.662FAQ 1.2.@.663FAQ 1.1.@.664FAQ

FAQ 8.1.rFAQ 8.1.acFAQ 7.3.agFAQ 7.3.apFAQ 7.2.bdFAQ 7.2.blFAQ 7.1.ccFAQ 7.1.clFAQ 6.2.djFAQ 6.2.dsFAQ 6.1.enFAQ 6.1.ewFAQ 5.4.ezFAQ 5.4.fuFAQ 5.3.fxFAQ 5.3.hxFAQ 5.2.iaFAQ 5.2.isFAQ 5.1.ivFAQ 5.1.@.288FAQ 4.3.@.298FAQ 4.3.@.307FAQ 4.2.@.355FAQ 4.2.@.363FAQ 4.1.@.387FAQ 4.1.@.394FAQ 3.3.@.406FAQ 3.3.@.414FAQ 3.2.@.435FAQ 3.2.@.436FAQ 3.2.@.443FAQ 3.1.@.448FAQ 3.1.@.456FAQ 2.2.@.480FAQ 2.2.@.489FAQ 2.1.@.499FAQ 2.1.@.508FAQ 1.3.@.540FAQ 1.3.@.548FAQ 1.2.@.556FAQ 1.2.@.566FAQ 1.1.@.620FAQ 1.1.@.629FAQ 12.3.@.632FAQ 12.2.@.633FAQ 12.1.@.634FAQ 11.3.@.635FAQ 11.2.@.636FAQ 11.1.@.637FAQ 10.2.@.638FAQ 10.1.@.639FAQ 9.3.@.640FAQ 9.2.@.641FAQ 9.1.@.642FAQ 8.3.@.643FAQ 8.2.@.644FAQ 8.1.@.645FAQ 7.3.@.646FAQ 7.2.@.647FAQ 7.1.@.648FAQ 6.2.@.649FAQ 6.1.@.650FAQ 5.4.@.651FAQ 5.3.@.652FAQ 5.2.@.653FAQ 5.1.@.654FAQ 4.3.@.655FAQ 4.2.@.656FAQ 4.1.@.657FAQ 3.3.@.658FAQ 3.2.@.659FAQ 3.1.@.660FAQ 2.2.@.661FAQ 2.1.@.662FAQ 1.3.@.663FAQ 1.2.@.664FAQ 1.1.@.665Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 8.1.sFAQ 8.1.adFAQ 7.3.ahFAQ 7.3.aqFAQ 7.2.beFAQ 7.2.bmFAQ 7.1.cdFAQ 7.1.cmFAQ 6.2.dkFAQ 6.2.dtFAQ 6.1.eoFAQ 6.1.exFAQ 5.4.faFAQ 5.4.fvFAQ 5.3.fyFAQ 5.3.hyFAQ 5.2.ibFAQ 5.2.itFAQ 5.1.@.256FAQ 5.1.@.289FAQ 4.3.@.299FAQ 4.3.@.308FAQ 4.2.@.356FAQ 4.2.@.364FAQ 4.1.@.388FAQ 4.1.@.395FAQ 3.3.@.407FAQ 3.3.@.415FAQ 3.2.@.436FAQ 3.2.@.437FAQ 3.2.@.444FAQ 3.1.@.449FAQ 3.1.@.457FAQ 2.2.@.481FAQ 2.2.@.490FAQ 2.1.@.500FAQ 2.1.@.509FAQ 1.3.@.541FAQ 1.3.@.549FAQ 1.2.@.557FAQ 1.2.@.567FAQ 1.1.@.621FAQ 1.1.@.630FAQ 12.3.@.633FAQ 12.2.@.634FAQ 12.1.@.635FAQ 11.3.@.636FAQ 11.2.@.637FAQ 11.1.@.638FAQ 10.2.@.639FAQ 10.1.@.640FAQ 9.3.@.641FAQ 9.2.@.642FAQ 9.1.@.643FAQ 8.3.@.644FAQ 8.2.@.645FAQ 8.1.@.646FAQ 7.3.@.647FAQ 7.2.@.648FAQ 7.1.@.649FAQ 6.2.@.650FAQ 6.1.@.651FAQ 5.4.@.652FAQ 5.3.@.653FAQ 5.2.@.654FAQ 5.1.@.655FAQ 4.3.@.656FAQ 4.2.@.657FAQ 4.1.@.658FAQ 3.3.@.659FAQ 3.2.@.660FAQ 3.1.@.661FAQ 2.2.@.662FAQ 2.1.@.663FAQ 1.3.@.664FAQ 1.2.@.665FAQ 1.1.@.666FAQ 8.2 | Will Floods Become More Severe or More Frequent as a Result of Climate Change?

FAQ 8.2.aFAQ 8.1.tFAQ 8.1.aeFAQ 7.3.aiFAQ 7.3.arFAQ 7.2.bfFAQ 7.2.bnFAQ 7.1.ceFAQ 7.1.cnFAQ 6.2.dlFAQ 6.2.duFAQ 6.1.epFAQ 6.1.eyFAQ 5.4.fbFAQ 5.4.fwFAQ 5.3.fzFAQ 5.3.hzFAQ 5.2.icFAQ 5.2.iuFAQ 5.1.@.257FAQ 5.1.@.290FAQ 4.3.@.300FAQ 4.3.@.309FAQ 4.2.@.357FAQ 4.2.@.365FAQ 4.1.@.389FAQ 4.1.@.396FAQ 3.3.@.408FAQ 3.3.@.416FAQ 3.2.@.437FAQ 3.2.@.438FAQ 3.2.@.445FAQ 3.1.@.450FAQ 3.1.@.458FAQ 2.2.@.482FAQ 2.2.@.491FAQ 2.1.@.501FAQ 2.1.@.510FAQ 1.3.@.542FAQ 1.3.@.550FAQ 1.2.@.558FAQ 1.2.@.568FAQ 1.1.@.622FAQ 1.1.@.631FAQ 12.3.@.634FAQ 12.2.@.635FAQ 12.1.@.636FAQ 11.3.@.637FAQ 11.2.@.638FAQ 11.1.@.639FAQ 10.2.@.640FAQ 10.1.@.641FAQ 9.3.@.642FAQ 9.2.@.643FAQ 9.1.@.644FAQ 8.3.@.645FAQ 8.2.@.646FAQ 8.1.@.647FAQ 7.3.@.648FAQ 7.2.@.649FAQ 7.1.@.650FAQ 6.2.@.651FAQ 6.1.@.652FAQ 5.4.@.653FAQ 5.3.@.654FAQ 5.2.@.655FAQ 5.1.@.656FAQ 4.3.@.657FAQ 4.2.@.658FAQ 4.1.@.659FAQ 3.3.@.660FAQ 3.2.@.661FAQ 3.1.@.662FAQ 2.2.@.663FAQ 2.1.@.664FAQ 1.3.@.665FAQ 1.2.@.666FAQ 1.1.@.667A warmer climate increases the amount and intensity of rainfall during wet events, and this is expected to amplify the severity of flooding. However, the link between rainfall and flooding is complex, so while the most severe flooding events are expected to worsen, floods could become rarer in some regions.

FAQ 8.2.bFAQ 8.1.uFAQ 8.1.afFAQ 7.3.ajFAQ 7.3.asFAQ 7.2.bgFAQ 7.2.boFAQ 7.1.cfFAQ 7.1.coFAQ 6.2.dmFAQ 6.2.dvFAQ 6.1.eqFAQ 6.1.ezFAQ 5.4.fcFAQ 5.4.fxFAQ 5.3.gaFAQ 5.3.iaFAQ 5.2.idFAQ 5.2.ivFAQ 5.1.@.258FAQ 5.1.@.291FAQ 4.3.@.301FAQ 4.3.@.310FAQ 4.2.@.358FAQ 4.2.@.366FAQ 4.1.@.390FAQ 4.1.@.397FAQ 3.3.@.409FAQ 3.3.@.417FAQ 3.2.@.438FAQ 3.2.@.439FAQ 3.2.@.446FAQ 3.1.@.451FAQ 3.1.@.459FAQ 2.2.@.483FAQ 2.2.@.492FAQ 2.1.@.502FAQ 2.1.@.511FAQ 1.3.@.543FAQ 1.3.@.551FAQ 1.2.@.559FAQ 1.2.@.569FAQ 1.1.@.623FAQ 1.1.@.632FAQ 12.3.@.635FAQ 12.2.@.636FAQ 12.1.@.637FAQ 11.3.@.638FAQ 11.2.@.639FAQ 11.1.@.640FAQ 10.2.@.641FAQ 10.1.@.642FAQ 9.3.@.643FAQ 9.2.@.644FAQ 9.1.@.645FAQ 8.3.@.646FAQ 8.2.@.647FAQ 8.1.@.648FAQ 7.3.@.649FAQ 7.2.@.650FAQ 7.1.@.651FAQ 6.2.@.652FAQ 6.1.@.653FAQ 5.4.@.654FAQ 5.3.@.655FAQ 5.2.@.656FAQ 5.1.@.657FAQ 4.3.@.658FAQ 4.2.@.659FAQ 4.1.@.660FAQ 3.3.@.661FAQ 3.2.@.662FAQ 3.1.@.663FAQ 2.2.@.664FAQ 2.1.@.665FAQ 1.3.@.666FAQ 1.2.@.667FAQ 1.1.@.668Floods are a natural and important part of the water cycle but they can also threaten lives and safety, disrupt human activities, and damage infrastructure. Most inland floods occur when rivers overtop their banks (fluvial flooding) or when intense rainfall causes water to build up and overflow locally (pluvial flooding). Flooding is also caused by coastal inundation by the sea, rapid seasonal melting of snow, and the accumulation of debris, such as vegetation or ice, that stops water from draining away.

FAQ 8.2.cFAQ 8.1.vFAQ 8.1.agFAQ 7.3.akFAQ 7.3.atFAQ 7.2.bhFAQ 7.2.bpFAQ 7.1.cgFAQ 7.1.cpFAQ 6.2.dnFAQ 6.2.dwFAQ 6.1.erFAQ 6.1.faFAQ 5.4.fdFAQ 5.4.fyFAQ 5.3.gbFAQ 5.3.ibFAQ 5.2.ieFAQ 5.2.@.256FAQ 5.1.@.259FAQ 5.1.@.292FAQ 4.3.@.302FAQ 4.3.@.311FAQ 4.2.@.359FAQ 4.2.@.367FAQ 4.1.@.391FAQ 4.1.@.398FAQ 3.3.@.410FAQ 3.3.@.418FAQ 3.2.@.439FAQ 3.2.@.440FAQ 3.2.@.447FAQ 3.1.@.452FAQ 3.1.@.460FAQ 2.2.@.484FAQ 2.2.@.493FAQ 2.1.@.503FAQ 2.1.@.512FAQ 1.3.@.544FAQ 1.3.@.552FAQ 1.2.@.560FAQ 1.2.@.570FAQ 1.1.@.624FAQ 1.1.@.633FAQ 12.3.@.636FAQ 12.2.@.637FAQ 12.1.@.638FAQ 11.3.@.639FAQ 11.2.@.640FAQ 11.1.@.641FAQ 10.2.@.642FAQ 10.1.@.643FAQ 9.3.@.644FAQ 9.2.@.645FAQ 9.1.@.646FAQ 8.3.@.647FAQ 8.2.@.648FAQ 8.1.@.649FAQ 7.3.@.650FAQ 7.2.@.651FAQ 7.1.@.652FAQ 6.2.@.653FAQ 6.1.@.654FAQ 5.4.@.655FAQ 5.3.@.656FAQ 5.2.@.657FAQ 5.1.@.658FAQ 4.3.@.659FAQ 4.2.@.660FAQ 4.1.@.661FAQ 3.3.@.662FAQ 3.2.@.663FAQ 3.1.@.664FAQ 2.2.@.665FAQ 2.1.@.666FAQ 1.3.@.667FAQ 1.2.@.668FAQ 1.1.@.669Climate change is already altering the location, frequency and severity of flooding. Close to the coasts, rising sea levels increasingly cause more frequent and severe coastal flooding, and the severity of these floods is exacerbated when combined with heavy rainfall. The heavy and sustained rainfall events responsible for most inland flooding are becoming more intense in many areas as the climate warms because air near Earth’s surface can carry around 7% more water in its gas phase (vapour) for each 1°C of warming. This extra moisture is drawn into weather systems, fueling heavier rainfall (FAQ 8.2, Figure 1).

FAQ 8.2.dFAQ 8.1.wFAQ 8.1.ahFAQ 7.3.alFAQ 7.3.auFAQ 7.2.biFAQ 7.2.bqFAQ 7.1.chFAQ 7.1.cqFAQ 6.2.doFAQ 6.2.dxFAQ 6.1.esFAQ 6.1.fbFAQ 5.4.feFAQ 5.4.fzFAQ 5.3.gcFAQ 5.3.icFAQ 5.2.ifFAQ 5.2.@.257FAQ 5.1.@.260FAQ 5.1.@.293FAQ 4.3.@.303FAQ 4.3.@.312FAQ 4.2.@.360FAQ 4.2.@.368FAQ 4.1.@.392FAQ 4.1.@.399FAQ 3.3.@.411FAQ 3.3.@.419FAQ 3.2.@.440FAQ 3.2.@.441FAQ 3.2.@.448FAQ 3.1.@.453FAQ 3.1.@.461FAQ 2.2.@.485FAQ 2.2.@.494FAQ 2.1.@.504FAQ 2.1.@.513FAQ 1.3.@.545FAQ 1.3.@.553FAQ 1.2.@.561FAQ 1.2.@.571FAQ 1.1.@.625FAQ 1.1.@.634FAQ 12.3.@.637FAQ 12.2.@.638FAQ 12.1.@.639FAQ 11.3.@.640FAQ 11.2.@.641FAQ 11.1.@.642FAQ 10.2.@.643FAQ 10.1.@.644FAQ 9.3.@.645FAQ 9.2.@.646FAQ 9.1.@.647FAQ 8.3.@.648FAQ 8.2.@.649FAQ 8.1.@.650FAQ 7.3.@.651FAQ 7.2.@.652FAQ 7.1.@.653FAQ 6.2.@.654FAQ 6.1.@.655FAQ 5.4.@.656FAQ 5.3.@.657FAQ 5.2.@.658FAQ 5.1.@.659FAQ 4.3.@.660FAQ 4.2.@.661FAQ 4.1.@.662FAQ 3.3.@.663FAQ 3.2.@.664FAQ 3.1.@.665FAQ 2.2.@.666FAQ 2.1.@.667FAQ 1.3.@.668FAQ 1.2.@.669FAQ 1.1.@.670A warming climate also affects wind patterns, how storms form and evolve, and the pathway those storms usually travel. Warming also increases condensation rates, which in turn releases extra heat that can energize storm systems and further intensify rainfall. On the other hand, this energy release can also inhibit the uplift required for cloud development, while increases in particle pollution can delay rainfall but invigorate storms. These changes mean that the character of precipitation events (how often, how long lasting and how heavy they are) will continue to change as the climate warms.

FAQ 8.2.eFAQ 8.1.xFAQ 8.1.aiFAQ 7.3.amFAQ 7.3.avFAQ 7.2.bjFAQ 7.2.brFAQ 7.1.ciFAQ 7.1.crFAQ 6.2.dpFAQ 6.2.dyFAQ 6.1.etFAQ 6.1.fcFAQ 5.4.ffFAQ 5.4.gaFAQ 5.3.gdFAQ 5.3.idFAQ 5.2.igFAQ 5.2.@.258FAQ 5.1.@.261FAQ 5.1.@.294FAQ 4.3.@.304FAQ 4.3.@.313FAQ 4.2.@.361FAQ 4.2.@.369FAQ 4.1.@.393FAQ 4.1.@.400FAQ 3.3.@.412FAQ 3.3.@.420FAQ 3.2.@.441FAQ 3.2.@.442FAQ 3.2.@.449FAQ 3.1.@.454FAQ 3.1.@.462FAQ 2.2.@.486FAQ 2.2.@.495FAQ 2.1.@.505FAQ 2.1.@.514FAQ 1.3.@.546FAQ 1.3.@.554FAQ 1.2.@.562FAQ 1.2.@.572FAQ 1.1.@.626FAQ 1.1.@.635FAQ 12.3.@.638FAQ 12.2.@.639FAQ 12.1.@.640FAQ 11.3.@.641FAQ 11.2.@.642FAQ 11.1.@.643FAQ 10.2.@.644FAQ 10.1.@.645FAQ 9.3.@.646FAQ 9.2.@.647FAQ 9.1.@.648FAQ 8.3.@.649FAQ 8.2.@.650FAQ 8.1.@.651FAQ 7.3.@.652FAQ 7.2.@.653FAQ 7.1.@.654FAQ 6.2.@.655FAQ 6.1.@.656FAQ 5.4.@.657FAQ 5.3.@.658FAQ 5.2.@.659FAQ 5.1.@.660FAQ 4.3.@.661FAQ 4.2.@.662FAQ 4.1.@.663FAQ 3.3.@.664FAQ 3.2.@.665FAQ 3.1.@.666FAQ 2.2.@.667FAQ 2.1.@.668FAQ 1.3.@.669FAQ 1.2.@.670FAQ 1.1.@.671In addition to climate change, the location, frequency and timing of the heaviest rainfall events and worst flooding depend on natural fluctuations in wind patterns that make some regions unusually wet or dry for months, years, or even decades. These natural variations make it difficult to determine whether heavy rainfall events are changing locally as a result of global warming. However, when natural weather patterns bring heavy and prolonged rainfall in a warmer climate, the intensity is increased by the larger amount of moisture in the air.

FAQ 8.2.fFAQ 8.1.yFAQ 8.1.ajFAQ 7.3.anFAQ 7.3.awFAQ 7.2.bkFAQ 7.2.bsFAQ 7.1.cjFAQ 7.1.csFAQ 6.2.dqFAQ 6.2.dzFAQ 6.1.euFAQ 6.1.fdFAQ 5.4.fgFAQ 5.4.gbFAQ 5.3.geFAQ 5.3.ieFAQ 5.2.ihFAQ 5.2.@.259FAQ 5.1.@.262FAQ 5.1.@.295FAQ 4.3.@.305FAQ 4.3.@.314FAQ 4.2.@.362FAQ 4.2.@.370FAQ 4.1.@.394FAQ 4.1.@.401FAQ 3.3.@.413FAQ 3.3.@.421FAQ 3.2.@.442FAQ 3.2.@.443FAQ 3.2.@.450FAQ 3.1.@.455FAQ 3.1.@.463FAQ 2.2.@.487FAQ 2.2.@.496FAQ 2.1.@.506FAQ 2.1.@.515FAQ 1.3.@.547FAQ 1.3.@.555FAQ 1.2.@.563FAQ 1.2.@.573FAQ 1.1.@.627FAQ 1.1.@.636FAQ 12.3.@.639FAQ 12.2.@.640FAQ 12.1.@.641FAQ 11.3.@.642FAQ 11.2.@.643FAQ 11.1.@.644FAQ 10.2.@.645FAQ 10.1.@.646FAQ 9.3.@.647FAQ 9.2.@.648FAQ 9.1.@.649FAQ 8.3.@.650FAQ 8.2.@.651FAQ 8.1.@.652FAQ 7.3.@.653FAQ 7.2.@.654FAQ 7.1.@.655FAQ 6.2.@.656FAQ 6.1.@.657FAQ 5.4.@.658FAQ 5.3.@.659FAQ 5.2.@.660FAQ 5.1.@.661FAQ 4.3.@.662FAQ 4.2.@.663FAQ 4.1.@.664FAQ 3.3.@.665FAQ 3.2.@.666FAQ 3.1.@.667FAQ 2.2.@.668FAQ 2.1.@.669FAQ 1.3.@.670FAQ 1.2.@.671FAQ 1.1.@.672An increased intensity and frequency of record-breaking daily rainfall has been detected for much of the land surface where good observational records exist, and this can only be explained by human-caused increases in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Heavy rainfall is also projected to become more intense in the future for most places. So, where unusually wet weather events or seasons occur, the rainfall amounts are expected to be greater in the future, contributing to more severe flooding.

FAQ 8.2.gFAQ 8.1.zFAQ 8.1.akFAQ 7.3.aoFAQ 7.3.axFAQ 7.2.blFAQ 7.2.btFAQ 7.1.ckFAQ 7.1.ctFAQ 6.2.drFAQ 6.2.eaFAQ 6.1.evFAQ 6.1.feFAQ 5.4.fhFAQ 5.4.gcFAQ 5.3.gfFAQ 5.3.ifFAQ 5.2.iiFAQ 5.2.@.260FAQ 5.1.@.263FAQ 5.1.@.296FAQ 4.3.@.306FAQ 4.3.@.315FAQ 4.2.@.363FAQ 4.2.@.371FAQ 4.1.@.395FAQ 4.1.@.402FAQ 3.3.@.414FAQ 3.3.@.422FAQ 3.2.@.443FAQ 3.2.@.444FAQ 3.2.@.451FAQ 3.1.@.456FAQ 3.1.@.464FAQ 2.2.@.488FAQ 2.2.@.497FAQ 2.1.@.507FAQ 2.1.@.516FAQ 1.3.@.548FAQ 1.3.@.556FAQ 1.2.@.564FAQ 1.2.@.574FAQ 1.1.@.628FAQ 1.1.@.637FAQ 12.3.@.640FAQ 12.2.@.641FAQ 12.1.@.642FAQ 11.3.@.643FAQ 11.2.@.644FAQ 11.1.@.645FAQ 10.2.@.646FAQ 10.1.@.647FAQ 9.3.@.648FAQ 9.2.@.649FAQ 9.1.@.650FAQ 8.3.@.651FAQ 8.2.@.652FAQ 8.1.@.653FAQ 7.3.@.654FAQ 7.2.@.655FAQ 7.1.@.656FAQ 6.2.@.657FAQ 6.1.@.658FAQ 5.4.@.659FAQ 5.3.@.660FAQ 5.2.@.661FAQ 5.1.@.662FAQ 4.3.@.663FAQ 4.2.@.664FAQ 4.1.@.665FAQ 3.3.@.666FAQ 3.2.@.667FAQ 3.1.@.668FAQ 2.2.@.669FAQ 2.1.@.670FAQ 1.3.@.671FAQ 1.2.@.672FAQ 1.1.@.673However, heavier rainfall does not always lead to greater flooding. This is because flooding also depends upon the type of river basin, the surface landscape, the extent and duration of the rainfall, and how wet the ground is before the rainfall event (FAQ 8.2, Figure 1). Some regions will experience a drying in the soil as the climate warms, particularly in subtropical climates, which could make floods from a rainfall event less probable because the ground can potentially soak up more of the rain. On the other hand, less frequent but more intense downpours can lead to dry, hard ground that is less able to soak up heavy rainfall when it does occur, resulting in more runoff into lakes, rivers and hollows. Earlier spring snowmelt combined with more precipitation falling as rain rather than snow can trigger flood events in cold regions. Reduced winter snow cover can, in contrast, decrease the chance of flooding arising from the combination of rainfall and rapid snowmelt. Rapid melting of glaciers and snow in a warming climate is already increasing river flow in some regions, but as the volumes of ice diminish, flows will peak and then decline in the future. Flooding is also affected by changes in the management of the land and river systems. For example, clearing forests for agriculture or building cities can make rainwater flow more rapidly into rivers or low-lying areas. On the other hand, increased extraction of water from rivers can reduce water levels and the likelihood of flooding. 

FAQ 8.2.hFAQ 8.1.aaFAQ 8.1.alFAQ 7.3.apFAQ 7.3.ayFAQ 7.2.bmFAQ 7.2.buFAQ 7.1.clFAQ 7.1.cuFAQ 6.2.dsFAQ 6.2.ebFAQ 6.1.ewFAQ 6.1.ffFAQ 5.4.fiFAQ 5.4.gdFAQ 5.3.ggFAQ 5.3.igFAQ 5.2.ijFAQ 5.2.@.261FAQ 5.1.@.264FAQ 5.1.@.297FAQ 4.3.@.307FAQ 4.3.@.316FAQ 4.2.@.364FAQ 4.2.@.372FAQ 4.1.@.396FAQ 4.1.@.403FAQ 3.3.@.415FAQ 3.3.@.423FAQ 3.2.@.444FAQ 3.2.@.445FAQ 3.2.@.452FAQ 3.1.@.457FAQ 3.1.@.465FAQ 2.2.@.489FAQ 2.2.@.498FAQ 2.1.@.508FAQ 2.1.@.517FAQ 1.3.@.549FAQ 1.3.@.557FAQ 1.2.@.565FAQ 1.2.@.575FAQ 1.1.@.629FAQ 1.1.@.638FAQ 12.3.@.641FAQ 12.2.@.642FAQ 12.1.@.643FAQ 11.3.@.644FAQ 11.2.@.645FAQ 11.1.@.646FAQ 10.2.@.647FAQ 10.1.@.648FAQ 9.3.@.649FAQ 9.2.@.650FAQ 9.1.@.651FAQ 8.3.@.652FAQ 8.2.@.653FAQ 8.1.@.654FAQ 7.3.@.655FAQ 7.2.@.656FAQ 7.1.@.657FAQ 6.2.@.658FAQ 6.1.@.659FAQ 5.4.@.660FAQ 5.3.@.661FAQ 5.2.@.662FAQ 5.1.@.663FAQ 4.3.@.664FAQ 4.2.@.665FAQ 4.1.@.666FAQ 3.3.@.667FAQ 3.2.@.668FAQ 3.1.@.669FAQ 2.2.@.670FAQ 2.1.@.671FAQ 1.3.@.672FAQ 1.2.@.673FAQ 1.1.@.674FAQ

FAQ 8.2.iFAQ 8.1.abFAQ 8.1.amFAQ 7.3.aqFAQ 7.3.azFAQ 7.2.bnFAQ 7.2.bvFAQ 7.1.cmFAQ 7.1.cvFAQ 6.2.dtFAQ 6.2.ecFAQ 6.1.exFAQ 6.1.fgFAQ 5.4.fjFAQ 5.4.geFAQ 5.3.ghFAQ 5.3.ihFAQ 5.2.ikFAQ 5.2.@.262FAQ 5.1.@.265FAQ 5.1.@.298FAQ 4.3.@.308FAQ 4.3.@.317FAQ 4.2.@.365FAQ 4.2.@.373FAQ 4.1.@.397FAQ 4.1.@.404FAQ 3.3.@.416FAQ 3.3.@.424FAQ 3.2.@.445FAQ 3.2.@.446FAQ 3.2.@.453FAQ 3.1.@.458FAQ 3.1.@.466FAQ 2.2.@.490FAQ 2.2.@.499FAQ 2.1.@.509FAQ 2.1.@.518FAQ 1.3.@.550FAQ 1.3.@.558FAQ 1.2.@.566FAQ 1.2.@.576FAQ 1.1.@.630FAQ 1.1.@.639FAQ 12.3.@.642FAQ 12.2.@.643FAQ 12.1.@.644FAQ 11.3.@.645FAQ 11.2.@.646FAQ 11.1.@.647FAQ 10.2.@.648FAQ 10.1.@.649FAQ 9.3.@.650FAQ 9.2.@.651FAQ 9.1.@.652FAQ 8.3.@.653FAQ 8.2.@.654FAQ 8.1.@.655FAQ 7.3.@.656FAQ 7.2.@.657FAQ 7.1.@.658FAQ 6.2.@.659FAQ 6.1.@.660FAQ 5.4.@.661FAQ 5.3.@.662FAQ 5.2.@.663FAQ 5.1.@.664FAQ 4.3.@.665FAQ 4.2.@.666FAQ 4.1.@.667FAQ 3.3.@.668FAQ 3.2.@.669FAQ 3.1.@.670FAQ 2.2.@.671FAQ 2.1.@.672FAQ 1.3.@.673FAQ 1.2.@.674FAQ 1.1.@.675FAQ 8.2 (continued)

FAQ 8.2.aFAQ 8.2.jFAQ 8.1.acFAQ 8.1.anFAQ 7.3.arFAQ 7.3.baFAQ 7.2.boFAQ 7.2.bwFAQ 7.1.cnFAQ 7.1.cwFAQ 6.2.duFAQ 6.2.edFAQ 6.1.eyFAQ 6.1.fhFAQ 5.4.fkFAQ 5.4.gfFAQ 5.3.giFAQ 5.3.iiFAQ 5.2.ilFAQ 5.2.@.263FAQ 5.1.@.266FAQ 5.1.@.299FAQ 4.3.@.309FAQ 4.3.@.318FAQ 4.2.@.366FAQ 4.2.@.374FAQ 4.1.@.398FAQ 4.1.@.405FAQ 3.3.@.417FAQ 3.3.@.425FAQ 3.2.@.446FAQ 3.2.@.447FAQ 3.2.@.454FAQ 3.1.@.459FAQ 3.1.@.467FAQ 2.2.@.491FAQ 2.2.@.500FAQ 2.1.@.510FAQ 2.1.@.519FAQ 1.3.@.551FAQ 1.3.@.559FAQ 1.2.@.567FAQ 1.2.@.577FAQ 1.1.@.631FAQ 1.1.@.640FAQ 12.3.@.643FAQ 12.2.@.644FAQ 12.1.@.645FAQ 11.3.@.646FAQ 11.2.@.647FAQ 11.1.@.648FAQ 10.2.@.649FAQ 10.1.@.650FAQ 9.3.@.651FAQ 9.2.@.652FAQ 9.1.@.653FAQ 8.3.@.654FAQ 8.2.@.655FAQ 8.1.@.656FAQ 7.3.@.657FAQ 7.2.@.658FAQ 7.1.@.659FAQ 6.2.@.660FAQ 6.1.@.661FAQ 5.4.@.662FAQ 5.3.@.663FAQ 5.2.@.664FAQ 5.1.@.665FAQ 4.3.@.666FAQ 4.2.@.667FAQ 4.1.@.668FAQ 3.3.@.669FAQ 3.2.@.670FAQ 3.1.@.671FAQ 2.2.@.672FAQ 2.1.@.673FAQ 1.3.@.674FAQ 1.2.@.675FAQ 1.1.@.676A mix of both increases and decreases in flooding have been observed in some regions and these changes have been attributed to multiple causes, including changes in snowmelt, soil moisture and rainfall. Although we know that a warming climate will intensify rainfall events, local and regional trends are expected to vary in both direction and magnitude as global warming results in multiple, and sometimes counteracting, influences. However, even accounting for the many factors that generate flooding, when weather patterns cause flood events in a warmer future, these floods will be more severe.

FAQ 8.2.bFAQ 8.2.kFAQ 8.1.adFAQ 8.1.aoFAQ 7.3.asFAQ 7.3.bbFAQ 7.2.bpFAQ 7.2.bxFAQ 7.1.coFAQ 7.1.cxFAQ 6.2.dvFAQ 6.2.eeFAQ 6.1.ezFAQ 6.1.fiFAQ 5.4.flFAQ 5.4.ggFAQ 5.3.gjFAQ 5.3.ijFAQ 5.2.imFAQ 5.2.@.264FAQ 5.1.@.267FAQ 5.1.@.300FAQ 4.3.@.310FAQ 4.3.@.319FAQ 4.2.@.367FAQ 4.2.@.375FAQ 4.1.@.399FAQ 4.1.@.406FAQ 3.3.@.418FAQ 3.3.@.426FAQ 3.2.@.447FAQ 3.2.@.448FAQ 3.2.@.455FAQ 3.1.@.460FAQ 3.1.@.468FAQ 2.2.@.492FAQ 2.2.@.501FAQ 2.1.@.511FAQ 2.1.@.520FAQ 1.3.@.552FAQ 1.3.@.560FAQ 1.2.@.568FAQ 1.2.@.578FAQ 1.1.@.632FAQ 1.1.@.641FAQ 12.3.@.644FAQ 12.2.@.645FAQ 12.1.@.646FAQ 11.3.@.647FAQ 11.2.@.648FAQ 11.1.@.649FAQ 10.2.@.650FAQ 10.1.@.651FAQ 9.3.@.652FAQ 9.2.@.653FAQ 9.1.@.654FAQ 8.3.@.655FAQ 8.2.@.656FAQ 8.1.@.657FAQ 7.3.@.658FAQ 7.2.@.659FAQ 7.1.@.660FAQ 6.2.@.661FAQ 6.1.@.662FAQ 5.4.@.663FAQ 5.3.@.664FAQ 5.2.@.665FAQ 5.1.@.666FAQ 4.3.@.667FAQ 4.2.@.668FAQ 4.1.@.669FAQ 3.3.@.670FAQ 3.2.@.671FAQ 3.1.@.672FAQ 2.2.@.673FAQ 2.1.@.674FAQ 1.3.@.675FAQ 1.2.@.676FAQ 1.1.@.677+

FAQ 8.2.cFAQ 8.2.lFAQ 8.1.aeFAQ 8.1.apFAQ 7.3.atFAQ 7.3.bcFAQ 7.2.bqFAQ 7.2.byFAQ 7.1.cpFAQ 7.1.cyFAQ 6.2.dwFAQ 6.2.efFAQ 6.1.faFAQ 6.1.fjFAQ 5.4.fmFAQ 5.4.ghFAQ 5.3.gkFAQ 5.3.ikFAQ 5.2.inFAQ 5.2.@.265FAQ 5.1.@.268FAQ 5.1.@.301FAQ 4.3.@.311FAQ 4.3.@.320FAQ 4.2.@.368FAQ 4.2.@.376FAQ 4.1.@.400FAQ 4.1.@.407FAQ 3.3.@.419FAQ 3.3.@.427FAQ 3.2.@.448FAQ 3.2.@.449FAQ 3.2.@.456FAQ 3.1.@.461FAQ 3.1.@.469FAQ 2.2.@.493FAQ 2.2.@.502FAQ 2.1.@.512FAQ 2.1.@.521FAQ 1.3.@.553FAQ 1.3.@.561FAQ 1.2.@.569FAQ 1.2.@.579FAQ 1.1.@.633FAQ 1.1.@.642FAQ 12.3.@.645FAQ 12.2.@.646FAQ 12.1.@.647FAQ 11.3.@.648FAQ 11.2.@.649FAQ 11.1.@.650FAQ 10.2.@.651FAQ 10.1.@.652FAQ 9.3.@.653FAQ 9.2.@.654FAQ 9.1.@.655FAQ 8.3.@.656FAQ 8.2.@.657FAQ 8.1.@.658FAQ 7.3.@.659FAQ 7.2.@.660FAQ 7.1.@.661FAQ 6.2.@.662FAQ 6.1.@.663FAQ 5.4.@.664FAQ 5.3.@.665FAQ 5.2.@.666FAQ 5.1.@.667FAQ 4.3.@.668FAQ 4.2.@.669FAQ 4.1.@.670FAQ 3.3.@.671FAQ 3.2.@.672FAQ 3.1.@.673FAQ 2.2.@.674FAQ 2.1.@.675FAQ 1.3.@.676FAQ 1.2.@.677FAQ 1.1.@.678+

FAQ 8.2.dFAQ 8.2.mFAQ 8.1.afFAQ 8.1.aqFAQ 7.3.auFAQ 7.3.bdFAQ 7.2.brFAQ 7.2.bzFAQ 7.1.cqFAQ 7.1.czFAQ 6.2.dxFAQ 6.2.egFAQ 6.1.fbFAQ 6.1.fkFAQ 5.4.fnFAQ 5.4.giFAQ 5.3.glFAQ 5.3.ilFAQ 5.2.ioFAQ 5.2.@.266FAQ 5.1.@.269FAQ 5.1.@.302FAQ 4.3.@.312FAQ 4.3.@.321FAQ 4.2.@.369FAQ 4.2.@.377FAQ 4.1.@.401FAQ 4.1.@.408FAQ 3.3.@.420FAQ 3.3.@.428FAQ 3.2.@.449FAQ 3.2.@.450FAQ 3.2.@.457FAQ 3.1.@.462FAQ 3.1.@.470FAQ 2.2.@.494FAQ 2.2.@.503FAQ 2.1.@.513FAQ 2.1.@.522FAQ 1.3.@.554FAQ 1.3.@.562FAQ 1.2.@.570FAQ 1.2.@.580FAQ 1.1.@.634FAQ 1.1.@.643FAQ 12.3.@.646FAQ 12.2.@.647FAQ 12.1.@.648FAQ 11.3.@.649FAQ 11.2.@.650FAQ 11.1.@.651FAQ 10.2.@.652FAQ 10.1.@.653FAQ 9.3.@.654FAQ 9.2.@.655FAQ 9.1.@.656FAQ 8.3.@.657FAQ 8.2.@.658FAQ 8.1.@.659FAQ 7.3.@.660FAQ 7.2.@.661FAQ 7.1.@.662FAQ 6.2.@.663FAQ 6.1.@.664FAQ 5.4.@.665FAQ 5.3.@.666FAQ 5.2.@.667FAQ 5.1.@.668FAQ 4.3.@.669FAQ 4.2.@.670FAQ 4.1.@.671FAQ 3.3.@.672FAQ 3.2.@.673FAQ 3.1.@.674FAQ 2.2.@.675FAQ 2.1.@.676FAQ 1.3.@.677FAQ 1.2.@.678FAQ 1.1.@.679+ ++

FAQ 8.2.eFAQ 8.2.nFAQ 8.1.agFAQ 8.1.arFAQ 7.3.avFAQ 7.3.beFAQ 7.2.bsFAQ 7.2.caFAQ 7.1.crFAQ 7.1.daFAQ 6.2.dyFAQ 6.2.ehFAQ 6.1.fcFAQ 6.1.flFAQ 5.4.foFAQ 5.4.gjFAQ 5.3.gmFAQ 5.3.imFAQ 5.2.ipFAQ 5.2.@.267FAQ 5.1.@.270FAQ 5.1.@.303FAQ 4.3.@.313FAQ 4.3.@.322FAQ 4.2.@.370FAQ 4.2.@.378FAQ 4.1.@.402FAQ 4.1.@.409FAQ 3.3.@.421FAQ 3.3.@.429FAQ 3.2.@.450FAQ 3.2.@.451FAQ 3.2.@.458FAQ 3.1.@.463FAQ 3.1.@.471FAQ 2.2.@.495FAQ 2.2.@.504FAQ 2.1.@.514FAQ 2.1.@.523FAQ 1.3.@.555FAQ 1.3.@.563FAQ 1.2.@.571FAQ 1.2.@.581FAQ 1.1.@.635FAQ 1.1.@.644FAQ 12.3.@.647FAQ 12.2.@.648FAQ 12.1.@.649FAQ 11.3.@.650FAQ 11.2.@.651FAQ 11.1.@.652FAQ 10.2.@.653FAQ 10.1.@.654FAQ 9.3.@.655FAQ 9.2.@.656FAQ 9.1.@.657FAQ 8.3.@.658FAQ 8.2.@.659FAQ 8.1.@.660FAQ 7.3.@.661FAQ 7.2.@.662FAQ 7.1.@.663FAQ 6.2.@.664FAQ 6.1.@.665FAQ 5.4.@.666FAQ 5.3.@.667FAQ 5.2.@.668FAQ 5.1.@.669FAQ 4.3.@.670FAQ 4.2.@.671FAQ 4.1.@.672FAQ 3.3.@.673FAQ 3.2.@.674FAQ 3.1.@.675FAQ 2.2.@.676FAQ 2.1.@.677FAQ 1.3.@.678FAQ 1.2.@.679FAQ 1.1.@.680+

FAQ 8.2.fFAQ 8.2.oFAQ 8.1.ahFAQ 8.1.asFAQ 7.3.awFAQ 7.3.bfFAQ 7.2.btFAQ 7.2.cbFAQ 7.1.csFAQ 7.1.dbFAQ 6.2.dzFAQ 6.2.eiFAQ 6.1.fdFAQ 6.1.fmFAQ 5.4.fpFAQ 5.4.gkFAQ 5.3.gnFAQ 5.3.inFAQ 5.2.iqFAQ 5.2.@.268FAQ 5.1.@.271FAQ 5.1.@.304FAQ 4.3.@.314FAQ 4.3.@.323FAQ 4.2.@.371FAQ 4.2.@.379FAQ 4.1.@.403FAQ 4.1.@.410FAQ 3.3.@.422FAQ 3.3.@.430FAQ 3.2.@.451FAQ 3.2.@.452FAQ 3.2.@.459FAQ 3.1.@.464FAQ 3.1.@.472FAQ 2.2.@.496FAQ 2.2.@.505FAQ 2.1.@.515FAQ 2.1.@.524FAQ 1.3.@.556FAQ 1.3.@.564FAQ 1.2.@.572FAQ 1.2.@.582FAQ 1.1.@.636FAQ 1.1.@.645FAQ 12.3.@.648FAQ 12.2.@.649FAQ 12.1.@.650FAQ 11.3.@.651FAQ 11.2.@.652FAQ 11.1.@.653FAQ 10.2.@.654FAQ 10.1.@.655FAQ 9.3.@.656FAQ 9.2.@.657FAQ 9.1.@.658FAQ 8.3.@.659FAQ 8.2.@.660FAQ 8.1.@.661FAQ 7.3.@.662FAQ 7.2.@.663FAQ 7.1.@.664FAQ 6.2.@.665FAQ 6.1.@.666FAQ 5.4.@.667FAQ 5.3.@.668FAQ 5.2.@.669FAQ 5.1.@.670FAQ 4.3.@.671FAQ 4.2.@.672FAQ 4.1.@.673FAQ 3.3.@.674FAQ 3.2.@.675FAQ 3.1.@.676FAQ 2.2.@.677FAQ 2.1.@.678FAQ 1.3.@.679FAQ 1.2.@.680FAQ 1.1.@.681+

FAQ 8.2.gFAQ 8.2.pFAQ 8.1.aiFAQ 8.1.atFAQ 7.3.axFAQ 7.3.bgFAQ 7.2.buFAQ 7.2.ccFAQ 7.1.ctFAQ 7.1.dcFAQ 6.2.eaFAQ 6.2.ejFAQ 6.1.feFAQ 6.1.fnFAQ 5.4.fqFAQ 5.4.glFAQ 5.3.goFAQ 5.3.ioFAQ 5.2.irFAQ 5.2.@.269FAQ 5.1.@.272FAQ 5.1.@.305FAQ 4.3.@.315FAQ 4.3.@.324FAQ 4.2.@.372FAQ 4.2.@.380FAQ 4.1.@.404FAQ 4.1.@.411FAQ 3.3.@.423FAQ 3.3.@.431FAQ 3.2.@.452FAQ 3.2.@.453FAQ 3.2.@.460FAQ 3.1.@.465FAQ 3.1.@.473FAQ 2.2.@.497FAQ 2.2.@.506FAQ 2.1.@.516FAQ 2.1.@.525FAQ 1.3.@.557FAQ 1.3.@.565FAQ 1.2.@.573FAQ 1.2.@.583FAQ 1.1.@.637FAQ 1.1.@.646FAQ 12.3.@.649FAQ 12.2.@.650FAQ 12.1.@.651FAQ 11.3.@.652FAQ 11.2.@.653FAQ 11.1.@.654FAQ 10.2.@.655FAQ 10.1.@.656FAQ 9.3.@.657FAQ 9.2.@.658FAQ 9.1.@.659FAQ 8.3.@.660FAQ 8.2.@.661FAQ 8.1.@.662FAQ 7.3.@.663FAQ 7.2.@.664FAQ 7.1.@.665FAQ 6.2.@.666FAQ 6.1.@.667FAQ 5.4.@.668FAQ 5.3.@.669FAQ 5.2.@.670FAQ 5.1.@.671FAQ 4.3.@.672FAQ 4.2.@.673FAQ 4.1.@.674FAQ 3.3.@.675FAQ 3.2.@.676FAQ 3.1.@.677FAQ 2.2.@.678FAQ 2.1.@.679FAQ 1.3.@.680FAQ 1.2.@.681FAQ 1.1.@.682++

FAQ 8.2.hFAQ 8.2.qFAQ 8.1.ajFAQ 8.1.auFAQ 7.3.ayFAQ 7.3.bhFAQ 7.2.bvFAQ 7.2.cdFAQ 7.1.cuFAQ 7.1.ddFAQ 6.2.ebFAQ 6.2.ekFAQ 6.1.ffFAQ 6.1.foFAQ 5.4.frFAQ 5.4.gmFAQ 5.3.gpFAQ 5.3.ipFAQ 5.2.isFAQ 5.2.@.270FAQ 5.1.@.273FAQ 5.1.@.306FAQ 4.3.@.316FAQ 4.3.@.325FAQ 4.2.@.373FAQ 4.2.@.381FAQ 4.1.@.405FAQ 4.1.@.412FAQ 3.3.@.424FAQ 3.3.@.432FAQ 3.2.@.453FAQ 3.2.@.454FAQ 3.2.@.461FAQ 3.1.@.466FAQ 3.1.@.474FAQ 2.2.@.498FAQ 2.2.@.507FAQ 2.1.@.517FAQ 2.1.@.526FAQ 1.3.@.558FAQ 1.3.@.566FAQ 1.2.@.574FAQ 1.2.@.584FAQ 1.1.@.638FAQ 1.1.@.647FAQ 12.3.@.650FAQ 12.2.@.651FAQ 12.1.@.652FAQ 11.3.@.653FAQ 11.2.@.654FAQ 11.1.@.655FAQ 10.2.@.656FAQ 10.1.@.657FAQ 9.3.@.658FAQ 9.2.@.659FAQ 9.1.@.660FAQ 8.3.@.661FAQ 8.2.@.662FAQ 8.1.@.663FAQ 7.3.@.664FAQ 7.2.@.665FAQ 7.1.@.666FAQ 6.2.@.667FAQ 6.1.@.668FAQ 5.4.@.669FAQ 5.3.@.670FAQ 5.2.@.671FAQ 5.1.@.672FAQ 4.3.@.673FAQ 4.2.@.674FAQ 4.1.@.675FAQ 3.3.@.676FAQ 3.2.@.677FAQ 3.1.@.678FAQ 2.2.@.679FAQ 2.1.@.680FAQ 1.3.@.681FAQ 1.2.@.682FAQ 1.1.@.683+ + +

FAQ 8.2.iFAQ 8.2.rFAQ 8.1.akFAQ 8.1.avFAQ 7.3.azFAQ 7.3.biFAQ 7.2.bwFAQ 7.2.ceFAQ 7.1.cvFAQ 7.1.deFAQ 6.2.ecFAQ 6.2.elFAQ 6.1.fgFAQ 6.1.fpFAQ 5.4.fsFAQ 5.4.gnFAQ 5.3.gqFAQ 5.3.iqFAQ 5.2.itFAQ 5.2.@.271FAQ 5.1.@.274FAQ 5.1.@.307FAQ 4.3.@.317FAQ 4.3.@.326FAQ 4.2.@.374FAQ 4.2.@.382FAQ 4.1.@.406FAQ 4.1.@.413FAQ 3.3.@.425FAQ 3.3.@.433FAQ 3.2.@.454FAQ 3.2.@.455FAQ 3.2.@.462FAQ 3.1.@.467FAQ 3.1.@.475FAQ 2.2.@.499FAQ 2.2.@.508FAQ 2.1.@.518FAQ 2.1.@.527FAQ 1.3.@.559FAQ 1.3.@.567FAQ 1.2.@.575FAQ 1.2.@.585FAQ 1.1.@.639FAQ 1.1.@.648FAQ 12.3.@.651FAQ 12.2.@.652FAQ 12.1.@.653FAQ 11.3.@.654FAQ 11.2.@.655FAQ 11.1.@.656FAQ 10.2.@.657FAQ 10.1.@.658FAQ 9.3.@.659FAQ 9.2.@.660FAQ 9.1.@.661FAQ 8.3.@.662FAQ 8.2.@.663FAQ 8.1.@.664FAQ 7.3.@.665FAQ 7.2.@.666FAQ 7.1.@.667FAQ 6.2.@.668FAQ 6.1.@.669FAQ 5.4.@.670FAQ 5.3.@.671FAQ 5.2.@.672FAQ 5.1.@.673FAQ 4.3.@.674FAQ 4.2.@.675FAQ 4.1.@.676FAQ 3.3.@.677FAQ 3.2.@.678FAQ 3.1.@.679FAQ 2.2.@.680FAQ 2.1.@.681FAQ 1.3.@.682FAQ 1.2.@.683FAQ 1.1.@.684+

FAQ 8.2.jFAQ 8.2.sFAQ 8.1.alFAQ 8.1.awFAQ 7.3.baFAQ 7.3.bjFAQ 7.2.bxFAQ 7.2.cfFAQ 7.1.cwFAQ 7.1.dfFAQ 6.2.edFAQ 6.2.emFAQ 6.1.fhFAQ 6.1.fqFAQ 5.4.ftFAQ 5.4.goFAQ 5.3.grFAQ 5.3.irFAQ 5.2.iuFAQ 5.2.@.272FAQ 5.1.@.275FAQ 5.1.@.308FAQ 4.3.@.318FAQ 4.3.@.327FAQ 4.2.@.375FAQ 4.2.@.383FAQ 4.1.@.407FAQ 4.1.@.414FAQ 3.3.@.426FAQ 3.3.@.434FAQ 3.2.@.455FAQ 3.2.@.456FAQ 3.2.@.463FAQ 3.1.@.468FAQ 3.1.@.476FAQ 2.2.@.500FAQ 2.2.@.509FAQ 2.1.@.519FAQ 2.1.@.528FAQ 1.3.@.560FAQ 1.3.@.568FAQ 1.2.@.576FAQ 1.2.@.586FAQ 1.1.@.640FAQ 1.1.@.649FAQ 12.3.@.652FAQ 12.2.@.653FAQ 12.1.@.654FAQ 11.3.@.655FAQ 11.2.@.656FAQ 11.1.@.657FAQ 10.2.@.658FAQ 10.1.@.659FAQ 9.3.@.660FAQ 9.2.@.661FAQ 9.1.@.662FAQ 8.3.@.663FAQ 8.2.@.664FAQ 8.1.@.665FAQ 7.3.@.666FAQ 7.2.@.667FAQ 7.1.@.668FAQ 6.2.@.669FAQ 6.1.@.670FAQ 5.4.@.671FAQ 5.3.@.672FAQ 5.2.@.673FAQ 5.1.@.674FAQ 4.3.@.675FAQ 4.2.@.676FAQ 4.1.@.677FAQ 3.3.@.678FAQ 3.2.@.679FAQ 3.1.@.680FAQ 2.2.@.681FAQ 2.1.@.682FAQ 1.3.@.683FAQ 1.2.@.684FAQ 1.1.@.685–

FAQ 8.2.kFAQ 8.2.tFAQ 8.1.amFAQ 8.1.axFAQ 7.3.bbFAQ 7.3.bkFAQ 7.2.byFAQ 7.2.cgFAQ 7.1.cxFAQ 7.1.dgFAQ 6.2.eeFAQ 6.2.enFAQ 6.1.fiFAQ 6.1.frFAQ 5.4.fuFAQ 5.4.gpFAQ 5.3.gsFAQ 5.3.isFAQ 5.2.ivFAQ 5.2.@.273FAQ 5.1.@.276FAQ 5.1.@.309FAQ 4.3.@.319FAQ 4.3.@.328FAQ 4.2.@.376FAQ 4.2.@.384FAQ 4.1.@.408FAQ 4.1.@.415FAQ 3.3.@.427FAQ 3.3.@.435FAQ 3.2.@.456FAQ 3.2.@.457FAQ 3.2.@.464FAQ 3.1.@.469FAQ 3.1.@.477FAQ 2.2.@.501FAQ 2.2.@.510FAQ 2.1.@.520FAQ 2.1.@.529FAQ 1.3.@.561FAQ 1.3.@.569FAQ 1.2.@.577FAQ 1.2.@.587FAQ 1.1.@.641FAQ 1.1.@.650FAQ 12.3.@.653FAQ 12.2.@.654FAQ 12.1.@.655FAQ 11.3.@.656FAQ 11.2.@.657FAQ 11.1.@.658FAQ 10.2.@.659FAQ 10.1.@.660FAQ 9.3.@.661FAQ 9.2.@.662FAQ 9.1.@.663FAQ 8.3.@.664FAQ 8.2.@.665FAQ 8.1.@.666FAQ 7.3.@.667FAQ 7.2.@.668FAQ 7.1.@.669FAQ 6.2.@.670FAQ 6.1.@.671FAQ 5.4.@.672FAQ 5.3.@.673FAQ 5.2.@.674FAQ 5.1.@.675FAQ 4.3.@.676FAQ 4.2.@.677FAQ 4.1.@.678FAQ 3.3.@.679FAQ 3.2.@.680FAQ 3.1.@.681FAQ 2.2.@.682FAQ 2.1.@.683FAQ 1.3.@.684FAQ 1.2.@.685FAQ 1.1.@.686–

FAQ 8.2.lFAQ 8.2.uFAQ 8.1.anFAQ 8.1.ayFAQ 7.3.bcFAQ 7.3.blFAQ 7.2.bzFAQ 7.2.chFAQ 7.1.cyFAQ 7.1.dhFAQ 6.2.efFAQ 6.2.eoFAQ 6.1.fjFAQ 6.1.fsFAQ 5.4.fvFAQ 5.4.gqFAQ 5.3.gtFAQ 5.3.itFAQ 5.2.@.256FAQ 5.2.@.274FAQ 5.1.@.277FAQ 5.1.@.310FAQ 4.3.@.320FAQ 4.3.@.329FAQ 4.2.@.377FAQ 4.2.@.385FAQ 4.1.@.409FAQ 4.1.@.416FAQ 3.3.@.428FAQ 3.3.@.436FAQ 3.2.@.457FAQ 3.2.@.458FAQ 3.2.@.465FAQ 3.1.@.470FAQ 3.1.@.478FAQ 2.2.@.502FAQ 2.2.@.511FAQ 2.1.@.521FAQ 2.1.@.530FAQ 1.3.@.562FAQ 1.3.@.570FAQ 1.2.@.578FAQ 1.2.@.588FAQ 1.1.@.642FAQ 1.1.@.651FAQ 12.3.@.654FAQ 12.2.@.655FAQ 12.1.@.656FAQ 11.3.@.657FAQ 11.2.@.658FAQ 11.1.@.659FAQ 10.2.@.660FAQ 10.1.@.661FAQ 9.3.@.662FAQ 9.2.@.663FAQ 9.1.@.664FAQ 8.3.@.665FAQ 8.2.@.666FAQ 8.1.@.667FAQ 7.3.@.668FAQ 7.2.@.669FAQ 7.1.@.670FAQ 6.2.@.671FAQ 6.1.@.672FAQ 5.4.@.673FAQ 5.3.@.674FAQ 5.2.@.675FAQ 5.1.@.676FAQ 4.3.@.677FAQ 4.2.@.678FAQ 4.1.@.679FAQ 3.3.@.680FAQ 3.2.@.681FAQ 3.1.@.682FAQ 2.2.@.683FAQ 2.1.@.684FAQ 1.3.@.685FAQ 1.2.@.686FAQ 1.1.@.687–

FAQ 8.2.mFAQ 8.2.vFAQ 8.1.aoFAQ 8.1.azFAQ 7.3.bdFAQ 7.3.bmFAQ 7.2.caFAQ 7.2.ciFAQ 7.1.czFAQ 7.1.diFAQ 6.2.egFAQ 6.2.epFAQ 6.1.fkFAQ 6.1.ftFAQ 5.4.fwFAQ 5.4.grFAQ 5.3.guFAQ 5.3.iuFAQ 5.2.@.257FAQ 5.2.@.275FAQ 5.1.@.278FAQ 5.1.@.311FAQ 4.3.@.321FAQ 4.3.@.330FAQ 4.2.@.378FAQ 4.2.@.386FAQ 4.1.@.410FAQ 4.1.@.417FAQ 3.3.@.429FAQ 3.3.@.437FAQ 3.2.@.458FAQ 3.2.@.459FAQ 3.2.@.466FAQ 3.1.@.471FAQ 3.1.@.479FAQ 2.2.@.503FAQ 2.2.@.512FAQ 2.1.@.522FAQ 2.1.@.531FAQ 1.3.@.563FAQ 1.3.@.571FAQ 1.2.@.579FAQ 1.2.@.589FAQ 1.1.@.643FAQ 1.1.@.652FAQ 12.3.@.655FAQ 12.2.@.656FAQ 12.1.@.657FAQ 11.3.@.658FAQ 11.2.@.659FAQ 11.1.@.660FAQ 10.2.@.661FAQ 10.1.@.662FAQ 9.3.@.663FAQ 9.2.@.664FAQ 9.1.@.665FAQ 8.3.@.666FAQ 8.2.@.667FAQ 8.1.@.668FAQ 7.3.@.669FAQ 7.2.@.670FAQ 7.1.@.671FAQ 6.2.@.672FAQ 6.1.@.673FAQ 5.4.@.674FAQ 5.3.@.675FAQ 5.2.@.676FAQ 5.1.@.677FAQ 4.3.@.678FAQ 4.2.@.679FAQ 4.1.@.680FAQ 3.3.@.681FAQ 3.2.@.682FAQ 3.1.@.683FAQ 2.2.@.684FAQ 2.1.@.685FAQ 1.3.@.686FAQ 1.2.@.687FAQ 1.1.@.688–––

FAQ 8.2.nFAQ 8.2.wFAQ 8.1.apFAQ 8.1.baFAQ 7.3.beFAQ 7.3.bnFAQ 7.2.cbFAQ 7.2.cjFAQ 7.1.daFAQ 7.1.djFAQ 6.2.ehFAQ 6.2.eqFAQ 6.1.flFAQ 6.1.fuFAQ 5.4.fxFAQ 5.4.gsFAQ 5.3.gvFAQ 5.3.ivFAQ 5.2.@.258FAQ 5.2.@.276FAQ 5.1.@.279FAQ 5.1.@.312FAQ 4.3.@.322FAQ 4.3.@.331FAQ 4.2.@.379FAQ 4.2.@.387FAQ 4.1.@.411FAQ 4.1.@.418FAQ 3.3.@.430FAQ 3.3.@.438FAQ 3.2.@.459FAQ 3.2.@.460FAQ 3.2.@.467FAQ 3.1.@.472FAQ 3.1.@.480FAQ 2.2.@.504FAQ 2.2.@.513FAQ 2.1.@.523FAQ 2.1.@.532FAQ 1.3.@.564FAQ 1.3.@.572FAQ 1.2.@.580FAQ 1.2.@.590FAQ 1.1.@.644FAQ 1.1.@.653FAQ 12.3.@.656FAQ 12.2.@.657FAQ 12.1.@.658FAQ 11.3.@.659FAQ 11.2.@.660FAQ 11.1.@.661FAQ 10.2.@.662FAQ 10.1.@.663FAQ 9.3.@.664FAQ 9.2.@.665FAQ 9.1.@.666FAQ 8.3.@.667FAQ 8.2.@.668FAQ 8.1.@.669FAQ 7.3.@.670FAQ 7.2.@.671FAQ 7.1.@.672FAQ 6.2.@.673FAQ 6.1.@.674FAQ 5.4.@.675FAQ 5.3.@.676FAQ 5.2.@.677FAQ 5.1.@.678FAQ 4.3.@.679FAQ 4.2.@.680FAQ 4.1.@.681FAQ 3.3.@.682FAQ 3.2.@.683FAQ 3.1.@.684FAQ 2.2.@.685FAQ 2.1.@.686FAQ 1.3.@.687FAQ 1.2.@.688FAQ 1.1.@.689+

FAQ 8.2.oFAQ 8.2.xFAQ 8.1.aqFAQ 8.1.bbFAQ 7.3.bfFAQ 7.3.boFAQ 7.2.ccFAQ 7.2.ckFAQ 7.1.dbFAQ 7.1.dkFAQ 6.2.eiFAQ 6.2.erFAQ 6.1.fmFAQ 6.1.fvFAQ 5.4.fyFAQ 5.4.gtFAQ 5.3.gwFAQ 5.3.@.256FAQ 5.2.@.259FAQ 5.2.@.277FAQ 5.1.@.280FAQ 5.1.@.313FAQ 4.3.@.323FAQ 4.3.@.332FAQ 4.2.@.380FAQ 4.2.@.388FAQ 4.1.@.412FAQ 4.1.@.419FAQ 3.3.@.431FAQ 3.3.@.439FAQ 3.2.@.460FAQ 3.2.@.461FAQ 3.2.@.468FAQ 3.1.@.473FAQ 3.1.@.481FAQ 2.2.@.505FAQ 2.2.@.514FAQ 2.1.@.524FAQ 2.1.@.533FAQ 1.3.@.565FAQ 1.3.@.573FAQ 1.2.@.581FAQ 1.2.@.591FAQ 1.1.@.645FAQ 1.1.@.654FAQ 12.3.@.657FAQ 12.2.@.658FAQ 12.1.@.659FAQ 11.3.@.660FAQ 11.2.@.661FAQ 11.1.@.662FAQ 10.2.@.663FAQ 10.1.@.664FAQ 9.3.@.665FAQ 9.2.@.666FAQ 9.1.@.667FAQ 8.3.@.668FAQ 8.2.@.669FAQ 8.1.@.670FAQ 7.3.@.671FAQ 7.2.@.672FAQ 7.1.@.673FAQ 6.2.@.674FAQ 6.1.@.675FAQ 5.4.@.676FAQ 5.3.@.677FAQ 5.2.@.678FAQ 5.1.@.679FAQ 4.3.@.680FAQ 4.2.@.681FAQ 4.1.@.682FAQ 3.3.@.683FAQ 3.2.@.684FAQ 3.1.@.685FAQ 2.2.@.686FAQ 2.1.@.687FAQ 1.3.@.688FAQ 1.2.@.689FAQ 1.1.@.690–––

FAQ 8.2.pFAQ 8.2.yFAQ 8.1.arFAQ 8.1.bcFAQ 7.3.bgFAQ 7.3.bpFAQ 7.2.cdFAQ 7.2.clFAQ 7.1.dcFAQ 7.1.dlFAQ 6.2.ejFAQ 6.2.esFAQ 6.1.fnFAQ 6.1.fwFAQ 5.4.fzFAQ 5.4.guFAQ 5.3.gxFAQ 5.3.@.257FAQ 5.2.@.260FAQ 5.2.@.278FAQ 5.1.@.281FAQ 5.1.@.314FAQ 4.3.@.324FAQ 4.3.@.333FAQ 4.2.@.381FAQ 4.2.@.389FAQ 4.1.@.413FAQ 4.1.@.420FAQ 3.3.@.432FAQ 3.3.@.440FAQ 3.2.@.461FAQ 3.2.@.462FAQ 3.2.@.469FAQ 3.1.@.474FAQ 3.1.@.482FAQ 2.2.@.506FAQ 2.2.@.515FAQ 2.1.@.525FAQ 2.1.@.534FAQ 1.3.@.566FAQ 1.3.@.574FAQ 1.2.@.582FAQ 1.2.@.592FAQ 1.1.@.646FAQ 1.1.@.655FAQ 12.3.@.658FAQ 12.2.@.659FAQ 12.1.@.660FAQ 11.3.@.661FAQ 11.2.@.662FAQ 11.1.@.663FAQ 10.2.@.664FAQ 10.1.@.665FAQ 9.3.@.666FAQ 9.2.@.667FAQ 9.1.@.668FAQ 8.3.@.669FAQ 8.2.@.670FAQ 8.1.@.671FAQ 7.3.@.672FAQ 7.2.@.673FAQ 7.1.@.674FAQ 6.2.@.675FAQ 6.1.@.676FAQ 5.4.@.677FAQ 5.3.@.678FAQ 5.2.@.679FAQ 5.1.@.680FAQ 4.3.@.681FAQ 4.2.@.682FAQ 4.1.@.683FAQ 3.3.@.684FAQ 3.2.@.685FAQ 3.1.@.686FAQ 2.2.@.687FAQ 2.1.@.688FAQ 1.3.@.689FAQ 1.2.@.690FAQ 1.1.@.691FAQ 8.2: Causes of more severe floods from climate changeFlooding presents a hazard but the link between rainfall and flooding is not simple.While the largest flooding events can be expected to worsen, flood occurrence may decrease in some regions.

FAQ 8.2.qFAQ 8.2.zFAQ 8.1.asFAQ 8.1.bdFAQ 7.3.bhFAQ 7.3.bqFAQ 7.2.ceFAQ 7.2.cmFAQ 7.1.ddFAQ 7.1.dmFAQ 6.2.ekFAQ 6.2.etFAQ 6.1.foFAQ 6.1.fxFAQ 5.4.gaFAQ 5.4.gvFAQ 5.3.gyFAQ 5.3.@.258FAQ 5.2.@.261FAQ 5.2.@.279FAQ 5.1.@.282FAQ 5.1.@.315FAQ 4.3.@.325FAQ 4.3.@.334FAQ 4.2.@.382FAQ 4.2.@.390FAQ 4.1.@.414FAQ 4.1.@.421FAQ 3.3.@.433FAQ 3.3.@.441FAQ 3.2.@.462FAQ 3.2.@.463FAQ 3.2.@.470FAQ 3.1.@.475FAQ 3.1.@.483FAQ 2.2.@.507FAQ 2.2.@.516FAQ 2.1.@.526FAQ 2.1.@.535FAQ 1.3.@.567FAQ 1.3.@.575FAQ 1.2.@.583FAQ 1.2.@.593FAQ 1.1.@.647FAQ 1.1.@.656FAQ 12.3.@.659FAQ 12.2.@.660FAQ 12.1.@.661FAQ 11.3.@.662FAQ 11.2.@.663FAQ 11.1.@.664FAQ 10.2.@.665FAQ 10.1.@.666FAQ 9.3.@.667FAQ 9.2.@.668FAQ 9.1.@.669FAQ 8.3.@.670FAQ 8.2.@.671FAQ 8.1.@.672FAQ 7.3.@.673FAQ 7.2.@.674FAQ 7.1.@.675FAQ 6.2.@.676FAQ 6.1.@.677FAQ 5.4.@.678FAQ 5.3.@.679FAQ 5.2.@.680FAQ 5.1.@.681FAQ 4.3.@.682FAQ 4.2.@.683FAQ 4.1.@.684FAQ 3.3.@.685FAQ 3.2.@.686FAQ 3.1.@.687FAQ 2.2.@.688FAQ 2.1.@.689FAQ 1.3.@.690FAQ 1.2.@.691FAQ 1.1.@.692Decreased glaciers and snow reduce river flow

FAQ 8.2.rFAQ 8.2.aaFAQ 8.1.atFAQ 8.1.beFAQ 7.3.biFAQ 7.3.brFAQ 7.2.cfFAQ 7.2.cnFAQ 7.1.deFAQ 7.1.dnFAQ 6.2.elFAQ 6.2.euFAQ 6.1.fpFAQ 6.1.fyFAQ 5.4.gbFAQ 5.4.gwFAQ 5.3.gzFAQ 5.3.@.259FAQ 5.2.@.262FAQ 5.2.@.280FAQ 5.1.@.283FAQ 5.1.@.316FAQ 4.3.@.326FAQ 4.3.@.335FAQ 4.2.@.383FAQ 4.2.@.391FAQ 4.1.@.415FAQ 4.1.@.422FAQ 3.3.@.434FAQ 3.3.@.442FAQ 3.2.@.463FAQ 3.2.@.464FAQ 3.2.@.471FAQ 3.1.@.476FAQ 3.1.@.484FAQ 2.2.@.508FAQ 2.2.@.517FAQ 2.1.@.527FAQ 2.1.@.536FAQ 1.3.@.568FAQ 1.3.@.576FAQ 1.2.@.584FAQ 1.2.@.594FAQ 1.1.@.648FAQ 1.1.@.657FAQ 12.3.@.660FAQ 12.2.@.661FAQ 12.1.@.662FAQ 11.3.@.663FAQ 11.2.@.664FAQ 11.1.@.665FAQ 10.2.@.666FAQ 10.1.@.667FAQ 9.3.@.668FAQ 9.2.@.669FAQ 9.1.@.670FAQ 8.3.@.671FAQ 8.2.@.672FAQ 8.1.@.673FAQ 7.3.@.674FAQ 7.2.@.675FAQ 7.1.@.676FAQ 6.2.@.677FAQ 6.1.@.678FAQ 5.4.@.679FAQ 5.3.@.680FAQ 5.2.@.681FAQ 5.1.@.682FAQ 4.3.@.683FAQ 4.2.@.684FAQ 4.1.@.685FAQ 3.3.@.686FAQ 3.2.@.687FAQ 3.1.@.688FAQ 2.2.@.689FAQ 2.1.@.690FAQ 1.3.@.691FAQ 1.2.@.692FAQ 1.1.@.693Greater heat released by condensation leads to fewer but stronger storms

FAQ 8.2.sFAQ 8.2.abFAQ 8.1.auFAQ 8.1.bfFAQ 7.3.bjFAQ 7.3.bsFAQ 7.2.cgFAQ 7.2.coFAQ 7.1.dfFAQ 7.1.doFAQ 6.2.emFAQ 6.2.evFAQ 6.1.fqFAQ 6.1.fzFAQ 5.4.gcFAQ 5.4.gxFAQ 5.3.haFAQ 5.3.@.260FAQ 5.2.@.263FAQ 5.2.@.281FAQ 5.1.@.284FAQ 5.1.@.317FAQ 4.3.@.327FAQ 4.3.@.336FAQ 4.2.@.384FAQ 4.2.@.392FAQ 4.1.@.416FAQ 4.1.@.423FAQ 3.3.@.435FAQ 3.3.@.443FAQ 3.2.@.464FAQ 3.2.@.465FAQ 3.2.@.472FAQ 3.1.@.477FAQ 3.1.@.485FAQ 2.2.@.509FAQ 2.2.@.518FAQ 2.1.@.528FAQ 2.1.@.537FAQ 1.3.@.569FAQ 1.3.@.577FAQ 1.2.@.585FAQ 1.2.@.595FAQ 1.1.@.649FAQ 1.1.@.658FAQ 12.3.@.661FAQ 12.2.@.662FAQ 12.1.@.663FAQ 11.3.@.664FAQ 11.2.@.665FAQ 11.1.@.666FAQ 10.2.@.667FAQ 10.1.@.668FAQ 9.3.@.669FAQ 9.2.@.670FAQ 9.1.@.671FAQ 8.3.@.672FAQ 8.2.@.673FAQ 8.1.@.674FAQ 7.3.@.675FAQ 7.2.@.676FAQ 7.1.@.677FAQ 6.2.@.678FAQ 6.1.@.679FAQ 5.4.@.680FAQ 5.3.@.681FAQ 5.2.@.682FAQ 5.1.@.683FAQ 4.3.@.684FAQ 4.2.@.685FAQ 4.1.@.686FAQ 3.3.@.687FAQ 3.2.@.688FAQ 3.1.@.689FAQ 2.2.@.690FAQ 2.1.@.691FAQ 1.3.@.692FAQ 1.2.@.693FAQ 1.1.@.694More moisture fuels heavier precipitation

FAQ 8.2.tFAQ 8.2.acFAQ 8.1.avFAQ 8.1.bgFAQ 7.3.bkFAQ 7.3.btFAQ 7.2.chFAQ 7.2.cpFAQ 7.1.dgFAQ 7.1.dpFAQ 6.2.enFAQ 6.2.ewFAQ 6.1.frFAQ 6.1.gaFAQ 5.4.gdFAQ 5.4.gyFAQ 5.3.hbFAQ 5.3.@.261FAQ 5.2.@.264FAQ 5.2.@.282FAQ 5.1.@.285FAQ 5.1.@.318FAQ 4.3.@.328FAQ 4.3.@.337FAQ 4.2.@.385FAQ 4.2.@.393FAQ 4.1.@.417FAQ 4.1.@.424FAQ 3.3.@.436FAQ 3.3.@.444FAQ 3.2.@.465FAQ 3.2.@.466FAQ 3.2.@.473FAQ 3.1.@.478FAQ 3.1.@.486FAQ 2.2.@.510FAQ 2.2.@.519FAQ 2.1.@.529FAQ 2.1.@.538FAQ 1.3.@.570FAQ 1.3.@.578FAQ 1.2.@.586FAQ 1.2.@.596FAQ 1.1.@.650FAQ 1.1.@.659FAQ 12.3.@.662FAQ 12.2.@.663FAQ 12.1.@.664FAQ 11.3.@.665FAQ 11.2.@.666FAQ 11.1.@.667FAQ 10.2.@.668FAQ 10.1.@.669FAQ 9.3.@.670FAQ 9.2.@.671FAQ 9.1.@.672FAQ 8.3.@.673FAQ 8.2.@.674FAQ 8.1.@.675FAQ 7.3.@.676FAQ 7.2.@.677FAQ 7.1.@.678FAQ 6.2.@.679FAQ 6.1.@.680FAQ 5.4.@.681FAQ 5.3.@.682FAQ 5.2.@.683FAQ 5.1.@.684FAQ 4.3.@.685FAQ 4.2.@.686FAQ 4.1.@.687FAQ 3.3.@.688FAQ 3.2.@.689FAQ 3.1.@.690FAQ 2.2.@.691FAQ 2.1.@.692FAQ 1.3.@.693FAQ 1.2.@.694FAQ 1.1.@.695Heavier rainfall increases flood severity

FAQ 8.2.uFAQ 8.2.adFAQ 8.1.awFAQ 8.1.bhFAQ 7.3.blFAQ 7.3.buFAQ 7.2.ciFAQ 7.2.cqFAQ 7.1.dhFAQ 7.1.dqFAQ 6.2.eoFAQ 6.2.exFAQ 6.1.fsFAQ 6.1.gbFAQ 5.4.geFAQ 5.4.gzFAQ 5.3.hcFAQ 5.3.@.262FAQ 5.2.@.265FAQ 5.2.@.283FAQ 5.1.@.286FAQ 5.1.@.319FAQ 4.3.@.329FAQ 4.3.@.338FAQ 4.2.@.386FAQ 4.2.@.394FAQ 4.1.@.418FAQ 4.1.@.425FAQ 3.3.@.437FAQ 3.3.@.445FAQ 3.2.@.466FAQ 3.2.@.467FAQ 3.2.@.474FAQ 3.1.@.479FAQ 3.1.@.487FAQ 2.2.@.511FAQ 2.2.@.520FAQ 2.1.@.530FAQ 2.1.@.539FAQ 1.3.@.571FAQ 1.3.@.579FAQ 1.2.@.587FAQ 1.2.@.597FAQ 1.1.@.651FAQ 1.1.@.660FAQ 12.3.@.663FAQ 12.2.@.664FAQ 12.1.@.665FAQ 11.3.@.666FAQ 11.2.@.667FAQ 11.1.@.668FAQ 10.2.@.669FAQ 10.1.@.670FAQ 9.3.@.671FAQ 9.2.@.672FAQ 9.1.@.673FAQ 8.3.@.674FAQ 8.2.@.675FAQ 8.1.@.676FAQ 7.3.@.677FAQ 7.2.@.678FAQ 7.1.@.679FAQ 6.2.@.680FAQ 6.1.@.681FAQ 5.4.@.682FAQ 5.3.@.683FAQ 5.2.@.684FAQ 5.1.@.685FAQ 4.3.@.686FAQ 4.2.@.687FAQ 4.1.@.688FAQ 3.3.@.689FAQ 3.2.@.690FAQ 3.1.@.691FAQ 2.2.@.692FAQ 2.1.@.693FAQ 1.3.@.694FAQ 1.2.@.695FAQ 1.1.@.696Earlier and stronger spring melt increase river flow

FAQ 8.2.vFAQ 8.2.aeFAQ 8.1.axFAQ 8.1.biFAQ 7.3.bmFAQ 7.3.bvFAQ 7.2.cjFAQ 7.2.crFAQ 7.1.diFAQ 7.1.drFAQ 6.2.epFAQ 6.2.eyFAQ 6.1.ftFAQ 6.1.gcFAQ 5.4.gfFAQ 5.4.haFAQ 5.3.hdFAQ 5.3.@.263FAQ 5.2.@.266FAQ 5.2.@.284FAQ 5.1.@.287FAQ 5.1.@.320FAQ 4.3.@.330FAQ 4.3.@.339FAQ 4.2.@.387FAQ 4.2.@.395FAQ 4.1.@.419FAQ 4.1.@.426FAQ 3.3.@.438FAQ 3.3.@.446FAQ 3.2.@.467FAQ 3.2.@.468FAQ 3.2.@.475FAQ 3.1.@.480FAQ 3.1.@.488FAQ 2.2.@.512FAQ 2.2.@.521FAQ 2.1.@.531FAQ 2.1.@.540FAQ 1.3.@.572FAQ 1.3.@.580FAQ 1.2.@.588FAQ 1.2.@.598FAQ 1.1.@.652FAQ 1.1.@.661FAQ 12.3.@.664FAQ 12.2.@.665FAQ 12.1.@.666FAQ 11.3.@.667FAQ 11.2.@.668FAQ 11.1.@.669FAQ 10.2.@.670FAQ 10.1.@.671FAQ 9.3.@.672FAQ 9.2.@.673FAQ 9.1.@.674FAQ 8.3.@.675FAQ 8.2.@.676FAQ 8.1.@.677FAQ 7.3.@.678FAQ 7.2.@.679FAQ 7.1.@.680FAQ 6.2.@.681FAQ 6.1.@.682FAQ 5.4.@.683FAQ 5.3.@.684FAQ 5.2.@.685FAQ 5.1.@.686FAQ 4.3.@.687FAQ 4.2.@.688FAQ 4.1.@.689FAQ 3.3.@.690FAQ 3.2.@.691FAQ 3.1.@.692FAQ 2.2.@.693FAQ 2.1.@.694FAQ 1.3.@.695FAQ 1.2.@.696FAQ 1.1.@.697Large-scale deforestation decreases rainfall but increases runoff and river flow

FAQ 8.2.wFAQ 8.2.afFAQ 8.1.ayFAQ 8.1.bjFAQ 7.3.bnFAQ 7.3.bwFAQ 7.2.ckFAQ 7.2.csFAQ 7.1.djFAQ 7.1.dsFAQ 6.2.eqFAQ 6.2.ezFAQ 6.1.fuFAQ 6.1.gdFAQ 5.4.ggFAQ 5.4.hbFAQ 5.3.heFAQ 5.3.@.264FAQ 5.2.@.267FAQ 5.2.@.285FAQ 5.1.@.288FAQ 5.1.@.321FAQ 4.3.@.331FAQ 4.3.@.340FAQ 4.2.@.388FAQ 4.2.@.396FAQ 4.1.@.420FAQ 4.1.@.427FAQ 3.3.@.439FAQ 3.3.@.447FAQ 3.2.@.468FAQ 3.2.@.469FAQ 3.2.@.476FAQ 3.1.@.481FAQ 3.1.@.489FAQ 2.2.@.513FAQ 2.2.@.522FAQ 2.1.@.532FAQ 2.1.@.541FAQ 1.3.@.573FAQ 1.3.@.581FAQ 1.2.@.589FAQ 1.2.@.599FAQ 1.1.@.653FAQ 1.1.@.662FAQ 12.3.@.665FAQ 12.2.@.666FAQ 12.1.@.667FAQ 11.3.@.668FAQ 11.2.@.669FAQ 11.1.@.670FAQ 10.2.@.671FAQ 10.1.@.672FAQ 9.3.@.673FAQ 9.2.@.674FAQ 9.1.@.675FAQ 8.3.@.676FAQ 8.2.@.677FAQ 8.1.@.678FAQ 7.3.@.679FAQ 7.2.@.680FAQ 7.1.@.681FAQ 6.2.@.682FAQ 6.1.@.683FAQ 5.4.@.684FAQ 5.3.@.685FAQ 5.2.@.686FAQ 5.1.@.687FAQ 4.3.@.688FAQ 4.2.@.689FAQ 4.1.@.690FAQ 3.3.@.691FAQ 3.2.@.692FAQ 3.1.@.693FAQ 2.2.@.694FAQ 2.1.@.695FAQ 1.3.@.696FAQ 1.2.@.697FAQ 1.1.@.698Increased water use reduces river flow

FAQ 8.2.xFAQ 8.2.agFAQ 8.1.azFAQ 8.1.bkFAQ 7.3.boFAQ 7.3.bxFAQ 7.2.clFAQ 7.2.ctFAQ 7.1.dkFAQ 7.1.dtFAQ 6.2.erFAQ 6.2.faFAQ 6.1.fvFAQ 6.1.geFAQ 5.4.ghFAQ 5.4.hcFAQ 5.3.hfFAQ 5.3.@.265FAQ 5.2.@.268FAQ 5.2.@.286FAQ 5.1.@.289FAQ 5.1.@.322FAQ 4.3.@.332FAQ 4.3.@.341FAQ 4.2.@.389FAQ 4.2.@.397FAQ 4.1.@.421FAQ 4.1.@.428FAQ 3.3.@.440FAQ 3.3.@.448FAQ 3.2.@.469FAQ 3.2.@.470FAQ 3.2.@.477FAQ 3.1.@.482FAQ 3.1.@.490FAQ 2.2.@.514FAQ 2.2.@.523FAQ 2.1.@.533FAQ 2.1.@.542FAQ 1.3.@.574FAQ 1.3.@.582FAQ 1.2.@.590FAQ 1.2.@.600FAQ 1.1.@.654FAQ 1.1.@.663FAQ 12.3.@.666FAQ 12.2.@.667FAQ 12.1.@.668FAQ 11.3.@.669FAQ 11.2.@.670FAQ 11.1.@.671FAQ 10.2.@.672FAQ 10.1.@.673FAQ 9.3.@.674FAQ 9.2.@.675FAQ 9.1.@.676FAQ 8.3.@.677FAQ 8.2.@.678FAQ 8.1.@.679FAQ 7.3.@.680FAQ 7.2.@.681FAQ 7.1.@.682FAQ 6.2.@.683FAQ 6.1.@.684FAQ 5.4.@.685FAQ 5.3.@.686FAQ 5.2.@.687FAQ 5.1.@.688FAQ 4.3.@.689FAQ 4.2.@.690FAQ 4.1.@.691FAQ 3.3.@.692FAQ 3.2.@.693FAQ 3.1.@.694FAQ 2.2.@.695FAQ 2.1.@.696FAQ 1.3.@.697FAQ 1.2.@.698FAQ 1.1.@.699Urbanisa tion inc rea ses run off and flash flooding

FAQ 8.2.yFAQ 8.2.ahFAQ 8.1.baFAQ 8.1.blFAQ 7.3.bpFAQ 7.3.byFAQ 7.2.cmFAQ 7.2.cuFAQ 7.1.dlFAQ 7.1.duFAQ 6.2.esFAQ 6.2.fbFAQ 6.1.fwFAQ 6.1.gfFAQ 5.4.giFAQ 5.4.hdFAQ 5.3.hgFAQ 5.3.@.266FAQ 5.2.@.269FAQ 5.2.@.287FAQ 5.1.@.290FAQ 5.1.@.323FAQ 4.3.@.333FAQ 4.3.@.342FAQ 4.2.@.390FAQ 4.2.@.398FAQ 4.1.@.422FAQ 4.1.@.429FAQ 3.3.@.441FAQ 3.3.@.449FAQ 3.2.@.470FAQ 3.2.@.471FAQ 3.2.@.478FAQ 3.1.@.483FAQ 3.1.@.491FAQ 2.2.@.515FAQ 2.2.@.524FAQ 2.1.@.534FAQ 2.1.@.543FAQ 1.3.@.575FAQ 1.3.@.583FAQ 1.2.@.591FAQ 1.2.@.601FAQ 1.1.@.655FAQ 1.1.@.664FAQ 12.3.@.667FAQ 12.2.@.668FAQ 12.1.@.669FAQ 11.3.@.670FAQ 11.2.@.671FAQ 11.1.@.672FAQ 10.2.@.673FAQ 10.1.@.674FAQ 9.3.@.675FAQ 9.2.@.676FAQ 9.1.@.677FAQ 8.3.@.678FAQ 8.2.@.679FAQ 8.1.@.680FAQ 7.3.@.681FAQ 7.2.@.682FAQ 7.1.@.683FAQ 6.2.@.684FAQ 6.1.@.685FAQ 5.4.@.686FAQ 5.3.@.687FAQ 5.2.@.688FAQ 5.1.@.689FAQ 4.3.@.690FAQ 4.2.@.691FAQ 4.1.@.692FAQ 3.3.@.693FAQ 3.2.@.694FAQ 3.1.@.695FAQ 2.2.@.696FAQ 2.1.@.697FAQ 1.3.@.698FAQ 1.2.@.699FAQ 1.1.@.700Particle pollution alters storm development

FAQ 8.2.zFAQ 8.2.aiFAQ 8.1.bbFAQ 8.1.bmFAQ 7.3.bqFAQ 7.3.bzFAQ 7.2.cnFAQ 7.2.cvFAQ 7.1.dmFAQ 7.1.dvFAQ 6.2.etFAQ 6.2.fcFAQ 6.1.fxFAQ 6.1.ggFAQ 5.4.gjFAQ 5.4.heFAQ 5.3.hhFAQ 5.3.@.267FAQ 5.2.@.270FAQ 5.2.@.288FAQ 5.1.@.291FAQ 5.1.@.324FAQ 4.3.@.334FAQ 4.3.@.343FAQ 4.2.@.391FAQ 4.2.@.399FAQ 4.1.@.423FAQ 4.1.@.430FAQ 3.3.@.442FAQ 3.3.@.450FAQ 3.2.@.471FAQ 3.2.@.472FAQ 3.2.@.479FAQ 3.1.@.484FAQ 3.1.@.492FAQ 2.2.@.516FAQ 2.2.@.525FAQ 2.1.@.535FAQ 2.1.@.544FAQ 1.3.@.576FAQ 1.3.@.584FAQ 1.2.@.592FAQ 1.2.@.602FAQ 1.1.@.656FAQ 1.1.@.665FAQ 12.3.@.668FAQ 12.2.@.669FAQ 12.1.@.670FAQ 11.3.@.671FAQ 11.2.@.672FAQ 11.1.@.673FAQ 10.2.@.674FAQ 10.1.@.675FAQ 9.3.@.676FAQ 9.2.@.677FAQ 9.1.@.678FAQ 8.3.@.679FAQ 8.2.@.680FAQ 8.1.@.681FAQ 7.3.@.682FAQ 7.2.@.683FAQ 7.1.@.684FAQ 6.2.@.685FAQ 6.1.@.686FAQ 5.4.@.687FAQ 5.3.@.688FAQ 5.2.@.689FAQ 5.1.@.690FAQ 4.3.@.691FAQ 4.2.@.692FAQ 4.1.@.693FAQ 3.3.@.694FAQ 3.2.@.695FAQ 3.1.@.696FAQ 2.2.@.697FAQ 2.1.@.698FAQ 1.3.@.699FAQ 1.2.@.700FAQ 1.1.@.701Cloud microphysics limits rainfall increase

FAQ 8.2.aaFAQ 8.2.ajFAQ 8.1.bcFAQ 8.1.bnFAQ 7.3.brFAQ 7.3.caFAQ 7.2.coFAQ 7.2.cwFAQ 7.1.dnFAQ 7.1.dwFAQ 6.2.euFAQ 6.2.fdFAQ 6.1.fyFAQ 6.1.ghFAQ 5.4.gkFAQ 5.4.hfFAQ 5.3.hiFAQ 5.3.@.268FAQ 5.2.@.271FAQ 5.2.@.289FAQ 5.1.@.292FAQ 5.1.@.325FAQ 4.3.@.335FAQ 4.3.@.344FAQ 4.2.@.392FAQ 4.2.@.400FAQ 4.1.@.424FAQ 4.1.@.431FAQ 3.3.@.443FAQ 3.3.@.451FAQ 3.2.@.472FAQ 3.2.@.473FAQ 3.2.@.480FAQ 3.1.@.485FAQ 3.1.@.493FAQ 2.2.@.517FAQ 2.2.@.526FAQ 2.1.@.536FAQ 2.1.@.545FAQ 1.3.@.577FAQ 1.3.@.585FAQ 1.2.@.593FAQ 1.2.@.603FAQ 1.1.@.657FAQ 1.1.@.666FAQ 12.3.@.669FAQ 12.2.@.670FAQ 12.1.@.671FAQ 11.3.@.672FAQ 11.2.@.673FAQ 11.1.@.674FAQ 10.2.@.675FAQ 10.1.@.676FAQ 9.3.@.677FAQ 9.2.@.678FAQ 9.1.@.679FAQ 8.3.@.680FAQ 8.2.@.681FAQ 8.1.@.682FAQ 7.3.@.683FAQ 7.2.@.684FAQ 7.1.@.685FAQ 6.2.@.686FAQ 6.1.@.687FAQ 5.4.@.688FAQ 5.3.@.689FAQ 5.2.@.690FAQ 5.1.@.691FAQ 4.3.@.692FAQ 4.2.@.693FAQ 4.1.@.694FAQ 3.3.@.695FAQ 3.2.@.696FAQ 3.1.@.697FAQ 2.2.@.698FAQ 2.1.@.699FAQ 1.3.@.700FAQ 1.2.@.701FAQ 1.1.@.702Greater capacity of drier soils to soak up water from sustained rainfall

FAQ 8.2.abFAQ 8.2.akFAQ 8.1.bdFAQ 8.1.boFAQ 7.3.bsFAQ 7.3.cbFAQ 7.2.cpFAQ 7.2.cxFAQ 7.1.doFAQ 7.1.dxFAQ 6.2.evFAQ 6.2.feFAQ 6.1.fzFAQ 6.1.giFAQ 5.4.glFAQ 5.4.hgFAQ 5.3.hjFAQ 5.3.@.269FAQ 5.2.@.272FAQ 5.2.@.290FAQ 5.1.@.293FAQ 5.1.@.326FAQ 4.3.@.336FAQ 4.3.@.345FAQ 4.2.@.393FAQ 4.2.@.401FAQ 4.1.@.425FAQ 4.1.@.432FAQ 3.3.@.444FAQ 3.3.@.452FAQ 3.2.@.473FAQ 3.2.@.474FAQ 3.2.@.481FAQ 3.1.@.486FAQ 3.1.@.494FAQ 2.2.@.518FAQ 2.2.@.527FAQ 2.1.@.537FAQ 2.1.@.546FAQ 1.3.@.578FAQ 1.3.@.586FAQ 1.2.@.594FAQ 1.2.@.604FAQ 1.1.@.658FAQ 1.1.@.667FAQ 12.3.@.670FAQ 12.2.@.671FAQ 12.1.@.672FAQ 11.3.@.673FAQ 11.2.@.674FAQ 11.1.@.675FAQ 10.2.@.676FAQ 10.1.@.677FAQ 9.3.@.678FAQ 9.2.@.679FAQ 9.1.@.680FAQ 8.3.@.681FAQ 8.2.@.682FAQ 8.1.@.683FAQ 7.3.@.684FAQ 7.2.@.685FAQ 7.1.@.686FAQ 6.2.@.687FAQ 6.1.@.688FAQ 5.4.@.689FAQ 5.3.@.690FAQ 5.2.@.691FAQ 5.1.@.692FAQ 4.3.@.693FAQ 4.2.@.694FAQ 4.1.@.695FAQ 3.3.@.696FAQ 3.2.@.697FAQ 3.1.@.698FAQ 2.2.@.699FAQ 2.1.@.700FAQ 1.3.@.701FAQ 1.2.@.702FAQ 1.1.@.703More runoff from heavy rain falling on dry, encrusted soils

FAQ 8.2.acFAQ 8.2.alFAQ 8.1.beFAQ 8.1.bpFAQ 7.3.btFAQ 7.3.ccFAQ 7.2.cqFAQ 7.2.cyFAQ 7.1.dpFAQ 7.1.dyFAQ 6.2.ewFAQ 6.2.ffFAQ 6.1.gaFAQ 6.1.gjFAQ 5.4.gmFAQ 5.4.hhFAQ 5.3.hkFAQ 5.3.@.270FAQ 5.2.@.273FAQ 5.2.@.291FAQ 5.1.@.294FAQ 5.1.@.327FAQ 4.3.@.337FAQ 4.3.@.346FAQ 4.2.@.394FAQ 4.2.@.402FAQ 4.1.@.426FAQ 4.1.@.433FAQ 3.3.@.445FAQ 3.3.@.453FAQ 3.2.@.474FAQ 3.2.@.475FAQ 3.2.@.482FAQ 3.1.@.487FAQ 3.1.@.495FAQ 2.2.@.519FAQ 2.2.@.528FAQ 2.1.@.538FAQ 2.1.@.547FAQ 1.3.@.579FAQ 1.3.@.587FAQ 1.2.@.595FAQ 1.2.@.605FAQ 1.1.@.659FAQ 1.1.@.668FAQ 12.3.@.671FAQ 12.2.@.672FAQ 12.1.@.673FAQ 11.3.@.674FAQ 11.2.@.675FAQ 11.1.@.676FAQ 10.2.@.677FAQ 10.1.@.678FAQ 9.3.@.679FAQ 9.2.@.680FAQ 9.1.@.681FAQ 8.3.@.682FAQ 8.2.@.683FAQ 8.1.@.684FAQ 7.3.@.685FAQ 7.2.@.686FAQ 7.1.@.687FAQ 6.2.@.688FAQ 6.1.@.689FAQ 5.4.@.690FAQ 5.3.@.691FAQ 5.2.@.692FAQ 5.1.@.693FAQ 4.3.@.694FAQ 4.2.@.695FAQ 4.1.@.696FAQ 3.3.@.697FAQ 3.2.@.698FAQ 3.1.@.699FAQ 2.2.@.700FAQ 2.1.@.701FAQ 1.3.@.702FAQ 1.2.@.703FAQ 1.1.@.704Worsening coastal flooding from sea level rise and combined with heavier rainfall

FAQ 8.2.adFAQ 8.2.amFAQ 8.1.bfFAQ 8.1.bqFAQ 7.3.buFAQ 7.3.cdFAQ 7.2.crFAQ 7.2.czFAQ 7.1.dqFAQ 7.1.dzFAQ 6.2.exFAQ 6.2.fgFAQ 6.1.gbFAQ 6.1.gkFAQ 5.4.gnFAQ 5.4.hiFAQ 5.3.hlFAQ 5.3.@.271FAQ 5.2.@.274FAQ 5.2.@.292FAQ 5.1.@.295FAQ 5.1.@.328FAQ 4.3.@.338FAQ 4.3.@.347FAQ 4.2.@.395FAQ 4.2.@.403FAQ 4.1.@.427FAQ 4.1.@.434FAQ 3.3.@.446FAQ 3.3.@.454FAQ 3.2.@.475FAQ 3.2.@.476FAQ 3.2.@.483FAQ 3.1.@.488FAQ 3.1.@.496FAQ 2.2.@.520FAQ 2.2.@.529FAQ 2.1.@.539FAQ 2.1.@.548FAQ 1.3.@.580FAQ 1.3.@.588FAQ 1.2.@.596FAQ 1.2.@.606FAQ 1.1.@.660FAQ 1.1.@.669FAQ 12.3.@.672FAQ 12.2.@.673FAQ 12.1.@.674FAQ 11.3.@.675FAQ 11.2.@.676FAQ 11.1.@.677FAQ 10.2.@.678FAQ 10.1.@.679FAQ 9.3.@.680FAQ 9.2.@.681FAQ 9.1.@.682FAQ 8.3.@.683FAQ 8.2.@.684FAQ 8.1.@.685FAQ 7.3.@.686FAQ 7.2.@.687FAQ 7.1.@.688FAQ 6.2.@.689FAQ 6.1.@.690FAQ 5.4.@.691FAQ 5.3.@.692FAQ 5.2.@.693FAQ 5.1.@.694FAQ 4.3.@.695FAQ 4.2.@.696FAQ 4.1.@.697FAQ 3.3.@.698FAQ 3.2.@.699FAQ 3.1.@.700FAQ 2.2.@.701FAQ 2.1.@.702FAQ 1.3.@.703FAQ 1.2.@.704FAQ 1.1.@.705Changing location and persistence of wettest events

FAQ 8.2.aeFAQ 8.2.anFAQ 8.1.bgFAQ 8.1.brFAQ 7.3.bvFAQ 7.3.ceFAQ 7.2.csFAQ 7.2.daFAQ 7.1.drFAQ 7.1.eaFAQ 6.2.eyFAQ 6.2.fhFAQ 6.1.gcFAQ 6.1.glFAQ 5.4.goFAQ 5.4.hjFAQ 5.3.hmFAQ 5.3.@.272FAQ 5.2.@.275FAQ 5.2.@.293FAQ 5.1.@.296FAQ 5.1.@.329FAQ 4.3.@.339FAQ 4.3.@.348FAQ 4.2.@.396FAQ 4.2.@.404FAQ 4.1.@.428FAQ 4.1.@.435FAQ 3.3.@.447FAQ 3.3.@.455FAQ 3.2.@.476FAQ 3.2.@.477FAQ 3.2.@.484FAQ 3.1.@.489FAQ 3.1.@.497FAQ 2.2.@.521FAQ 2.2.@.530FAQ 2.1.@.540FAQ 2.1.@.549FAQ 1.3.@.581FAQ 1.3.@.589FAQ 1.2.@.597FAQ 1.2.@.607FAQ 1.1.@.661FAQ 1.1.@.670FAQ 12.3.@.673FAQ 12.2.@.674FAQ 12.1.@.675FAQ 11.3.@.676FAQ 11.2.@.677FAQ 11.1.@.678FAQ 10.2.@.679FAQ 10.1.@.680FAQ 9.3.@.681FAQ 9.2.@.682FAQ 9.1.@.683FAQ 8.3.@.684FAQ 8.2.@.685FAQ 8.1.@.686FAQ 7.3.@.687FAQ 7.2.@.688FAQ 7.1.@.689FAQ 6.2.@.690FAQ 6.1.@.691FAQ 5.4.@.692FAQ 5.3.@.693FAQ 5.2.@.694FAQ 5.1.@.695FAQ 4.3.@.696FAQ 4.2.@.697FAQ 4.1.@.698FAQ 3.3.@.699FAQ 3.2.@.700FAQ 3.1.@.701FAQ 2.2.@.702FAQ 2.1.@.703FAQ 1.3.@.704FAQ 1.2.@.705FAQ 1.1.@.706Less severe flooding

FAQ 8.2.afFAQ 8.2.aoFAQ 8.1.bhFAQ 8.1.bsFAQ 7.3.bwFAQ 7.3.cfFAQ 7.2.ctFAQ 7.2.dbFAQ 7.1.dsFAQ 7.1.ebFAQ 6.2.ezFAQ 6.2.fiFAQ 6.1.gdFAQ 6.1.gmFAQ 5.4.gpFAQ 5.4.hkFAQ 5.3.hnFAQ 5.3.@.273FAQ 5.2.@.276FAQ 5.2.@.294FAQ 5.1.@.297FAQ 5.1.@.330FAQ 4.3.@.340FAQ 4.3.@.349FAQ 4.2.@.397FAQ 4.2.@.405FAQ 4.1.@.429FAQ 4.1.@.436FAQ 3.3.@.448FAQ 3.3.@.456FAQ 3.2.@.477FAQ 3.2.@.478FAQ 3.2.@.485FAQ 3.1.@.490FAQ 3.1.@.498FAQ 2.2.@.522FAQ 2.2.@.531FAQ 2.1.@.541FAQ 2.1.@.550FAQ 1.3.@.582FAQ 1.3.@.590FAQ 1.2.@.598FAQ 1.2.@.608FAQ 1.1.@.662FAQ 1.1.@.671FAQ 12.3.@.674FAQ 12.2.@.675FAQ 12.1.@.676FAQ 11.3.@.677FAQ 11.2.@.678FAQ 11.1.@.679FAQ 10.2.@.680FAQ 10.1.@.681FAQ 9.3.@.682FAQ 9.2.@.683FAQ 9.1.@.684FAQ 8.3.@.685FAQ 8.2.@.686FAQ 8.1.@.687FAQ 7.3.@.688FAQ 7.2.@.689FAQ 7.1.@.690FAQ 6.2.@.691FAQ 6.1.@.692FAQ 5.4.@.693FAQ 5.3.@.694FAQ 5.2.@.695FAQ 5.1.@.696FAQ 4.3.@.697FAQ 4.2.@.698FAQ 4.1.@.699FAQ 3.3.@.700FAQ 3.2.@.701FAQ 3.1.@.702FAQ 2.2.@.703FAQ 2.1.@.704FAQ 1.3.@.705FAQ 1.2.@.706FAQ 1.1.@.707More severe flooding

FAQ 8.2.agFAQ 8.2.apFAQ 8.1.biFAQ 8.1.btFAQ 7.3.bxFAQ 7.3.cgFAQ 7.2.cuFAQ 7.2.dcFAQ 7.1.dtFAQ 7.1.ecFAQ 6.2.faFAQ 6.2.fjFAQ 6.1.geFAQ 6.1.gnFAQ 5.4.gqFAQ 5.4.hlFAQ 5.3.hoFAQ 5.3.@.274FAQ 5.2.@.277FAQ 5.2.@.295FAQ 5.1.@.298FAQ 5.1.@.331FAQ 4.3.@.341FAQ 4.3.@.350FAQ 4.2.@.398FAQ 4.2.@.406FAQ 4.1.@.430FAQ 4.1.@.437FAQ 3.3.@.449FAQ 3.3.@.457FAQ 3.2.@.478FAQ 3.2.@.479FAQ 3.2.@.486FAQ 3.1.@.491FAQ 3.1.@.499FAQ 2.2.@.523FAQ 2.2.@.532FAQ 2.1.@.542FAQ 2.1.@.551FAQ 1.3.@.583FAQ 1.3.@.591FAQ 1.2.@.599FAQ 1.2.@.609FAQ 1.1.@.663FAQ 1.1.@.672FAQ 12.3.@.675FAQ 12.2.@.676FAQ 12.1.@.677FAQ 11.3.@.678FAQ 11.2.@.679FAQ 11.1.@.680FAQ 10.2.@.681FAQ 10.1.@.682FAQ 9.3.@.683FAQ 9.2.@.684FAQ 9.1.@.685FAQ 8.3.@.686FAQ 8.2.@.687FAQ 8.1.@.688FAQ 7.3.@.689FAQ 7.2.@.690FAQ 7.1.@.691FAQ 6.2.@.692FAQ 6.1.@.693FAQ 5.4.@.694FAQ 5.3.@.695FAQ 5.2.@.696FAQ 5.1.@.697FAQ 4.3.@.698FAQ 4.2.@.699FAQ 4.1.@.700FAQ 3.3.@.701FAQ 3.2.@.702FAQ 3.1.@.703FAQ 2.2.@.704FAQ 2.1.@.705FAQ 1.3.@.706FAQ 1.2.@.707FAQ 1.1.@.708AtmosphereHumanSoilsCryosphereCoastal

FAQ 8.2.ahFAQ 8.2.aqFAQ 8.1.bjFAQ 8.1.buFAQ 7.3.byFAQ 7.3.chFAQ 7.2.cvFAQ 7.2.ddFAQ 7.1.duFAQ 7.1.edFAQ 6.2.fbFAQ 6.2.fkFAQ 6.1.gfFAQ 6.1.goFAQ 5.4.grFAQ 5.4.hmFAQ 5.3.hpFAQ 5.3.@.275FAQ 5.2.@.278FAQ 5.2.@.296FAQ 5.1.@.299FAQ 5.1.@.332FAQ 4.3.@.342FAQ 4.3.@.351FAQ 4.2.@.399FAQ 4.2.@.407FAQ 4.1.@.431FAQ 4.1.@.438FAQ 3.3.@.450FAQ 3.3.@.458FAQ 3.2.@.479FAQ 3.2.@.480FAQ 3.2.@.487FAQ 3.1.@.492FAQ 3.1.@.500FAQ 2.2.@.524FAQ 2.2.@.533FAQ 2.1.@.543FAQ 2.1.@.552FAQ 1.3.@.584FAQ 1.3.@.592FAQ 1.2.@.600FAQ 1.2.@.610FAQ 1.1.@.664FAQ 1.1.@.673FAQ 12.3.@.676FAQ 12.2.@.677FAQ 12.1.@.678FAQ 11.3.@.679FAQ 11.2.@.680FAQ 11.1.@.681FAQ 10.2.@.682FAQ 10.1.@.683FAQ 9.3.@.684FAQ 9.2.@.685FAQ 9.1.@.686FAQ 8.3.@.687FAQ 8.2.@.688FAQ 8.1.@.689FAQ 7.3.@.690FAQ 7.2.@.691FAQ 7.1.@.692FAQ 6.2.@.693FAQ 6.1.@.694FAQ 5.4.@.695FAQ 5.3.@.696FAQ 5.2.@.697FAQ 5.1.@.698FAQ 4.3.@.699FAQ 4.2.@.700FAQ 4.1.@.701FAQ 3.3.@.702FAQ 3.2.@.703FAQ 3.1.@.704FAQ 2.2.@.705FAQ 2.1.@.706FAQ 1.3.@.707FAQ 1.2.@.708FAQ 1.1.@.709FAQ 8.2, Figure 1 | Schematic illustrating factors important in determining changes in heavy precipitation and flooding.

FAQ 8.2.aiFAQ 8.2.arFAQ 8.1.bkFAQ 8.1.bvFAQ 7.3.bzFAQ 7.3.ciFAQ 7.2.cwFAQ 7.2.deFAQ 7.1.dvFAQ 7.1.eeFAQ 6.2.fcFAQ 6.2.flFAQ 6.1.ggFAQ 6.1.gpFAQ 5.4.gsFAQ 5.4.hnFAQ 5.3.hqFAQ 5.3.@.276FAQ 5.2.@.279FAQ 5.2.@.297FAQ 5.1.@.300FAQ 5.1.@.333FAQ 4.3.@.343FAQ 4.3.@.352FAQ 4.2.@.400FAQ 4.2.@.408FAQ 4.1.@.432FAQ 4.1.@.439FAQ 3.3.@.451FAQ 3.3.@.459FAQ 3.2.@.480FAQ 3.2.@.481FAQ 3.2.@.488FAQ 3.1.@.493FAQ 3.1.@.501FAQ 2.2.@.525FAQ 2.2.@.534FAQ 2.1.@.544FAQ 2.1.@.553FAQ 1.3.@.585FAQ 1.3.@.593FAQ 1.2.@.601FAQ 1.2.@.611FAQ 1.1.@.665FAQ 1.1.@.674FAQ 12.3.@.677FAQ 12.2.@.678FAQ 12.1.@.679FAQ 11.3.@.680FAQ 11.2.@.681FAQ 11.1.@.682FAQ 10.2.@.683FAQ 10.1.@.684FAQ 9.3.@.685FAQ 9.2.@.686FAQ 9.1.@.687FAQ 8.3.@.688FAQ 8.2.@.689FAQ 8.1.@.690FAQ 7.3.@.691FAQ 7.2.@.692FAQ 7.1.@.693FAQ 6.2.@.694FAQ 6.1.@.695FAQ 5.4.@.696FAQ 5.3.@.697FAQ 5.2.@.698FAQ 5.1.@.699FAQ 4.3.@.700FAQ 4.2.@.701FAQ 4.1.@.702FAQ 3.3.@.703FAQ 3.2.@.704FAQ 3.1.@.705FAQ 2.2.@.706FAQ 2.1.@.707FAQ 1.3.@.708FAQ 1.2.@.709FAQ 1.1.@.710FAQ

FAQ 8.2.ajFAQ 8.2.asFAQ 8.1.blFAQ 8.1.bwFAQ 7.3.caFAQ 7.3.cjFAQ 7.2.cxFAQ 7.2.dfFAQ 7.1.dwFAQ 7.1.efFAQ 6.2.fdFAQ 6.2.fmFAQ 6.1.ghFAQ 6.1.gqFAQ 5.4.gtFAQ 5.4.hoFAQ 5.3.hrFAQ 5.3.@.277FAQ 5.2.@.280FAQ 5.2.@.298FAQ 5.1.@.301FAQ 5.1.@.334FAQ 4.3.@.344FAQ 4.3.@.353FAQ 4.2.@.401FAQ 4.2.@.409FAQ 4.1.@.433FAQ 4.1.@.440FAQ 3.3.@.452FAQ 3.3.@.460FAQ 3.2.@.481FAQ 3.2.@.482FAQ 3.2.@.489FAQ 3.1.@.494FAQ 3.1.@.502FAQ 2.2.@.526FAQ 2.2.@.535FAQ 2.1.@.545FAQ 2.1.@.554FAQ 1.3.@.586FAQ 1.3.@.594FAQ 1.2.@.602FAQ 1.2.@.612FAQ 1.1.@.666FAQ 1.1.@.675FAQ 12.3.@.678FAQ 12.2.@.679FAQ 12.1.@.680FAQ 11.3.@.681FAQ 11.2.@.682FAQ 11.1.@.683FAQ 10.2.@.684FAQ 10.1.@.685FAQ 9.3.@.686FAQ 9.2.@.687FAQ 9.1.@.688FAQ 8.3.@.689FAQ 8.2.@.690FAQ 8.1.@.691FAQ 7.3.@.692FAQ 7.2.@.693FAQ 7.1.@.694FAQ 6.2.@.695FAQ 6.1.@.696FAQ 5.4.@.697FAQ 5.3.@.698FAQ 5.2.@.699FAQ 5.1.@.700FAQ 4.3.@.701FAQ 4.2.@.702FAQ 4.1.@.703FAQ 3.3.@.704FAQ 3.2.@.705FAQ 3.1.@.706FAQ 2.2.@.707FAQ 2.1.@.708FAQ 1.3.@.709FAQ 1.2.@.710FAQ 1.1.@.711Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 8.2.akFAQ 8.2.atFAQ 8.1.bmFAQ 8.1.bxFAQ 7.3.cbFAQ 7.3.ckFAQ 7.2.cyFAQ 7.2.dgFAQ 7.1.dxFAQ 7.1.egFAQ 6.2.feFAQ 6.2.fnFAQ 6.1.giFAQ 6.1.grFAQ 5.4.guFAQ 5.4.hpFAQ 5.3.hsFAQ 5.3.@.278FAQ 5.2.@.281FAQ 5.2.@.299FAQ 5.1.@.302FAQ 5.1.@.335FAQ 4.3.@.345FAQ 4.3.@.354FAQ 4.2.@.402FAQ 4.2.@.410FAQ 4.1.@.434FAQ 4.1.@.441FAQ 3.3.@.453FAQ 3.3.@.461FAQ 3.2.@.482FAQ 3.2.@.483FAQ 3.2.@.490FAQ 3.1.@.495FAQ 3.1.@.503FAQ 2.2.@.527FAQ 2.2.@.536FAQ 2.1.@.546FAQ 2.1.@.555FAQ 1.3.@.587FAQ 1.3.@.595FAQ 1.2.@.603FAQ 1.2.@.613FAQ 1.1.@.667FAQ 1.1.@.676FAQ 12.3.@.679FAQ 12.2.@.680FAQ 12.1.@.681FAQ 11.3.@.682FAQ 11.2.@.683FAQ 11.1.@.684FAQ 10.2.@.685FAQ 10.1.@.686FAQ 9.3.@.687FAQ 9.2.@.688FAQ 9.1.@.689FAQ 8.3.@.690FAQ 8.2.@.691FAQ 8.1.@.692FAQ 7.3.@.693FAQ 7.2.@.694FAQ 7.1.@.695FAQ 6.2.@.696FAQ 6.1.@.697FAQ 5.4.@.698FAQ 5.3.@.699FAQ 5.2.@.700FAQ 5.1.@.701FAQ 4.3.@.702FAQ 4.2.@.703FAQ 4.1.@.704FAQ 3.3.@.705FAQ 3.2.@.706FAQ 3.1.@.707FAQ 2.2.@.708FAQ 2.1.@.709FAQ 1.3.@.710FAQ 1.2.@.711FAQ 1.1.@.712FAQ 8.3 | What Causes Droughts, and Will Climate Change Make Them Worse?

FAQ 8.3.aFAQ 8.2.alFAQ 8.2.auFAQ 8.1.bnFAQ 8.1.byFAQ 7.3.ccFAQ 7.3.clFAQ 7.2.czFAQ 7.2.dhFAQ 7.1.dyFAQ 7.1.ehFAQ 6.2.ffFAQ 6.2.foFAQ 6.1.gjFAQ 6.1.gsFAQ 5.4.gvFAQ 5.4.hqFAQ 5.3.htFAQ 5.3.@.279FAQ 5.2.@.282FAQ 5.2.@.300FAQ 5.1.@.303FAQ 5.1.@.336FAQ 4.3.@.346FAQ 4.3.@.355FAQ 4.2.@.403FAQ 4.2.@.411FAQ 4.1.@.435FAQ 4.1.@.442FAQ 3.3.@.454FAQ 3.3.@.462FAQ 3.2.@.483FAQ 3.2.@.484FAQ 3.2.@.491FAQ 3.1.@.496FAQ 3.1.@.504FAQ 2.2.@.528FAQ 2.2.@.537FAQ 2.1.@.547FAQ 2.1.@.556FAQ 1.3.@.588FAQ 1.3.@.596FAQ 1.2.@.604FAQ 1.2.@.614FAQ 1.1.@.668FAQ 1.1.@.677FAQ 12.3.@.680FAQ 12.2.@.681FAQ 12.1.@.682FAQ 11.3.@.683FAQ 11.2.@.684FAQ 11.1.@.685FAQ 10.2.@.686FAQ 10.1.@.687FAQ 9.3.@.688FAQ 9.2.@.689FAQ 9.1.@.690FAQ 8.3.@.691FAQ 8.2.@.692FAQ 8.1.@.693FAQ 7.3.@.694FAQ 7.2.@.695FAQ 7.1.@.696FAQ 6.2.@.697FAQ 6.1.@.698FAQ 5.4.@.699FAQ 5.3.@.700FAQ 5.2.@.701FAQ 5.1.@.702FAQ 4.3.@.703FAQ 4.2.@.704FAQ 4.1.@.705FAQ 3.3.@.706FAQ 3.2.@.707FAQ 3.1.@.708FAQ 2.2.@.709FAQ 2.1.@.710FAQ 1.3.@.711FAQ 1.2.@.712FAQ 1.1.@.713Droughts usually begin as a deficit of precipitation, but then propagate to other parts of the water cycle (soils, rivers, snow/ice and water reservoirs). They are also influenced by factors like temperature, vegetation and human land and water management. In a warmer world, evaporation increases, which can make even wet regions more susceptible to drought.

FAQ 8.3.bFAQ 8.2.amFAQ 8.2.avFAQ 8.1.boFAQ 8.1.bzFAQ 7.3.cdFAQ 7.3.cmFAQ 7.2.daFAQ 7.2.diFAQ 7.1.dzFAQ 7.1.eiFAQ 6.2.fgFAQ 6.2.fpFAQ 6.1.gkFAQ 6.1.gtFAQ 5.4.gwFAQ 5.4.hrFAQ 5.3.huFAQ 5.3.@.280FAQ 5.2.@.283FAQ 5.2.@.301FAQ 5.1.@.304FAQ 5.1.@.337FAQ 4.3.@.347FAQ 4.3.@.356FAQ 4.2.@.404FAQ 4.2.@.412FAQ 4.1.@.436FAQ 4.1.@.443FAQ 3.3.@.455FAQ 3.3.@.463FAQ 3.2.@.484FAQ 3.2.@.485FAQ 3.2.@.492FAQ 3.1.@.497FAQ 3.1.@.505FAQ 2.2.@.529FAQ 2.2.@.538FAQ 2.1.@.548FAQ 2.1.@.557FAQ 1.3.@.589FAQ 1.3.@.597FAQ 1.2.@.605FAQ 1.2.@.615FAQ 1.1.@.669FAQ 1.1.@.678FAQ 12.3.@.681FAQ 12.2.@.682FAQ 12.1.@.683FAQ 11.3.@.684FAQ 11.2.@.685FAQ 11.1.@.686FAQ 10.2.@.687FAQ 10.1.@.688FAQ 9.3.@.689FAQ 9.2.@.690FAQ 9.1.@.691FAQ 8.3.@.692FAQ 8.2.@.693FAQ 8.1.@.694FAQ 7.3.@.695FAQ 7.2.@.696FAQ 7.1.@.697FAQ 6.2.@.698FAQ 6.1.@.699FAQ 5.4.@.700FAQ 5.3.@.701FAQ 5.2.@.702FAQ 5.1.@.703FAQ 4.3.@.704FAQ 4.2.@.705FAQ 4.1.@.706FAQ 3.3.@.707FAQ 3.2.@.708FAQ 3.1.@.709FAQ 2.2.@.710FAQ 2.1.@.711FAQ 1.3.@.712FAQ 1.2.@.713FAQ 1.1.@.714A drought is broadly defined as drier than normal conditions; that is, a moisture deficit relative to the average water availability at a given location and season. Since they are locally defined, a drought in a wet place will not have the same amount of water deficit as a drought in a dry region. Droughts are divided into different categories based on where in the water cycle the moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought (precipitation), hydrological drought (runoff, streamflow, and reservoir storage), and agricultural or ecological drought (plant stress from a combination of evaporation and low soil moisture). Special categories of drought also exist. For example, a snow drought occurs when winter snowpack levels are below average, which can cause abnormally low streamflow in subsequent seasons. And while many drought events develop slowly over months or years, some events, called flash droughts, can intensify over the course of days or weeks. One such event occurred in 2012 in the Midwestern region of North America and had a severe impact on agricultural production, with losses exceeding $30 billion US dollars. Droughts typically only become a concern when they adversely affect people (reducing water available for municipal, industrial, agricultural, or navigational needs) and/or ecosystems (adverse effects on natural flora and fauna). When a drought lasts for a very long time (more than two decades) it is sometimes called a megadrought.

FAQ 8.3.cFAQ 8.2.anFAQ 8.2.awFAQ 8.1.bpFAQ 8.1.caFAQ 7.3.ceFAQ 7.3.cnFAQ 7.2.dbFAQ 7.2.djFAQ 7.1.eaFAQ 7.1.ejFAQ 6.2.fhFAQ 6.2.fqFAQ 6.1.glFAQ 6.1.guFAQ 5.4.gxFAQ 5.4.hsFAQ 5.3.hvFAQ 5.3.@.281FAQ 5.2.@.284FAQ 5.2.@.302FAQ 5.1.@.305FAQ 5.1.@.338FAQ 4.3.@.348FAQ 4.3.@.357FAQ 4.2.@.405FAQ 4.2.@.413FAQ 4.1.@.437FAQ 4.1.@.444FAQ 3.3.@.456FAQ 3.3.@.464FAQ 3.2.@.485FAQ 3.2.@.486FAQ 3.2.@.493FAQ 3.1.@.498FAQ 3.1.@.506FAQ 2.2.@.530FAQ 2.2.@.539FAQ 2.1.@.549FAQ 2.1.@.558FAQ 1.3.@.590FAQ 1.3.@.598FAQ 1.2.@.606FAQ 1.2.@.616FAQ 1.1.@.670FAQ 1.1.@.679FAQ 12.3.@.682FAQ 12.2.@.683FAQ 12.1.@.684FAQ 11.3.@.685FAQ 11.2.@.686FAQ 11.1.@.687FAQ 10.2.@.688FAQ 10.1.@.689FAQ 9.3.@.690FAQ 9.2.@.691FAQ 9.1.@.692FAQ 8.3.@.693FAQ 8.2.@.694FAQ 8.1.@.695FAQ 7.3.@.696FAQ 7.2.@.697FAQ 7.1.@.698FAQ 6.2.@.699FAQ 6.1.@.700FAQ 5.4.@.701FAQ 5.3.@.702FAQ 5.2.@.703FAQ 5.1.@.704FAQ 4.3.@.705FAQ 4.2.@.706FAQ 4.1.@.707FAQ 3.3.@.708FAQ 3.2.@.709FAQ 3.1.@.710FAQ 2.2.@.711FAQ 2.1.@.712FAQ 1.3.@.713FAQ 1.2.@.714FAQ 1.1.@.715Most droughts begin when precipitation is below normal for an extended period of time (meteorological drought). This typically occurs when high pressure in the atmosphere sets up over a region, reducing cloud formation and precipitation over that area and deflecting away storms. The lack of rainfall then propagates across the water cycle to create agricultural drought in soils and hydrological drought in waterways. Other processes act to amplify or alleviate droughts. For example, if temperatures are abnormally high, evaporation increases, drying out soils and streams and stressing plants beyond what would have occurred from the lack of precipitation alone. Vegetation can play a critical role because it modulates many important hydrologic processes (soil water, evapotranspiration, runoff). Human activities can also determine how severe a drought is. For example, irrigating croplands can reduce the socio-economic impact of a drought; at the same time, depletion of groundwater in aquifers can make a drought worse.

FAQ 8.3.dFAQ 8.2.aoFAQ 8.2.axFAQ 8.1.bqFAQ 8.1.cbFAQ 7.3.cfFAQ 7.3.coFAQ 7.2.dcFAQ 7.2.dkFAQ 7.1.ebFAQ 7.1.ekFAQ 6.2.fiFAQ 6.2.frFAQ 6.1.gmFAQ 6.1.gvFAQ 5.4.gyFAQ 5.4.htFAQ 5.3.hwFAQ 5.3.@.282FAQ 5.2.@.285FAQ 5.2.@.303FAQ 5.1.@.306FAQ 5.1.@.339FAQ 4.3.@.349FAQ 4.3.@.358FAQ 4.2.@.406FAQ 4.2.@.414FAQ 4.1.@.438FAQ 4.1.@.445FAQ 3.3.@.457FAQ 3.3.@.465FAQ 3.2.@.486FAQ 3.2.@.487FAQ 3.2.@.494FAQ 3.1.@.499FAQ 3.1.@.507FAQ 2.2.@.531FAQ 2.2.@.540FAQ 2.1.@.550FAQ 2.1.@.559FAQ 1.3.@.591FAQ 1.3.@.599FAQ 1.2.@.607FAQ 1.2.@.617FAQ 1.1.@.671FAQ 1.1.@.680FAQ 12.3.@.683FAQ 12.2.@.684FAQ 12.1.@.685FAQ 11.3.@.686FAQ 11.2.@.687FAQ 11.1.@.688FAQ 10.2.@.689FAQ 10.1.@.690FAQ 9.3.@.691FAQ 9.2.@.692FAQ 9.1.@.693FAQ 8.3.@.694FAQ 8.2.@.695FAQ 8.1.@.696FAQ 7.3.@.697FAQ 7.2.@.698FAQ 7.1.@.699FAQ 6.2.@.700FAQ 6.1.@.701FAQ 5.4.@.702FAQ 5.3.@.703FAQ 5.2.@.704FAQ 5.1.@.705FAQ 4.3.@.706FAQ 4.2.@.707FAQ 4.1.@.708FAQ 3.3.@.709FAQ 3.2.@.710FAQ 3.1.@.711FAQ 2.2.@.712FAQ 2.1.@.713FAQ 1.3.@.714FAQ 1.2.@.715FAQ 1.1.@.716The effect of climate change on drought varies across regions. In the subtropical regions like the Mediterranean, southern Africa, south-western Australia and south-western South America, as well as tropical Central America, western Africa and the Amazon basin, precipitation is expected to decline as the world warms, increasing the possibility that drought will occur throughout the year (FAQ 8.3, Figure 1). Warming will decrease snowpack, amplifying drought in regions where snowmelt is an important water resource (such as in south-western South America). Higher temperatures lead to increased evaporation, resulting in soil drying, increased plant stress, and impacts on agriculture, even in regions where large changes in precipitation are not expected (such as central and northern Europe). If emissions of greenhouse gases are not curtailed, about a third of global land areas are projected to suffer from at least moderate drought by 2100. On the other hand, some areas and seasons (such as high-latitude regions in North America and Asia, and the South Asian monsoon region) may experience increases in precipitation as a result of climate change, which will decrease the likelihood of droughts. FAQ 8.3, Figure 1 highlights the regions where climate change is expected to increase the severity of droughts.

FAQ 8.3.eFAQ 8.2.apFAQ 8.2.ayFAQ 8.1.brFAQ 8.1.ccFAQ 7.3.cgFAQ 7.3.cpFAQ 7.2.ddFAQ 7.2.dlFAQ 7.1.ecFAQ 7.1.elFAQ 6.2.fjFAQ 6.2.fsFAQ 6.1.gnFAQ 6.1.gwFAQ 5.4.gzFAQ 5.4.huFAQ 5.3.hxFAQ 5.3.@.283FAQ 5.2.@.286FAQ 5.2.@.304FAQ 5.1.@.307FAQ 5.1.@.340FAQ 4.3.@.350FAQ 4.3.@.359FAQ 4.2.@.407FAQ 4.2.@.415FAQ 4.1.@.439FAQ 4.1.@.446FAQ 3.3.@.458FAQ 3.3.@.466FAQ 3.2.@.487FAQ 3.2.@.488FAQ 3.2.@.495FAQ 3.1.@.500FAQ 3.1.@.508FAQ 2.2.@.532FAQ 2.2.@.541FAQ 2.1.@.551FAQ 2.1.@.560FAQ 1.3.@.592FAQ 1.3.@.600FAQ 1.2.@.608FAQ 1.2.@.618FAQ 1.1.@.672FAQ 1.1.@.681FAQ 12.3.@.684FAQ 12.2.@.685FAQ 12.1.@.686FAQ 11.3.@.687FAQ 11.2.@.688FAQ 11.1.@.689FAQ 10.2.@.690FAQ 10.1.@.691FAQ 9.3.@.692FAQ 9.2.@.693FAQ 9.1.@.694FAQ 8.3.@.695FAQ 8.2.@.696FAQ 8.1.@.697FAQ 7.3.@.698FAQ 7.2.@.699FAQ 7.1.@.700FAQ 6.2.@.701FAQ 6.1.@.702FAQ 5.4.@.703FAQ 5.3.@.704FAQ 5.2.@.705FAQ 5.1.@.706FAQ 4.3.@.707FAQ 4.2.@.708FAQ 4.1.@.709FAQ 3.3.@.710FAQ 3.2.@.711FAQ 3.1.@.712FAQ 2.2.@.713FAQ 2.1.@.714FAQ 1.3.@.715FAQ 1.2.@.716FAQ 1.1.@.717FAQ

FAQ 8.3.fFAQ 8.2.aqFAQ 8.2.azFAQ 8.1.bsFAQ 8.1.cdFAQ 7.3.chFAQ 7.3.cqFAQ 7.2.deFAQ 7.2.dmFAQ 7.1.edFAQ 7.1.emFAQ 6.2.fkFAQ 6.2.ftFAQ 6.1.goFAQ 6.1.gxFAQ 5.4.haFAQ 5.4.hvFAQ 5.3.hyFAQ 5.3.@.284FAQ 5.2.@.287FAQ 5.2.@.305FAQ 5.1.@.308FAQ 5.1.@.341FAQ 4.3.@.351FAQ 4.3.@.360FAQ 4.2.@.408FAQ 4.2.@.416FAQ 4.1.@.440FAQ 4.1.@.447FAQ 3.3.@.459FAQ 3.3.@.467FAQ 3.2.@.488FAQ 3.2.@.489FAQ 3.2.@.496FAQ 3.1.@.501FAQ 3.1.@.509FAQ 2.2.@.533FAQ 2.2.@.542FAQ 2.1.@.552FAQ 2.1.@.561FAQ 1.3.@.593FAQ 1.3.@.601FAQ 1.2.@.609FAQ 1.2.@.619FAQ 1.1.@.673FAQ 1.1.@.682FAQ 12.3.@.685FAQ 12.2.@.686FAQ 12.1.@.687FAQ 11.3.@.688FAQ 11.2.@.689FAQ 11.1.@.690FAQ 10.2.@.691FAQ 10.1.@.692FAQ 9.3.@.693FAQ 9.2.@.694FAQ 9.1.@.695FAQ 8.3.@.696FAQ 8.2.@.697FAQ 8.1.@.698FAQ 7.3.@.699FAQ 7.2.@.700FAQ 7.1.@.701FAQ 6.2.@.702FAQ 6.1.@.703FAQ 5.4.@.704FAQ 5.3.@.705FAQ 5.2.@.706FAQ 5.1.@.707FAQ 4.3.@.708FAQ 4.2.@.709FAQ 4.1.@.710FAQ 3.3.@.711FAQ 3.2.@.712FAQ 3.1.@.713FAQ 2.2.@.714FAQ 2.1.@.715FAQ 1.3.@.716FAQ 1.2.@.717FAQ 1.1.@.718FAQ 8.3 (continued)

FAQ 8.3.aFAQ 8.3.gFAQ 8.2.arFAQ 8.2.baFAQ 8.1.btFAQ 8.1.ceFAQ 7.3.ciFAQ 7.3.crFAQ 7.2.dfFAQ 7.2.dnFAQ 7.1.eeFAQ 7.1.enFAQ 6.2.flFAQ 6.2.fuFAQ 6.1.gpFAQ 6.1.gyFAQ 5.4.hbFAQ 5.4.hwFAQ 5.3.hzFAQ 5.3.@.285FAQ 5.2.@.288FAQ 5.2.@.306FAQ 5.1.@.309FAQ 5.1.@.342FAQ 4.3.@.352FAQ 4.3.@.361FAQ 4.2.@.409FAQ 4.2.@.417FAQ 4.1.@.441FAQ 4.1.@.448FAQ 3.3.@.460FAQ 3.3.@.468FAQ 3.2.@.489FAQ 3.2.@.490FAQ 3.2.@.497FAQ 3.1.@.502FAQ 3.1.@.510FAQ 2.2.@.534FAQ 2.2.@.543FAQ 2.1.@.553FAQ 2.1.@.562FAQ 1.3.@.594FAQ 1.3.@.602FAQ 1.2.@.610FAQ 1.2.@.620FAQ 1.1.@.674FAQ 1.1.@.683FAQ 12.3.@.686FAQ 12.2.@.687FAQ 12.1.@.688FAQ 11.3.@.689FAQ 11.2.@.690FAQ 11.1.@.691FAQ 10.2.@.692FAQ 10.1.@.693FAQ 9.3.@.694FAQ 9.2.@.695FAQ 9.1.@.696FAQ 8.3.@.697FAQ 8.2.@.698FAQ 8.1.@.699FAQ 7.3.@.700FAQ 7.2.@.701FAQ 7.1.@.702FAQ 6.2.@.703FAQ 6.1.@.704FAQ 5.4.@.705FAQ 5.3.@.706FAQ 5.2.@.707FAQ 5.1.@.708FAQ 4.3.@.709FAQ 4.2.@.710FAQ 4.1.@.711FAQ 3.3.@.712FAQ 3.2.@.713FAQ 3.1.@.714FAQ 2.2.@.715FAQ 2.1.@.716FAQ 1.3.@.717FAQ 1.2.@.718FAQ 1.1.@.719FAQ 8.3: Climate change and droughtsIn some regions, drought is expected to increase under future warming.

FAQ 8.3.bFAQ 8.3.hFAQ 8.2.asFAQ 8.2.bbFAQ 8.1.buFAQ 8.1.cfFAQ 7.3.cjFAQ 7.3.csFAQ 7.2.dgFAQ 7.2.doFAQ 7.1.efFAQ 7.1.eoFAQ 6.2.fmFAQ 6.2.fvFAQ 6.1.gqFAQ 6.1.gzFAQ 5.4.hcFAQ 5.4.hxFAQ 5.3.iaFAQ 5.3.@.286FAQ 5.2.@.289FAQ 5.2.@.307FAQ 5.1.@.310FAQ 5.1.@.343FAQ 4.3.@.353FAQ 4.3.@.362FAQ 4.2.@.410FAQ 4.2.@.418FAQ 4.1.@.442FAQ 4.1.@.449FAQ 3.3.@.461FAQ 3.3.@.469FAQ 3.2.@.490FAQ 3.2.@.491FAQ 3.2.@.498FAQ 3.1.@.503FAQ 3.1.@.511FAQ 2.2.@.535FAQ 2.2.@.544FAQ 2.1.@.554FAQ 2.1.@.563FAQ 1.3.@.595FAQ 1.3.@.603FAQ 1.2.@.611FAQ 1.2.@.621FAQ 1.1.@.675FAQ 1.1.@.684FAQ 12.3.@.687FAQ 12.2.@.688FAQ 12.1.@.689FAQ 11.3.@.690FAQ 11.2.@.691FAQ 11.1.@.692FAQ 10.2.@.693FAQ 10.1.@.694FAQ 9.3.@.695FAQ 9.2.@.696FAQ 9.1.@.697FAQ 8.3.@.698FAQ 8.2.@.699FAQ 8.1.@.700FAQ 7.3.@.701FAQ 7.2.@.702FAQ 7.1.@.703FAQ 6.2.@.704FAQ 6.1.@.705FAQ 5.4.@.706FAQ 5.3.@.707FAQ 5.2.@.708FAQ 5.1.@.709FAQ 4.3.@.710FAQ 4.2.@.711FAQ 4.1.@.712FAQ 3.3.@.713FAQ 3.2.@.714FAQ 3.1.@.715FAQ 2.2.@.716FAQ 2.1.@.717FAQ 1.3.@.718FAQ 1.2.@.719FAQ 1.1.@.720FAQ 8.3, Figure 1 | Schematic map highlighting in brown the regions where droughts are expected to become worse as a result of climate change. This pattern is similar regardless of the emissions scenario; however, the magnitude of change increases under higher emissions.

FAQ 8.3.cFAQ 8.3.iFAQ 8.2.atFAQ 8.2.bcFAQ 8.1.bvFAQ 8.1.cgFAQ 7.3.ckFAQ 7.3.ctFAQ 7.2.dhFAQ 7.2.dpFAQ 7.1.egFAQ 7.1.epFAQ 6.2.fnFAQ 6.2.fwFAQ 6.1.grFAQ 6.1.haFAQ 5.4.hdFAQ 5.4.hyFAQ 5.3.ibFAQ 5.3.@.287FAQ 5.2.@.290FAQ 5.2.@.308FAQ 5.1.@.311FAQ 5.1.@.344FAQ 4.3.@.354FAQ 4.3.@.363FAQ 4.2.@.411FAQ 4.2.@.419FAQ 4.1.@.443FAQ 4.1.@.450FAQ 3.3.@.462FAQ 3.3.@.470FAQ 3.2.@.491FAQ 3.2.@.492FAQ 3.2.@.499FAQ 3.1.@.504FAQ 3.1.@.512FAQ 2.2.@.536FAQ 2.2.@.545FAQ 2.1.@.555FAQ 2.1.@.564FAQ 1.3.@.596FAQ 1.3.@.604FAQ 1.2.@.612FAQ 1.2.@.622FAQ 1.1.@.676FAQ 1.1.@.685FAQ 12.3.@.688FAQ 12.2.@.689FAQ 12.1.@.690FAQ 11.3.@.691FAQ 11.2.@.692FAQ 11.1.@.693FAQ 10.2.@.694FAQ 10.1.@.695FAQ 9.3.@.696FAQ 9.2.@.697FAQ 9.1.@.698FAQ 8.3.@.699FAQ 8.2.@.700FAQ 8.1.@.701FAQ 7.3.@.702FAQ 7.2.@.703FAQ 7.1.@.704FAQ 6.2.@.705FAQ 6.1.@.706FAQ 5.4.@.707FAQ 5.3.@.708FAQ 5.2.@.709FAQ 5.1.@.710FAQ 4.3.@.711FAQ 4.2.@.712FAQ 4.1.@.713FAQ 3.3.@.714FAQ 3.2.@.715FAQ 3.1.@.716FAQ 2.2.@.717FAQ 2.1.@.718FAQ 1.3.@.719FAQ 1.2.@.720FAQ 1.1.@.721FAQ

FAQ 8.3.dFAQ 8.3.jFAQ 8.2.auFAQ 8.2.bdFAQ 8.1.bwFAQ 8.1.chFAQ 7.3.clFAQ 7.3.cuFAQ 7.2.diFAQ 7.2.dqFAQ 7.1.ehFAQ 7.1.eqFAQ 6.2.foFAQ 6.2.fxFAQ 6.1.gsFAQ 6.1.hbFAQ 5.4.heFAQ 5.4.hzFAQ 5.3.icFAQ 5.3.@.288FAQ 5.2.@.291FAQ 5.2.@.309FAQ 5.1.@.312FAQ 5.1.@.345FAQ 4.3.@.355FAQ 4.3.@.364FAQ 4.2.@.412FAQ 4.2.@.420FAQ 4.1.@.444FAQ 4.1.@.451FAQ 3.3.@.463FAQ 3.3.@.471FAQ 3.2.@.492FAQ 3.2.@.493FAQ 3.2.@.500FAQ 3.1.@.505FAQ 3.1.@.513FAQ 2.2.@.537FAQ 2.2.@.546FAQ 2.1.@.556FAQ 2.1.@.565FAQ 1.3.@.597FAQ 1.3.@.605FAQ 1.2.@.613FAQ 1.2.@.623FAQ 1.1.@.677FAQ 1.1.@.686FAQ 12.3.@.689FAQ 12.2.@.690FAQ 12.1.@.691FAQ 11.3.@.692FAQ 11.2.@.693FAQ 11.1.@.694FAQ 10.2.@.695FAQ 10.1.@.696FAQ 9.3.@.697FAQ 9.2.@.698FAQ 9.1.@.699FAQ 8.3.@.700FAQ 8.2.@.701FAQ 8.1.@.702FAQ 7.3.@.703FAQ 7.2.@.704FAQ 7.1.@.705FAQ 6.2.@.706FAQ 6.1.@.707FAQ 5.4.@.708FAQ 5.3.@.709FAQ 5.2.@.710FAQ 5.1.@.711FAQ 4.3.@.712FAQ 4.2.@.713FAQ 4.1.@.714FAQ 3.3.@.715FAQ 3.2.@.716FAQ 3.1.@.717FAQ 2.2.@.718FAQ 2.1.@.719FAQ 1.3.@.720FAQ 1.2.@.721FAQ 1.1.@.722Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 8.3.eFAQ 8.3.kFAQ 8.2.avFAQ 8.2.beFAQ 8.1.bxFAQ 8.1.ciFAQ 7.3.cmFAQ 7.3.cvFAQ 7.2.djFAQ 7.2.drFAQ 7.1.eiFAQ 7.1.erFAQ 6.2.fpFAQ 6.2.fyFAQ 6.1.gtFAQ 6.1.hcFAQ 5.4.hfFAQ 5.4.iaFAQ 5.3.idFAQ 5.3.@.289FAQ 5.2.@.292FAQ 5.2.@.310FAQ 5.1.@.313FAQ 5.1.@.346FAQ 4.3.@.356FAQ 4.3.@.365FAQ 4.2.@.413FAQ 4.2.@.421FAQ 4.1.@.445FAQ 4.1.@.452FAQ 3.3.@.464FAQ 3.3.@.472FAQ 3.2.@.493FAQ 3.2.@.494FAQ 3.2.@.501FAQ 3.1.@.506FAQ 3.1.@.514FAQ 2.2.@.538FAQ 2.2.@.547FAQ 2.1.@.557FAQ 2.1.@.566FAQ 1.3.@.598FAQ 1.3.@.606FAQ 1.2.@.614FAQ 1.2.@.624FAQ 1.1.@.678FAQ 1.1.@.687FAQ 12.3.@.690FAQ 12.2.@.691FAQ 12.1.@.692FAQ 11.3.@.693FAQ 11.2.@.694FAQ 11.1.@.695FAQ 10.2.@.696FAQ 10.1.@.697FAQ 9.3.@.698FAQ 9.2.@.699FAQ 9.1.@.700FAQ 8.3.@.701FAQ 8.2.@.702FAQ 8.1.@.703FAQ 7.3.@.704FAQ 7.2.@.705FAQ 7.1.@.706FAQ 6.2.@.707FAQ 6.1.@.708FAQ 5.4.@.709FAQ 5.3.@.710FAQ 5.2.@.711FAQ 5.1.@.712FAQ 4.3.@.713FAQ 4.2.@.714FAQ 4.1.@.715FAQ 3.3.@.716FAQ 3.2.@.717FAQ 3.1.@.718FAQ 2.2.@.719FAQ 2.1.@.720FAQ 1.3.@.721FAQ 1.2.@.722FAQ 1.1.@.723FAQ 9.1 | Can Continued Melting of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets Be Reversed? How Long Would It Take for Them to Grow Back?

FAQ 9.1.aFAQ 8.3.fFAQ 8.3.lFAQ 8.2.awFAQ 8.2.bfFAQ 8.1.byFAQ 8.1.cjFAQ 7.3.cnFAQ 7.3.cwFAQ 7.2.dkFAQ 7.2.dsFAQ 7.1.ejFAQ 7.1.esFAQ 6.2.fqFAQ 6.2.fzFAQ 6.1.guFAQ 6.1.hdFAQ 5.4.hgFAQ 5.4.ibFAQ 5.3.ieFAQ 5.3.@.290FAQ 5.2.@.293FAQ 5.2.@.311FAQ 5.1.@.314FAQ 5.1.@.347FAQ 4.3.@.357FAQ 4.3.@.366FAQ 4.2.@.414FAQ 4.2.@.422FAQ 4.1.@.446FAQ 4.1.@.453FAQ 3.3.@.465FAQ 3.3.@.473FAQ 3.2.@.494FAQ 3.2.@.495FAQ 3.2.@.502FAQ 3.1.@.507FAQ 3.1.@.515FAQ 2.2.@.539FAQ 2.2.@.548FAQ 2.1.@.558FAQ 2.1.@.567FAQ 1.3.@.599FAQ 1.3.@.607FAQ 1.2.@.615FAQ 1.2.@.625FAQ 1.1.@.679FAQ 1.1.@.688FAQ 12.3.@.691FAQ 12.2.@.692FAQ 12.1.@.693FAQ 11.3.@.694FAQ 11.2.@.695FAQ 11.1.@.696FAQ 10.2.@.697FAQ 10.1.@.698FAQ 9.3.@.699FAQ 9.2.@.700FAQ 9.1.@.701FAQ 8.3.@.702FAQ 8.2.@.703FAQ 8.1.@.704FAQ 7.3.@.705FAQ 7.2.@.706FAQ 7.1.@.707FAQ 6.2.@.708FAQ 6.1.@.709FAQ 5.4.@.710FAQ 5.3.@.711FAQ 5.2.@.712FAQ 5.1.@.713FAQ 4.3.@.714FAQ 4.2.@.715FAQ 4.1.@.716FAQ 3.3.@.717FAQ 3.2.@.718FAQ 3.1.@.719FAQ 2.2.@.720FAQ 2.1.@.721FAQ 1.3.@.722FAQ 1.2.@.723FAQ 1.1.@.724Evidence from the distant past shows that some parts of the Earth system might take hundreds to thousands of years to fully adjust to changes in climate. This means that some of the consequences of human-induced climate change will continue for a very long time, even if atmospheric heat-trapping gas levels and global temperatures are stabilized or reduced in the future. This is especially true for the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, which grow much more slowly than they retreat. If the current melting of these ice sheets continues for long enough, it becomes effectively irreversible on human time scales, as does the sea level rise caused by that melting.

FAQ 9.1.bFAQ 8.3.gFAQ 8.3.mFAQ 8.2.axFAQ 8.2.bgFAQ 8.1.bzFAQ 8.1.ckFAQ 7.3.coFAQ 7.3.cxFAQ 7.2.dlFAQ 7.2.dtFAQ 7.1.ekFAQ 7.1.etFAQ 6.2.frFAQ 6.2.gaFAQ 6.1.gvFAQ 6.1.heFAQ 5.4.hhFAQ 5.4.icFAQ 5.3.ifFAQ 5.3.@.291FAQ 5.2.@.294FAQ 5.2.@.312FAQ 5.1.@.315FAQ 5.1.@.348FAQ 4.3.@.358FAQ 4.3.@.367FAQ 4.2.@.415FAQ 4.2.@.423FAQ 4.1.@.447FAQ 4.1.@.454FAQ 3.3.@.466FAQ 3.3.@.474FAQ 3.2.@.495FAQ 3.2.@.496FAQ 3.2.@.503FAQ 3.1.@.508FAQ 3.1.@.516FAQ 2.2.@.540FAQ 2.2.@.549FAQ 2.1.@.559FAQ 2.1.@.568FAQ 1.3.@.600FAQ 1.3.@.608FAQ 1.2.@.616FAQ 1.2.@.626FAQ 1.1.@.680FAQ 1.1.@.689FAQ 12.3.@.692FAQ 12.2.@.693FAQ 12.1.@.694FAQ 11.3.@.695FAQ 11.2.@.696FAQ 11.1.@.697FAQ 10.2.@.698FAQ 10.1.@.699FAQ 9.3.@.700FAQ 9.2.@.701FAQ 9.1.@.702FAQ 8.3.@.703FAQ 8.2.@.704FAQ 8.1.@.705FAQ 7.3.@.706FAQ 7.2.@.707FAQ 7.1.@.708FAQ 6.2.@.709FAQ 6.1.@.710FAQ 5.4.@.711FAQ 5.3.@.712FAQ 5.2.@.713FAQ 5.1.@.714FAQ 4.3.@.715FAQ 4.2.@.716FAQ 4.1.@.717FAQ 3.3.@.718FAQ 3.2.@.719FAQ 3.1.@.720FAQ 2.2.@.721FAQ 2.1.@.722FAQ 1.3.@.723FAQ 1.2.@.724FAQ 1.1.@.725Humans are changing the climate and there are mechanisms that amplify the warming in the polar regions (Arctic and Antarctic). The Arctic is already warming faster than anywhere else (see FAQ 4.3). This is significant because these colder high latitudes are home to our two remaining ice sheets: Antarctica and Greenland. Ice sheets are huge reservoirs of frozen freshwater, built up by tens of thousands of years of snowfall. If they were to completely melt, the water released would raise global sea level by about 65 m. Understanding how these ice sheets are affected by warming of nearby ocean and atmosphere is therefore critically important. The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are already slowly responding to recent changes in climate, but it takes a long time for these huge masses of ice to adjust to changes in global temperature. That means that the full effects of a warming climate may take hundreds or thousands of years to play out. An important question is whether these changes can eventually be reversed, once levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are stabilized or reduced by humans and natural processes. Records from the past can help us answer this question.

FAQ 9.1.cFAQ 8.3.hFAQ 8.3.nFAQ 8.2.ayFAQ 8.2.bhFAQ 8.1.caFAQ 8.1.clFAQ 7.3.cpFAQ 7.3.cyFAQ 7.2.dmFAQ 7.2.duFAQ 7.1.elFAQ 7.1.euFAQ 6.2.fsFAQ 6.2.gbFAQ 6.1.gwFAQ 6.1.hfFAQ 5.4.hiFAQ 5.4.idFAQ 5.3.igFAQ 5.3.@.292FAQ 5.2.@.295FAQ 5.2.@.313FAQ 5.1.@.316FAQ 5.1.@.349FAQ 4.3.@.359FAQ 4.3.@.368FAQ 4.2.@.416FAQ 4.2.@.424FAQ 4.1.@.448FAQ 4.1.@.455FAQ 3.3.@.467FAQ 3.3.@.475FAQ 3.2.@.496FAQ 3.2.@.497FAQ 3.2.@.504FAQ 3.1.@.509FAQ 3.1.@.517FAQ 2.2.@.541FAQ 2.2.@.550FAQ 2.1.@.560FAQ 2.1.@.569FAQ 1.3.@.601FAQ 1.3.@.609FAQ 1.2.@.617FAQ 1.2.@.627FAQ 1.1.@.681FAQ 1.1.@.690FAQ 12.3.@.693FAQ 12.2.@.694FAQ 12.1.@.695FAQ 11.3.@.696FAQ 11.2.@.697FAQ 11.1.@.698FAQ 10.2.@.699FAQ 10.1.@.700FAQ 9.3.@.701FAQ 9.2.@.702FAQ 9.1.@.703FAQ 8.3.@.704FAQ 8.2.@.705FAQ 8.1.@.706FAQ 7.3.@.707FAQ 7.2.@.708FAQ 7.1.@.709FAQ 6.2.@.710FAQ 6.1.@.711FAQ 5.4.@.712FAQ 5.3.@.713FAQ 5.2.@.714FAQ 5.1.@.715FAQ 4.3.@.716FAQ 4.2.@.717FAQ 4.1.@.718FAQ 3.3.@.719FAQ 3.2.@.720FAQ 3.1.@.721FAQ 2.2.@.722FAQ 2.1.@.723FAQ 1.3.@.724FAQ 1.2.@.725FAQ 1.1.@.726For at least the last 800,000 years, the Earth has followed cycles of gradual cooling followed by rapid warming caused by natural processes. During cooling phases, more and more ocean water is gradually deposited as snowfall, causing ice sheets to grow and sea level to slowly decrease. During warming phases, the ice sheets melt more quickly, resulting in more rapid rises in sea level (FAQ 9.1, Figure 1). Ice sheets build up very slowly because growth relies on the steady accumulation of falling snow that eventually compacts into ice. As the climate cools, areas that can accumulate snow expand, reflecting back more sunlight that otherwise would keep the Earth warmer. This means that, once started, glacial climates develop rapidly. However, as the climate cools, the amount of moisture that the air can hold tends to decrease. As a result, even though glaciations begin quite quickly, it takes tens of thousands of years for ice sheets to grow to a point where they are in balance with the colder climate.

FAQ 9.1.dFAQ 8.3.iFAQ 8.3.oFAQ 8.2.azFAQ 8.2.biFAQ 8.1.cbFAQ 8.1.cmFAQ 7.3.cqFAQ 7.3.czFAQ 7.2.dnFAQ 7.2.dvFAQ 7.1.emFAQ 7.1.evFAQ 6.2.ftFAQ 6.2.gcFAQ 6.1.gxFAQ 6.1.hgFAQ 5.4.hjFAQ 5.4.ieFAQ 5.3.ihFAQ 5.3.@.293FAQ 5.2.@.296FAQ 5.2.@.314FAQ 5.1.@.317FAQ 5.1.@.350FAQ 4.3.@.360FAQ 4.3.@.369FAQ 4.2.@.417FAQ 4.2.@.425FAQ 4.1.@.449FAQ 4.1.@.456FAQ 3.3.@.468FAQ 3.3.@.476FAQ 3.2.@.497FAQ 3.2.@.498FAQ 3.2.@.505FAQ 3.1.@.510FAQ 3.1.@.518FAQ 2.2.@.542FAQ 2.2.@.551FAQ 2.1.@.561FAQ 2.1.@.570FAQ 1.3.@.602FAQ 1.3.@.610FAQ 1.2.@.618FAQ 1.2.@.628FAQ 1.1.@.682FAQ 1.1.@.691FAQ 12.3.@.694FAQ 12.2.@.695FAQ 12.1.@.696FAQ 11.3.@.697FAQ 11.2.@.698FAQ 11.1.@.699FAQ 10.2.@.700FAQ 10.1.@.701FAQ 9.3.@.702FAQ 9.2.@.703FAQ 9.1.@.704FAQ 8.3.@.705FAQ 8.2.@.706FAQ 8.1.@.707FAQ 7.3.@.708FAQ 7.2.@.709FAQ 7.1.@.710FAQ 6.2.@.711FAQ 6.1.@.712FAQ 5.4.@.713FAQ 5.3.@.714FAQ 5.2.@.715FAQ 5.1.@.716FAQ 4.3.@.717FAQ 4.2.@.718FAQ 4.1.@.719FAQ 3.3.@.720FAQ 3.2.@.721FAQ 3.1.@.722FAQ 2.2.@.723FAQ 2.1.@.724FAQ 1.3.@.725FAQ 1.2.@.726FAQ 1.1.@.727Ice sheets retreat more quickly than they grow because of processes that, once triggered, drive self-reinforcing ice loss. For ice sheets that are mostly resting on bedrock above sea level – like the Greenland Ice Sheet – the main self-reinforcing loop that affects them is the ‘elevation–mass balance feedback’ (FAQ 9.1, Figure 1, right). In this situation, the altitude of the ice-sheet surface decreases as it melts, exposing the sheet to warmer air. The lowered surface then melts even more, lowering it faster still, until eventually the whole ice sheet disappears. In places where the ice sheet rests instead on bedrock that is below sea level, and which also deepens inland, including many parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheet, an important process called ‘marine ice sheet instability’ is thought to drive rapid retreat (FAQ 9.1, Figure 1, left). This happens when the part of the ice sheet that is surrounded by sea water melts. That leads to additional thinning, which in turn accelerates the motion of the glaciers that feed into these areas. As the ice sheet flows more quickly into the ocean, more melting takes place, leading to more thinning and even faster flow that brings ever-more glacier ice into the ocean, ultimately driving rapid deglaciation of whole ice-sheet drainage basins.

FAQ 9.1.eFAQ 8.3.jFAQ 8.3.pFAQ 8.2.baFAQ 8.2.bjFAQ 8.1.ccFAQ 8.1.cnFAQ 7.3.crFAQ 7.3.daFAQ 7.2.doFAQ 7.2.dwFAQ 7.1.enFAQ 7.1.ewFAQ 6.2.fuFAQ 6.2.gdFAQ 6.1.gyFAQ 6.1.hhFAQ 5.4.hkFAQ 5.4.ifFAQ 5.3.iiFAQ 5.3.@.294FAQ 5.2.@.297FAQ 5.2.@.315FAQ 5.1.@.318FAQ 5.1.@.351FAQ 4.3.@.361FAQ 4.3.@.370FAQ 4.2.@.418FAQ 4.2.@.426FAQ 4.1.@.450FAQ 4.1.@.457FAQ 3.3.@.469FAQ 3.3.@.477FAQ 3.2.@.498FAQ 3.2.@.499FAQ 3.2.@.506FAQ 3.1.@.511FAQ 3.1.@.519FAQ 2.2.@.543FAQ 2.2.@.552FAQ 2.1.@.562FAQ 2.1.@.571FAQ 1.3.@.603FAQ 1.3.@.611FAQ 1.2.@.619FAQ 1.2.@.629FAQ 1.1.@.683FAQ 1.1.@.692FAQ 12.3.@.695FAQ 12.2.@.696FAQ 12.1.@.697FAQ 11.3.@.698FAQ 11.2.@.699FAQ 11.1.@.700FAQ 10.2.@.701FAQ 10.1.@.702FAQ 9.3.@.703FAQ 9.2.@.704FAQ 9.1.@.705FAQ 8.3.@.706FAQ 8.2.@.707FAQ 8.1.@.708FAQ 7.3.@.709FAQ 7.2.@.710FAQ 7.1.@.711FAQ 6.2.@.712FAQ 6.1.@.713FAQ 5.4.@.714FAQ 5.3.@.715FAQ 5.2.@.716FAQ 5.1.@.717FAQ 4.3.@.718FAQ 4.2.@.719FAQ 4.1.@.720FAQ 3.3.@.721FAQ 3.2.@.722FAQ 3.1.@.723FAQ 2.2.@.724FAQ 2.1.@.725FAQ 1.3.@.726FAQ 1.2.@.727FAQ 1.1.@.728These (and other) self-reinforcing processes explain why relatively small increases in temperature in the past led to very substantial sea level rise over centuries to millennia, compared to the many tens of thousands of years it takes to grow the ice sheets that lowered the sea level in the first place. These insights from the past imply that, if human-induced changes to the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets continue for the rest of this century, it will take thousands of years to reverse that melting, even if global air temperatures decrease within this or the next century. In this sense, these changes are therefore irreversible, since the ice sheets would take much longer to regrow than the decades or centuries for which modern society is able to plan.

FAQ 9.1.fFAQ 8.3.kFAQ 8.3.qFAQ 8.2.bbFAQ 8.2.bkFAQ 8.1.cdFAQ 8.1.coFAQ 7.3.csFAQ 7.3.dbFAQ 7.2.dpFAQ 7.2.dxFAQ 7.1.eoFAQ 7.1.exFAQ 6.2.fvFAQ 6.2.geFAQ 6.1.gzFAQ 6.1.hiFAQ 5.4.hlFAQ 5.4.igFAQ 5.3.ijFAQ 5.3.@.295FAQ 5.2.@.298FAQ 5.2.@.316FAQ 5.1.@.319FAQ 5.1.@.352FAQ 4.3.@.362FAQ 4.3.@.371FAQ 4.2.@.419FAQ 4.2.@.427FAQ 4.1.@.451FAQ 4.1.@.458FAQ 3.3.@.470FAQ 3.3.@.478FAQ 3.2.@.499FAQ 3.2.@.500FAQ 3.2.@.507FAQ 3.1.@.512FAQ 3.1.@.520FAQ 2.2.@.544FAQ 2.2.@.553FAQ 2.1.@.563FAQ 2.1.@.572FAQ 1.3.@.604FAQ 1.3.@.612FAQ 1.2.@.620FAQ 1.2.@.630FAQ 1.1.@.684FAQ 1.1.@.693FAQ 12.3.@.696FAQ 12.2.@.697FAQ 12.1.@.698FAQ 11.3.@.699FAQ 11.2.@.700FAQ 11.1.@.701FAQ 10.2.@.702FAQ 10.1.@.703FAQ 9.3.@.704FAQ 9.2.@.705FAQ 9.1.@.706FAQ 8.3.@.707FAQ 8.2.@.708FAQ 8.1.@.709FAQ 7.3.@.710FAQ 7.2.@.711FAQ 7.1.@.712FAQ 6.2.@.713FAQ 6.1.@.714FAQ 5.4.@.715FAQ 5.3.@.716FAQ 5.2.@.717FAQ 5.1.@.718FAQ 4.3.@.719FAQ 4.2.@.720FAQ 4.1.@.721FAQ 3.3.@.722FAQ 3.2.@.723FAQ 3.1.@.724FAQ 2.2.@.725FAQ 2.1.@.726FAQ 1.3.@.727FAQ 1.2.@.728FAQ 1.1.@.729FAQ

FAQ 9.1.gFAQ 8.3.lFAQ 8.3.rFAQ 8.2.bcFAQ 8.2.blFAQ 8.1.ceFAQ 8.1.cpFAQ 7.3.ctFAQ 7.3.dcFAQ 7.2.dqFAQ 7.2.dyFAQ 7.1.epFAQ 7.1.eyFAQ 6.2.fwFAQ 6.2.gfFAQ 6.1.haFAQ 6.1.hjFAQ 5.4.hmFAQ 5.4.ihFAQ 5.3.ikFAQ 5.3.@.296FAQ 5.2.@.299FAQ 5.2.@.317FAQ 5.1.@.320FAQ 5.1.@.353FAQ 4.3.@.363FAQ 4.3.@.372FAQ 4.2.@.420FAQ 4.2.@.428FAQ 4.1.@.452FAQ 4.1.@.459FAQ 3.3.@.471FAQ 3.3.@.479FAQ 3.2.@.500FAQ 3.2.@.501FAQ 3.2.@.508FAQ 3.1.@.513FAQ 3.1.@.521FAQ 2.2.@.545FAQ 2.2.@.554FAQ 2.1.@.564FAQ 2.1.@.573FAQ 1.3.@.605FAQ 1.3.@.613FAQ 1.2.@.621FAQ 1.2.@.631FAQ 1.1.@.685FAQ 1.1.@.694FAQ 12.3.@.697FAQ 12.2.@.698FAQ 12.1.@.699FAQ 11.3.@.700FAQ 11.2.@.701FAQ 11.1.@.702FAQ 10.2.@.703FAQ 10.1.@.704FAQ 9.3.@.705FAQ 9.2.@.706FAQ 9.1.@.707FAQ 8.3.@.708FAQ 8.2.@.709FAQ 8.1.@.710FAQ 7.3.@.711FAQ 7.2.@.712FAQ 7.1.@.713FAQ 6.2.@.714FAQ 6.1.@.715FAQ 5.4.@.716FAQ 5.3.@.717FAQ 5.2.@.718FAQ 5.1.@.719FAQ 4.3.@.720FAQ 4.2.@.721FAQ 4.1.@.722FAQ 3.3.@.723FAQ 3.2.@.724FAQ 3.1.@.725FAQ 2.2.@.726FAQ 2.1.@.727FAQ 1.3.@.728FAQ 1.2.@.729FAQ 1.1.@.730FAQ 9.1 (continued)

FAQ 9.1.aFAQ 9.1.hFAQ 8.3.mFAQ 8.3.sFAQ 8.2.bdFAQ 8.2.bmFAQ 8.1.cfFAQ 8.1.cqFAQ 7.3.cuFAQ 7.3.ddFAQ 7.2.drFAQ 7.2.dzFAQ 7.1.eqFAQ 7.1.ezFAQ 6.2.fxFAQ 6.2.ggFAQ 6.1.hbFAQ 6.1.hkFAQ 5.4.hnFAQ 5.4.iiFAQ 5.3.ilFAQ 5.3.@.297FAQ 5.2.@.300FAQ 5.2.@.318FAQ 5.1.@.321FAQ 5.1.@.354FAQ 4.3.@.364FAQ 4.3.@.373FAQ 4.2.@.421FAQ 4.2.@.429FAQ 4.1.@.453FAQ 4.1.@.460FAQ 3.3.@.472FAQ 3.3.@.480FAQ 3.2.@.501FAQ 3.2.@.502FAQ 3.2.@.509FAQ 3.1.@.514FAQ 3.1.@.522FAQ 2.2.@.546FAQ 2.2.@.555FAQ 2.1.@.565FAQ 2.1.@.574FAQ 1.3.@.606FAQ 1.3.@.614FAQ 1.2.@.622FAQ 1.2.@.632FAQ 1.1.@.686FAQ 1.1.@.695FAQ 12.3.@.698FAQ 12.2.@.699FAQ 12.1.@.700FAQ 11.3.@.701FAQ 11.2.@.702FAQ 11.1.@.703FAQ 10.2.@.704FAQ 10.1.@.705FAQ 9.3.@.706FAQ 9.2.@.707FAQ 9.1.@.708FAQ 8.3.@.709FAQ 8.2.@.710FAQ 8.1.@.711FAQ 7.3.@.712FAQ 7.2.@.713FAQ 7.1.@.714FAQ 6.2.@.715FAQ 6.1.@.716FAQ 5.4.@.717FAQ 5.3.@.718FAQ 5.2.@.719FAQ 5.1.@.720FAQ 4.3.@.721FAQ 4.2.@.722FAQ 4.1.@.723FAQ 3.3.@.724FAQ 3.2.@.725FAQ 3.1.@.726FAQ 2.2.@.727FAQ 2.1.@.728FAQ 1.3.@.729FAQ 1.2.@.730FAQ 1.1.@.731FAQ 9.1, Figure 1 | Ice sheets growth and decay. (Top) Changes in ice-sheet volume modulate sea level variations. The grey line depicts data from a range of physical environmental sea level recorders such as coral reefs while the blue line is a smoothed version of it. (Bottom left) Example of destabilization mechanism in Antarctica. (Bottom right) Example of destabilization mechanism in Greenland.

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FAQ 9.1.cFAQ 9.1.jFAQ 8.3.oFAQ 8.3.uFAQ 8.2.bfFAQ 8.2.boFAQ 8.1.chFAQ 8.1.csFAQ 7.3.cwFAQ 7.3.dfFAQ 7.2.dtFAQ 7.2.ebFAQ 7.1.esFAQ 7.1.fbFAQ 6.2.fzFAQ 6.2.giFAQ 6.1.hdFAQ 6.1.hmFAQ 5.4.hpFAQ 5.4.ikFAQ 5.3.inFAQ 5.3.@.299FAQ 5.2.@.302FAQ 5.2.@.320FAQ 5.1.@.323FAQ 5.1.@.356FAQ 4.3.@.366FAQ 4.3.@.375FAQ 4.2.@.423FAQ 4.2.@.431FAQ 4.1.@.455FAQ 4.1.@.462FAQ 3.3.@.474FAQ 3.3.@.482FAQ 3.2.@.503FAQ 3.2.@.504FAQ 3.2.@.511FAQ 3.1.@.516FAQ 3.1.@.524FAQ 2.2.@.548FAQ 2.2.@.557FAQ 2.1.@.567FAQ 2.1.@.576FAQ 1.3.@.608FAQ 1.3.@.616FAQ 1.2.@.624FAQ 1.2.@.634FAQ 1.1.@.688FAQ 1.1.@.697FAQ 12.3.@.700FAQ 12.2.@.701FAQ 12.1.@.702FAQ 11.3.@.703FAQ 11.2.@.704FAQ 11.1.@.705FAQ 10.2.@.706FAQ 10.1.@.707FAQ 9.3.@.708FAQ 9.2.@.709FAQ 9.1.@.710FAQ 8.3.@.711FAQ 8.2.@.712FAQ 8.1.@.713FAQ 7.3.@.714FAQ 7.2.@.715FAQ 7.1.@.716FAQ 6.2.@.717FAQ 6.1.@.718FAQ 5.4.@.719FAQ 5.3.@.720FAQ 5.2.@.721FAQ 5.1.@.722FAQ 4.3.@.723FAQ 4.2.@.724FAQ 4.1.@.725FAQ 3.3.@.726FAQ 3.2.@.727FAQ 3.1.@.728FAQ 2.2.@.729FAQ 2.1.@.730FAQ 1.3.@.731FAQ 1.2.@.732FAQ 1.1.@.733Ocean

FAQ 9.1.dFAQ 9.1.kFAQ 8.3.pFAQ 8.3.vFAQ 8.2.bgFAQ 8.2.bpFAQ 8.1.ciFAQ 8.1.ctFAQ 7.3.cxFAQ 7.3.dgFAQ 7.2.duFAQ 7.2.ecFAQ 7.1.etFAQ 7.1.fcFAQ 6.2.gaFAQ 6.2.gjFAQ 6.1.heFAQ 6.1.hnFAQ 5.4.hqFAQ 5.4.ilFAQ 5.3.ioFAQ 5.3.@.300FAQ 5.2.@.303FAQ 5.2.@.321FAQ 5.1.@.324FAQ 5.1.@.357FAQ 4.3.@.367FAQ 4.3.@.376FAQ 4.2.@.424FAQ 4.2.@.432FAQ 4.1.@.456FAQ 4.1.@.463FAQ 3.3.@.475FAQ 3.3.@.483FAQ 3.2.@.504FAQ 3.2.@.505FAQ 3.2.@.512FAQ 3.1.@.517FAQ 3.1.@.525FAQ 2.2.@.549FAQ 2.2.@.558FAQ 2.1.@.568FAQ 2.1.@.577FAQ 1.3.@.609FAQ 1.3.@.617FAQ 1.2.@.625FAQ 1.2.@.635FAQ 1.1.@.689FAQ 1.1.@.698FAQ 12.3.@.701FAQ 12.2.@.702FAQ 12.1.@.703FAQ 11.3.@.704FAQ 11.2.@.705FAQ 11.1.@.706FAQ 10.2.@.707FAQ 10.1.@.708FAQ 9.3.@.709FAQ 9.2.@.710FAQ 9.1.@.711FAQ 8.3.@.712FAQ 8.2.@.713FAQ 8.1.@.714FAQ 7.3.@.715FAQ 7.2.@.716FAQ 7.1.@.717FAQ 6.2.@.718FAQ 6.1.@.719FAQ 5.4.@.720FAQ 5.3.@.721FAQ 5.2.@.722FAQ 5.1.@.723FAQ 4.3.@.724FAQ 4.2.@.725FAQ 4.1.@.726FAQ 3.3.@.727FAQ 3.2.@.728FAQ 3.1.@.729FAQ 2.2.@.730FAQ 2.1.@.731FAQ 1.3.@.732FAQ 1.2.@.733FAQ 1.1.@.734FAQ 9.1: Can melting of the ice sheets be reversed?

FAQ 9.1.eFAQ 9.1.lFAQ 8.3.qFAQ 8.3.wFAQ 8.2.bhFAQ 8.2.bqFAQ 8.1.cjFAQ 8.1.cuFAQ 7.3.cyFAQ 7.3.dhFAQ 7.2.dvFAQ 7.2.edFAQ 7.1.euFAQ 7.1.fdFAQ 6.2.gbFAQ 6.2.gkFAQ 6.1.hfFAQ 6.1.hoFAQ 5.4.hrFAQ 5.4.imFAQ 5.3.ipFAQ 5.3.@.301FAQ 5.2.@.304FAQ 5.2.@.322FAQ 5.1.@.325FAQ 5.1.@.358FAQ 4.3.@.368FAQ 4.3.@.377FAQ 4.2.@.425FAQ 4.2.@.433FAQ 4.1.@.457FAQ 4.1.@.464FAQ 3.3.@.476FAQ 3.3.@.484FAQ 3.2.@.505FAQ 3.2.@.506FAQ 3.2.@.513FAQ 3.1.@.518FAQ 3.1.@.526FAQ 2.2.@.550FAQ 2.2.@.559FAQ 2.1.@.569FAQ 2.1.@.578FAQ 1.3.@.610FAQ 1.3.@.618FAQ 1.2.@.626FAQ 1.2.@.636FAQ 1.1.@.690FAQ 1.1.@.699FAQ 12.3.@.702FAQ 12.2.@.703FAQ 12.1.@.704FAQ 11.3.@.705FAQ 11.2.@.706FAQ 11.1.@.707FAQ 10.2.@.708FAQ 10.1.@.709FAQ 9.3.@.710FAQ 9.2.@.711FAQ 9.1.@.712FAQ 8.3.@.713FAQ 8.2.@.714FAQ 8.1.@.715FAQ 7.3.@.716FAQ 7.2.@.717FAQ 7.1.@.718FAQ 6.2.@.719FAQ 6.1.@.720FAQ 5.4.@.721FAQ 5.3.@.722FAQ 5.2.@.723FAQ 5.1.@.724FAQ 4.3.@.725FAQ 4.2.@.726FAQ 4.1.@.727FAQ 3.3.@.728FAQ 3.2.@.729FAQ 3.1.@.730FAQ 2.2.@.731FAQ 2.1.@.732FAQ 1.3.@.733FAQ 1.2.@.734FAQ 1.1.@.735Once ice sheets are destabilised, it takes them tens of thousands of years to re-grow. These changes strongly affect sea level.

FAQ 9.1.fFAQ 9.1.mFAQ 8.3.rFAQ 8.3.xFAQ 8.2.biFAQ 8.2.brFAQ 8.1.ckFAQ 8.1.cvFAQ 7.3.czFAQ 7.3.diFAQ 7.2.dwFAQ 7.2.eeFAQ 7.1.evFAQ 7.1.feFAQ 6.2.gcFAQ 6.2.glFAQ 6.1.hgFAQ 6.1.hpFAQ 5.4.hsFAQ 5.4.inFAQ 5.3.iqFAQ 5.3.@.302FAQ 5.2.@.305FAQ 5.2.@.323FAQ 5.1.@.326FAQ 5.1.@.359FAQ 4.3.@.369FAQ 4.3.@.378FAQ 4.2.@.426FAQ 4.2.@.434FAQ 4.1.@.458FAQ 4.1.@.465FAQ 3.3.@.477FAQ 3.3.@.485FAQ 3.2.@.506FAQ 3.2.@.507FAQ 3.2.@.514FAQ 3.1.@.519FAQ 3.1.@.527FAQ 2.2.@.551FAQ 2.2.@.560FAQ 2.1.@.570FAQ 2.1.@.579FAQ 1.3.@.611FAQ 1.3.@.619FAQ 1.2.@.627FAQ 1.2.@.637FAQ 1.1.@.691FAQ 1.1.@.700FAQ 12.3.@.703FAQ 12.2.@.704FAQ 12.1.@.705FAQ 11.3.@.706FAQ 11.2.@.707FAQ 11.1.@.708FAQ 10.2.@.709FAQ 10.1.@.710FAQ 9.3.@.711FAQ 9.2.@.712FAQ 9.1.@.713FAQ 8.3.@.714FAQ 8.2.@.715FAQ 8.1.@.716FAQ 7.3.@.717FAQ 7.2.@.718FAQ 7.1.@.719FAQ 6.2.@.720FAQ 6.1.@.721FAQ 5.4.@.722FAQ 5.3.@.723FAQ 5.2.@.724FAQ 5.1.@.725FAQ 4.3.@.726FAQ 4.2.@.727FAQ 4.1.@.728FAQ 3.3.@.729FAQ 3.2.@.730FAQ 3.1.@.731FAQ 2.2.@.732FAQ 2.1.@.733FAQ 1.3.@.734FAQ 1.2.@.735FAQ 1.1.@.736FAQ

FAQ 9.1.gFAQ 9.1.nFAQ 8.3.sFAQ 8.3.yFAQ 8.2.bjFAQ 8.2.bsFAQ 8.1.clFAQ 8.1.cwFAQ 7.3.daFAQ 7.3.djFAQ 7.2.dxFAQ 7.2.efFAQ 7.1.ewFAQ 7.1.ffFAQ 6.2.gdFAQ 6.2.gmFAQ 6.1.hhFAQ 6.1.hqFAQ 5.4.htFAQ 5.4.ioFAQ 5.3.irFAQ 5.3.@.303FAQ 5.2.@.306FAQ 5.2.@.324FAQ 5.1.@.327FAQ 5.1.@.360FAQ 4.3.@.370FAQ 4.3.@.379FAQ 4.2.@.427FAQ 4.2.@.435FAQ 4.1.@.459FAQ 4.1.@.466FAQ 3.3.@.478FAQ 3.3.@.486FAQ 3.2.@.507FAQ 3.2.@.508FAQ 3.2.@.515FAQ 3.1.@.520FAQ 3.1.@.528FAQ 2.2.@.552FAQ 2.2.@.561FAQ 2.1.@.571FAQ 2.1.@.580FAQ 1.3.@.612FAQ 1.3.@.620FAQ 1.2.@.628FAQ 1.2.@.638FAQ 1.1.@.692FAQ 1.1.@.701FAQ 12.3.@.704FAQ 12.2.@.705FAQ 12.1.@.706FAQ 11.3.@.707FAQ 11.2.@.708FAQ 11.1.@.709FAQ 10.2.@.710FAQ 10.1.@.711FAQ 9.3.@.712FAQ 9.2.@.713FAQ 9.1.@.714FAQ 8.3.@.715FAQ 8.2.@.716FAQ 8.1.@.717FAQ 7.3.@.718FAQ 7.2.@.719FAQ 7.1.@.720FAQ 6.2.@.721FAQ 6.1.@.722FAQ 5.4.@.723FAQ 5.3.@.724FAQ 5.2.@.725FAQ 5.1.@.726FAQ 4.3.@.727FAQ 4.2.@.728FAQ 4.1.@.729FAQ 3.3.@.730FAQ 3.2.@.731FAQ 3.1.@.732FAQ 2.2.@.733FAQ 2.1.@.734FAQ 1.3.@.735FAQ 1.2.@.736FAQ 1.1.@.737Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 9.1.hFAQ 9.1.oFAQ 8.3.tFAQ 8.3.zFAQ 8.2.bkFAQ 8.2.btFAQ 8.1.cmFAQ 8.1.cxFAQ 7.3.dbFAQ 7.3.dkFAQ 7.2.dyFAQ 7.2.egFAQ 7.1.exFAQ 7.1.fgFAQ 6.2.geFAQ 6.2.gnFAQ 6.1.hiFAQ 6.1.hrFAQ 5.4.huFAQ 5.4.ipFAQ 5.3.isFAQ 5.3.@.304FAQ 5.2.@.307FAQ 5.2.@.325FAQ 5.1.@.328FAQ 5.1.@.361FAQ 4.3.@.371FAQ 4.3.@.380FAQ 4.2.@.428FAQ 4.2.@.436FAQ 4.1.@.460FAQ 4.1.@.467FAQ 3.3.@.479FAQ 3.3.@.487FAQ 3.2.@.508FAQ 3.2.@.509FAQ 3.2.@.516FAQ 3.1.@.521FAQ 3.1.@.529FAQ 2.2.@.553FAQ 2.2.@.562FAQ 2.1.@.572FAQ 2.1.@.581FAQ 1.3.@.613FAQ 1.3.@.621FAQ 1.2.@.629FAQ 1.2.@.639FAQ 1.1.@.693FAQ 1.1.@.702FAQ 12.3.@.705FAQ 12.2.@.706FAQ 12.1.@.707FAQ 11.3.@.708FAQ 11.2.@.709FAQ 11.1.@.710FAQ 10.2.@.711FAQ 10.1.@.712FAQ 9.3.@.713FAQ 9.2.@.714FAQ 9.1.@.715FAQ 8.3.@.716FAQ 8.2.@.717FAQ 8.1.@.718FAQ 7.3.@.719FAQ 7.2.@.720FAQ 7.1.@.721FAQ 6.2.@.722FAQ 6.1.@.723FAQ 5.4.@.724FAQ 5.3.@.725FAQ 5.2.@.726FAQ 5.1.@.727FAQ 4.3.@.728FAQ 4.2.@.729FAQ 4.1.@.730FAQ 3.3.@.731FAQ 3.2.@.732FAQ 3.1.@.733FAQ 2.2.@.734FAQ 2.1.@.735FAQ 1.3.@.736FAQ 1.2.@.737FAQ 1.1.@.738FAQ 9.2 | How Much Will Sea Level Rise in the Next Few Decades?

FAQ 9.2.aFAQ 9.1.iFAQ 9.1.pFAQ 8.3.uFAQ 8.3.aaFAQ 8.2.blFAQ 8.2.buFAQ 8.1.cnFAQ 8.1.cyFAQ 7.3.dcFAQ 7.3.dlFAQ 7.2.dzFAQ 7.2.ehFAQ 7.1.eyFAQ 7.1.fhFAQ 6.2.gfFAQ 6.2.goFAQ 6.1.hjFAQ 6.1.hsFAQ 5.4.hvFAQ 5.4.iqFAQ 5.3.itFAQ 5.3.@.305FAQ 5.2.@.308FAQ 5.2.@.326FAQ 5.1.@.329FAQ 5.1.@.362FAQ 4.3.@.372FAQ 4.3.@.381FAQ 4.2.@.429FAQ 4.2.@.437FAQ 4.1.@.461FAQ 4.1.@.468FAQ 3.3.@.480FAQ 3.3.@.488FAQ 3.2.@.509FAQ 3.2.@.510FAQ 3.2.@.517FAQ 3.1.@.522FAQ 3.1.@.530FAQ 2.2.@.554FAQ 2.2.@.563FAQ 2.1.@.573FAQ 2.1.@.582FAQ 1.3.@.614FAQ 1.3.@.622FAQ 1.2.@.630FAQ 1.2.@.640FAQ 1.1.@.694FAQ 1.1.@.703FAQ 12.3.@.706FAQ 12.2.@.707FAQ 12.1.@.708FAQ 11.3.@.709FAQ 11.2.@.710FAQ 11.1.@.711FAQ 10.2.@.712FAQ 10.1.@.713FAQ 9.3.@.714FAQ 9.2.@.715FAQ 9.1.@.716FAQ 8.3.@.717FAQ 8.2.@.718FAQ 8.1.@.719FAQ 7.3.@.720FAQ 7.2.@.721FAQ 7.1.@.722FAQ 6.2.@.723FAQ 6.1.@.724FAQ 5.4.@.725FAQ 5.3.@.726FAQ 5.2.@.727FAQ 5.1.@.728FAQ 4.3.@.729FAQ 4.2.@.730FAQ 4.1.@.731FAQ 3.3.@.732FAQ 3.2.@.733FAQ 3.1.@.734FAQ 2.2.@.735FAQ 2.1.@.736FAQ 1.3.@.737FAQ 1.2.@.738FAQ 1.1.@.739As of 2018, global average sea level was about 15–25 cm higher than in 1900, and 7–15 cm higher than in 1971. Sea level will continue to rise by an additional 10–25 cm by 2050. The major reasons for this ongoing rise in sea level are the thermal expansion of seawater as its temperature increases, and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets. Local sea level changes can be larger or smaller than the global average, with the smallest changes in formerly glaciated areas, and the largest changes in low-lying river delta regions.

FAQ 9.2.bFAQ 9.1.jFAQ 9.1.qFAQ 8.3.vFAQ 8.3.abFAQ 8.2.bmFAQ 8.2.bvFAQ 8.1.coFAQ 8.1.czFAQ 7.3.ddFAQ 7.3.dmFAQ 7.2.eaFAQ 7.2.eiFAQ 7.1.ezFAQ 7.1.fiFAQ 6.2.ggFAQ 6.2.gpFAQ 6.1.hkFAQ 6.1.htFAQ 5.4.hwFAQ 5.4.irFAQ 5.3.iuFAQ 5.3.@.306FAQ 5.2.@.309FAQ 5.2.@.327FAQ 5.1.@.330FAQ 5.1.@.363FAQ 4.3.@.373FAQ 4.3.@.382FAQ 4.2.@.430FAQ 4.2.@.438FAQ 4.1.@.462FAQ 4.1.@.469FAQ 3.3.@.481FAQ 3.3.@.489FAQ 3.2.@.510FAQ 3.2.@.511FAQ 3.2.@.518FAQ 3.1.@.523FAQ 3.1.@.531FAQ 2.2.@.555FAQ 2.2.@.564FAQ 2.1.@.574FAQ 2.1.@.583FAQ 1.3.@.615FAQ 1.3.@.623FAQ 1.2.@.631FAQ 1.2.@.641FAQ 1.1.@.695FAQ 1.1.@.704FAQ 12.3.@.707FAQ 12.2.@.708FAQ 12.1.@.709FAQ 11.3.@.710FAQ 11.2.@.711FAQ 11.1.@.712FAQ 10.2.@.713FAQ 10.1.@.714FAQ 9.3.@.715FAQ 9.2.@.716FAQ 9.1.@.717FAQ 8.3.@.718FAQ 8.2.@.719FAQ 8.1.@.720FAQ 7.3.@.721FAQ 7.2.@.722FAQ 7.1.@.723FAQ 6.2.@.724FAQ 6.1.@.725FAQ 5.4.@.726FAQ 5.3.@.727FAQ 5.2.@.728FAQ 5.1.@.729FAQ 4.3.@.730FAQ 4.2.@.731FAQ 4.1.@.732FAQ 3.3.@.733FAQ 3.2.@.734FAQ 3.1.@.735FAQ 2.2.@.736FAQ 2.1.@.737FAQ 1.3.@.738FAQ 1.2.@.739FAQ 1.1.@.740Across the globe, sea level is rising, and the rate of increase has accelerated. Sea level increased by about 4 mm per year from 2006 to 2018, which was more than double the average rate over the 20th century. Rise during the early 1900s was due to natural factors, such as glaciers catching up to warming that occurred in the Northern Hemisphere during the 1800s. However, since at least 1970, human activities have been the dominant cause of global average sea level rise, and they will continue to be for centuries into the future.

FAQ 9.2.cFAQ 9.1.kFAQ 9.1.rFAQ 8.3.wFAQ 8.3.acFAQ 8.2.bnFAQ 8.2.bwFAQ 8.1.cpFAQ 8.1.daFAQ 7.3.deFAQ 7.3.dnFAQ 7.2.ebFAQ 7.2.ejFAQ 7.1.faFAQ 7.1.fjFAQ 6.2.ghFAQ 6.2.gqFAQ 6.1.hlFAQ 6.1.huFAQ 5.4.hxFAQ 5.4.isFAQ 5.3.ivFAQ 5.3.@.307FAQ 5.2.@.310FAQ 5.2.@.328FAQ 5.1.@.331FAQ 5.1.@.364FAQ 4.3.@.374FAQ 4.3.@.383FAQ 4.2.@.431FAQ 4.2.@.439FAQ 4.1.@.463FAQ 4.1.@.470FAQ 3.3.@.482FAQ 3.3.@.490FAQ 3.2.@.511FAQ 3.2.@.512FAQ 3.2.@.519FAQ 3.1.@.524FAQ 3.1.@.532FAQ 2.2.@.556FAQ 2.2.@.565FAQ 2.1.@.575FAQ 2.1.@.584FAQ 1.3.@.616FAQ 1.3.@.624FAQ 1.2.@.632FAQ 1.2.@.642FAQ 1.1.@.696FAQ 1.1.@.705FAQ 12.3.@.708FAQ 12.2.@.709FAQ 12.1.@.710FAQ 11.3.@.711FAQ 11.2.@.712FAQ 11.1.@.713FAQ 10.2.@.714FAQ 10.1.@.715FAQ 9.3.@.716FAQ 9.2.@.717FAQ 9.1.@.718FAQ 8.3.@.719FAQ 8.2.@.720FAQ 8.1.@.721FAQ 7.3.@.722FAQ 7.2.@.723FAQ 7.1.@.724FAQ 6.2.@.725FAQ 6.1.@.726FAQ 5.4.@.727FAQ 5.3.@.728FAQ 5.2.@.729FAQ 5.1.@.730FAQ 4.3.@.731FAQ 4.2.@.732FAQ 4.1.@.733FAQ 3.3.@.734FAQ 3.2.@.735FAQ 3.1.@.736FAQ 2.2.@.737FAQ 2.1.@.738FAQ 1.3.@.739FAQ 1.2.@.740FAQ 1.1.@.741Sea level rises either through warming of ocean waters or the addition of water from melting ice and bodies of water on land. Expansion due to warming caused about 50% of the rise observed from 1971 to 2018. Melting glaciers contributed about 22% over the same period. Melting of the two large ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica has contributed about 13% and 7%, respectively, during 1971 to 2018, but melting has accelerated in the recent decades, increasing their contribution to 22% and 14% since 2016. Another source is changes in land-water storage: reservoirs and aquifers on land have reduced, which contributed about an 8% increase in sea level.

FAQ 9.2.dFAQ 9.1.lFAQ 9.1.sFAQ 8.3.xFAQ 8.3.adFAQ 8.2.boFAQ 8.2.bxFAQ 8.1.cqFAQ 8.1.dbFAQ 7.3.dfFAQ 7.3.doFAQ 7.2.ecFAQ 7.2.ekFAQ 7.1.fbFAQ 7.1.fkFAQ 6.2.giFAQ 6.2.grFAQ 6.1.hmFAQ 6.1.hvFAQ 5.4.hyFAQ 5.4.itFAQ 5.3.@.256FAQ 5.3.@.308FAQ 5.2.@.311FAQ 5.2.@.329FAQ 5.1.@.332FAQ 5.1.@.365FAQ 4.3.@.375FAQ 4.3.@.384FAQ 4.2.@.432FAQ 4.2.@.440FAQ 4.1.@.464FAQ 4.1.@.471FAQ 3.3.@.483FAQ 3.3.@.491FAQ 3.2.@.512FAQ 3.2.@.513FAQ 3.2.@.520FAQ 3.1.@.525FAQ 3.1.@.533FAQ 2.2.@.557FAQ 2.2.@.566FAQ 2.1.@.576FAQ 2.1.@.585FAQ 1.3.@.617FAQ 1.3.@.625FAQ 1.2.@.633FAQ 1.2.@.643FAQ 1.1.@.697FAQ 1.1.@.706FAQ 12.3.@.709FAQ 12.2.@.710FAQ 12.1.@.711FAQ 11.3.@.712FAQ 11.2.@.713FAQ 11.1.@.714FAQ 10.2.@.715FAQ 10.1.@.716FAQ 9.3.@.717FAQ 9.2.@.718FAQ 9.1.@.719FAQ 8.3.@.720FAQ 8.2.@.721FAQ 8.1.@.722FAQ 7.3.@.723FAQ 7.2.@.724FAQ 7.1.@.725FAQ 6.2.@.726FAQ 6.1.@.727FAQ 5.4.@.728FAQ 5.3.@.729FAQ 5.2.@.730FAQ 5.1.@.731FAQ 4.3.@.732FAQ 4.2.@.733FAQ 4.1.@.734FAQ 3.3.@.735FAQ 3.2.@.736FAQ 3.1.@.737FAQ 2.2.@.738FAQ 2.1.@.739FAQ 1.3.@.740FAQ 1.2.@.741FAQ 1.1.@.742By 2050, sea level is expected to rise an additional 10–25 cm whether or not greenhouse gas emissions are reduced (FAQ 9.2, Figure 1). Beyond 2050, the amount by which sea level will rise is more uncertain. The accumulated total emissions of greenhouse gases over the upcoming decades will play a big role beyond 2050, especially in determining where sea level rise and ice-sheet changes eventually level off.

FAQ 9.2.eFAQ 9.1.mFAQ 9.1.tFAQ 8.3.yFAQ 8.3.aeFAQ 8.2.bpFAQ 8.2.byFAQ 8.1.crFAQ 8.1.dcFAQ 7.3.dgFAQ 7.3.dpFAQ 7.2.edFAQ 7.2.elFAQ 7.1.fcFAQ 7.1.flFAQ 6.2.gjFAQ 6.2.gsFAQ 6.1.hnFAQ 6.1.hwFAQ 5.4.hzFAQ 5.4.iuFAQ 5.3.@.257FAQ 5.3.@.309FAQ 5.2.@.312FAQ 5.2.@.330FAQ 5.1.@.333FAQ 5.1.@.366FAQ 4.3.@.376FAQ 4.3.@.385FAQ 4.2.@.433FAQ 4.2.@.441FAQ 4.1.@.465FAQ 4.1.@.472FAQ 3.3.@.484FAQ 3.3.@.492FAQ 3.2.@.513FAQ 3.2.@.514FAQ 3.2.@.521FAQ 3.1.@.526FAQ 3.1.@.534FAQ 2.2.@.558FAQ 2.2.@.567FAQ 2.1.@.577FAQ 2.1.@.586FAQ 1.3.@.618FAQ 1.3.@.626FAQ 1.2.@.634FAQ 1.2.@.644FAQ 1.1.@.698FAQ 1.1.@.707FAQ 12.3.@.710FAQ 12.2.@.711FAQ 12.1.@.712FAQ 11.3.@.713FAQ 11.2.@.714FAQ 11.1.@.715FAQ 10.2.@.716FAQ 10.1.@.717FAQ 9.3.@.718FAQ 9.2.@.719FAQ 9.1.@.720FAQ 8.3.@.721FAQ 8.2.@.722FAQ 8.1.@.723FAQ 7.3.@.724FAQ 7.2.@.725FAQ 7.1.@.726FAQ 6.2.@.727FAQ 6.1.@.728FAQ 5.4.@.729FAQ 5.3.@.730FAQ 5.2.@.731FAQ 5.1.@.732FAQ 4.3.@.733FAQ 4.2.@.734FAQ 4.1.@.735FAQ 3.3.@.736FAQ 3.2.@.737FAQ 3.1.@.738FAQ 2.2.@.739FAQ 2.1.@.740FAQ 1.3.@.741FAQ 1.2.@.742FAQ 1.1.@.743Even if net zero emissions are reached, sea level rise will continue because the deep ocean will continue to warm and ice sheets will take time to catch up to the warming caused by past and present emissions: ocean and ice sheets are slow to respond to environmental changes (see FAQ 5.3). Some projections under low emissions show sea level rise continuing as net zero is approached at a rate comparable to today (3–8 mm per year by 2100 versus 3–4 mm per year in 2015), while others show substantial acceleration to more than five times the present rate by 2100, especially if emissions continue to be high and processes that accelerate retreat of the Antarctic Ice Sheet occur widely (FAQ 9.1).

FAQ 9.2.fFAQ 9.1.nFAQ 9.1.uFAQ 8.3.zFAQ 8.3.afFAQ 8.2.bqFAQ 8.2.bzFAQ 8.1.csFAQ 8.1.ddFAQ 7.3.dhFAQ 7.3.dqFAQ 7.2.eeFAQ 7.2.emFAQ 7.1.fdFAQ 7.1.fmFAQ 6.2.gkFAQ 6.2.gtFAQ 6.1.hoFAQ 6.1.hxFAQ 5.4.iaFAQ 5.4.ivFAQ 5.3.@.258FAQ 5.3.@.310FAQ 5.2.@.313FAQ 5.2.@.331FAQ 5.1.@.334FAQ 5.1.@.367FAQ 4.3.@.377FAQ 4.3.@.386FAQ 4.2.@.434FAQ 4.2.@.442FAQ 4.1.@.466FAQ 4.1.@.473FAQ 3.3.@.485FAQ 3.3.@.493FAQ 3.2.@.514FAQ 3.2.@.515FAQ 3.2.@.522FAQ 3.1.@.527FAQ 3.1.@.535FAQ 2.2.@.559FAQ 2.2.@.568FAQ 2.1.@.578FAQ 2.1.@.587FAQ 1.3.@.619FAQ 1.3.@.627FAQ 1.2.@.635FAQ 1.2.@.645FAQ 1.1.@.699FAQ 1.1.@.708FAQ 12.3.@.711FAQ 12.2.@.712FAQ 12.1.@.713FAQ 11.3.@.714FAQ 11.2.@.715FAQ 11.1.@.716FAQ 10.2.@.717FAQ 10.1.@.718FAQ 9.3.@.719FAQ 9.2.@.720FAQ 9.1.@.721FAQ 8.3.@.722FAQ 8.2.@.723FAQ 8.1.@.724FAQ 7.3.@.725FAQ 7.2.@.726FAQ 7.1.@.727FAQ 6.2.@.728FAQ 6.1.@.729FAQ 5.4.@.730FAQ 5.3.@.731FAQ 5.2.@.732FAQ 5.1.@.733FAQ 4.3.@.734FAQ 4.2.@.735FAQ 4.1.@.736FAQ 3.3.@.737FAQ 3.2.@.738FAQ 3.1.@.739FAQ 2.2.@.740FAQ 2.1.@.741FAQ 1.3.@.742FAQ 1.2.@.743FAQ 1.1.@.744Sea level rise will increase the frequency and severity of extreme sea level events at coasts (see FAQ 8.2), such as storm surges, wave inundation and tidal floods: risk can be increased by even small changes in global average sea level. Scientists project that, in some regions, extreme sea level events that were recently expected once in 100 years will occur annually at 20–25% of locations by 2050 regardless of emissions, but by 2100 emissions choice will matter: annually at 60% of locations for low emissions, and at 80% of locations under strong emissions.

FAQ 9.2.gFAQ 9.1.oFAQ 9.1.vFAQ 8.3.aaFAQ 8.3.agFAQ 8.2.brFAQ 8.2.caFAQ 8.1.ctFAQ 8.1.deFAQ 7.3.diFAQ 7.3.drFAQ 7.2.efFAQ 7.2.enFAQ 7.1.feFAQ 7.1.fnFAQ 6.2.glFAQ 6.2.guFAQ 6.1.hpFAQ 6.1.hyFAQ 5.4.ibFAQ 5.4.@.256FAQ 5.3.@.259FAQ 5.3.@.311FAQ 5.2.@.314FAQ 5.2.@.332FAQ 5.1.@.335FAQ 5.1.@.368FAQ 4.3.@.378FAQ 4.3.@.387FAQ 4.2.@.435FAQ 4.2.@.443FAQ 4.1.@.467FAQ 4.1.@.474FAQ 3.3.@.486FAQ 3.3.@.494FAQ 3.2.@.515FAQ 3.2.@.516FAQ 3.2.@.523FAQ 3.1.@.528FAQ 3.1.@.536FAQ 2.2.@.560FAQ 2.2.@.569FAQ 2.1.@.579FAQ 2.1.@.588FAQ 1.3.@.620FAQ 1.3.@.628FAQ 1.2.@.636FAQ 1.2.@.646FAQ 1.1.@.700FAQ 1.1.@.709FAQ 12.3.@.712FAQ 12.2.@.713FAQ 12.1.@.714FAQ 11.3.@.715FAQ 11.2.@.716FAQ 11.1.@.717FAQ 10.2.@.718FAQ 10.1.@.719FAQ 9.3.@.720FAQ 9.2.@.721FAQ 9.1.@.722FAQ 8.3.@.723FAQ 8.2.@.724FAQ 8.1.@.725FAQ 7.3.@.726FAQ 7.2.@.727FAQ 7.1.@.728FAQ 6.2.@.729FAQ 6.1.@.730FAQ 5.4.@.731FAQ 5.3.@.732FAQ 5.2.@.733FAQ 5.1.@.734FAQ 4.3.@.735FAQ 4.2.@.736FAQ 4.1.@.737FAQ 3.3.@.738FAQ 3.2.@.739FAQ 3.1.@.740FAQ 2.2.@.741FAQ 2.1.@.742FAQ 1.3.@.743FAQ 1.2.@.744FAQ 1.1.@.745In many places, local sea level change will be larger or smaller than the global average. From year to year and place to place, changes in ocean circulation and wind can lead to local sea level change. In regions where large ice sheets, such as the Fennoscandian in Eurasia and the Laurentide and Cordilleran in North America, covered the land during the last ice age, the land is still slowly rising up now that the extra weight of the ice sheets is gone. This local recovery is compensating for global sea level rise in these regions and can even lead to local decrease in sea level. In regions just beyond where the former ice sheets reached and the Earth bulged upwards, the land is now falling and, as a result, local sea level rise is faster than the global rate. In many regions within low-lying delta regions (such as New Orleans and the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta), the land is rapidly subsiding (sinking) because of human activities such as building dams or groundwater and fossil fuel extraction. Further, when an ice sheet melts, it has less gravitational pull on the ocean water nearby. This reduction in gravitational attraction causes sea level to fall close to the (now less-massive) ice sheet while causing sea level to rise farther away. Melt from a polar ice sheet therefore raises sea level most in the opposite hemisphere or in low latitudes – amounting to tens of centimetres difference in rise between regions by 2100.

FAQ 9.2.hFAQ 9.1.pFAQ 9.1.wFAQ 8.3.abFAQ 8.3.ahFAQ 8.2.bsFAQ 8.2.cbFAQ 8.1.cuFAQ 8.1.dfFAQ 7.3.djFAQ 7.3.dsFAQ 7.2.egFAQ 7.2.eoFAQ 7.1.ffFAQ 7.1.foFAQ 6.2.gmFAQ 6.2.gvFAQ 6.1.hqFAQ 6.1.hzFAQ 5.4.icFAQ 5.4.@.257FAQ 5.3.@.260FAQ 5.3.@.312FAQ 5.2.@.315FAQ 5.2.@.333FAQ 5.1.@.336FAQ 5.1.@.369FAQ 4.3.@.379FAQ 4.3.@.388FAQ 4.2.@.436FAQ 4.2.@.444FAQ 4.1.@.468FAQ 4.1.@.475FAQ 3.3.@.487FAQ 3.3.@.495FAQ 3.2.@.516FAQ 3.2.@.517FAQ 3.2.@.524FAQ 3.1.@.529FAQ 3.1.@.537FAQ 2.2.@.561FAQ 2.2.@.570FAQ 2.1.@.580FAQ 2.1.@.589FAQ 1.3.@.621FAQ 1.3.@.629FAQ 1.2.@.637FAQ 1.2.@.647FAQ 1.1.@.701FAQ 1.1.@.710FAQ 12.3.@.713FAQ 12.2.@.714FAQ 12.1.@.715FAQ 11.3.@.716FAQ 11.2.@.717FAQ 11.1.@.718FAQ 10.2.@.719FAQ 10.1.@.720FAQ 9.3.@.721FAQ 9.2.@.722FAQ 9.1.@.723FAQ 8.3.@.724FAQ 8.2.@.725FAQ 8.1.@.726FAQ 7.3.@.727FAQ 7.2.@.728FAQ 7.1.@.729FAQ 6.2.@.730FAQ 6.1.@.731FAQ 5.4.@.732FAQ 5.3.@.733FAQ 5.2.@.734FAQ 5.1.@.735FAQ 4.3.@.736FAQ 4.2.@.737FAQ 4.1.@.738FAQ 3.3.@.739FAQ 3.2.@.740FAQ 3.1.@.741FAQ 2.2.@.742FAQ 2.1.@.743FAQ 1.3.@.744FAQ 1.2.@.745FAQ 1.1.@.746FAQ

FAQ 9.2.iFAQ 9.1.qFAQ 9.1.xFAQ 8.3.acFAQ 8.3.aiFAQ 8.2.btFAQ 8.2.ccFAQ 8.1.cvFAQ 8.1.dgFAQ 7.3.dkFAQ 7.3.dtFAQ 7.2.ehFAQ 7.2.epFAQ 7.1.fgFAQ 7.1.fpFAQ 6.2.gnFAQ 6.2.gwFAQ 6.1.hrFAQ 6.1.iaFAQ 5.4.idFAQ 5.4.@.258FAQ 5.3.@.261FAQ 5.3.@.313FAQ 5.2.@.316FAQ 5.2.@.334FAQ 5.1.@.337FAQ 5.1.@.370FAQ 4.3.@.380FAQ 4.3.@.389FAQ 4.2.@.437FAQ 4.2.@.445FAQ 4.1.@.469FAQ 4.1.@.476FAQ 3.3.@.488FAQ 3.3.@.496FAQ 3.2.@.517FAQ 3.2.@.518FAQ 3.2.@.525FAQ 3.1.@.530FAQ 3.1.@.538FAQ 2.2.@.562FAQ 2.2.@.571FAQ 2.1.@.581FAQ 2.1.@.590FAQ 1.3.@.622FAQ 1.3.@.630FAQ 1.2.@.638FAQ 1.2.@.648FAQ 1.1.@.702FAQ 1.1.@.711FAQ 12.3.@.714FAQ 12.2.@.715FAQ 12.1.@.716FAQ 11.3.@.717FAQ 11.2.@.718FAQ 11.1.@.719FAQ 10.2.@.720FAQ 10.1.@.721FAQ 9.3.@.722FAQ 9.2.@.723FAQ 9.1.@.724FAQ 8.3.@.725FAQ 8.2.@.726FAQ 8.1.@.727FAQ 7.3.@.728FAQ 7.2.@.729FAQ 7.1.@.730FAQ 6.2.@.731FAQ 6.1.@.732FAQ 5.4.@.733FAQ 5.3.@.734FAQ 5.2.@.735FAQ 5.1.@.736FAQ 4.3.@.737FAQ 4.2.@.738FAQ 4.1.@.739FAQ 3.3.@.740FAQ 3.2.@.741FAQ 3.1.@.742FAQ 2.2.@.743FAQ 2.1.@.744FAQ 1.3.@.745FAQ 1.2.@.746FAQ 1.1.@.747FAQ 9.2 (continued)

FAQ 9.2.aFAQ 9.2.jFAQ 9.1.rFAQ 9.1.yFAQ 8.3.adFAQ 8.3.ajFAQ 8.2.buFAQ 8.2.cdFAQ 8.1.cwFAQ 8.1.dhFAQ 7.3.dlFAQ 7.3.duFAQ 7.2.eiFAQ 7.2.eqFAQ 7.1.fhFAQ 7.1.fqFAQ 6.2.goFAQ 6.2.gxFAQ 6.1.hsFAQ 6.1.ibFAQ 5.4.ieFAQ 5.4.@.259FAQ 5.3.@.262FAQ 5.3.@.314FAQ 5.2.@.317FAQ 5.2.@.335FAQ 5.1.@.338FAQ 5.1.@.371FAQ 4.3.@.381FAQ 4.3.@.390FAQ 4.2.@.438FAQ 4.2.@.446FAQ 4.1.@.470FAQ 4.1.@.477FAQ 3.3.@.489FAQ 3.3.@.497FAQ 3.2.@.518FAQ 3.2.@.519FAQ 3.2.@.526FAQ 3.1.@.531FAQ 3.1.@.539FAQ 2.2.@.563FAQ 2.2.@.572FAQ 2.1.@.582FAQ 2.1.@.591FAQ 1.3.@.623FAQ 1.3.@.631FAQ 1.2.@.639FAQ 1.2.@.649FAQ 1.1.@.703FAQ 1.1.@.712FAQ 12.3.@.715FAQ 12.2.@.716FAQ 12.1.@.717FAQ 11.3.@.718FAQ 11.2.@.719FAQ 11.1.@.720FAQ 10.2.@.721FAQ 10.1.@.722FAQ 9.3.@.723FAQ 9.2.@.724FAQ 9.1.@.725FAQ 8.3.@.726FAQ 8.2.@.727FAQ 8.1.@.728FAQ 7.3.@.729FAQ 7.2.@.730FAQ 7.1.@.731FAQ 6.2.@.732FAQ 6.1.@.733FAQ 5.4.@.734FAQ 5.3.@.735FAQ 5.2.@.736FAQ 5.1.@.737FAQ 4.3.@.738FAQ 4.2.@.739FAQ 4.1.@.740FAQ 3.3.@.741FAQ 3.2.@.742FAQ 3.1.@.743FAQ 2.2.@.744FAQ 2.1.@.745FAQ 1.3.@.746FAQ 1.2.@.747FAQ 1.1.@.748FAQ 9.2, Figure 1 | Observed and projected global mean sea level rise and the contributions from its major constituents.

FAQ 9.2.bFAQ 9.2.kFAQ 9.1.sFAQ 9.1.zFAQ 8.3.aeFAQ 8.3.akFAQ 8.2.bvFAQ 8.2.ceFAQ 8.1.cxFAQ 8.1.diFAQ 7.3.dmFAQ 7.3.dvFAQ 7.2.ejFAQ 7.2.erFAQ 7.1.fiFAQ 7.1.frFAQ 6.2.gpFAQ 6.2.gyFAQ 6.1.htFAQ 6.1.icFAQ 5.4.ifFAQ 5.4.@.260FAQ 5.3.@.263FAQ 5.3.@.315FAQ 5.2.@.318FAQ 5.2.@.336FAQ 5.1.@.339FAQ 5.1.@.372FAQ 4.3.@.382FAQ 4.3.@.391FAQ 4.2.@.439FAQ 4.2.@.447FAQ 4.1.@.471FAQ 4.1.@.478FAQ 3.3.@.490FAQ 3.3.@.498FAQ 3.2.@.519FAQ 3.2.@.520FAQ 3.2.@.527FAQ 3.1.@.532FAQ 3.1.@.540FAQ 2.2.@.564FAQ 2.2.@.573FAQ 2.1.@.583FAQ 2.1.@.592FAQ 1.3.@.624FAQ 1.3.@.632FAQ 1.2.@.640FAQ 1.2.@.650FAQ 1.1.@.704FAQ 1.1.@.713FAQ 12.3.@.716FAQ 12.2.@.717FAQ 12.1.@.718FAQ 11.3.@.719FAQ 11.2.@.720FAQ 11.1.@.721FAQ 10.2.@.722FAQ 10.1.@.723FAQ 9.3.@.724FAQ 9.2.@.725FAQ 9.1.@.726FAQ 8.3.@.727FAQ 8.2.@.728FAQ 8.1.@.729FAQ 7.3.@.730FAQ 7.2.@.731FAQ 7.1.@.732FAQ 6.2.@.733FAQ 6.1.@.734FAQ 5.4.@.735FAQ 5.3.@.736FAQ 5.2.@.737FAQ 5.1.@.738FAQ 4.3.@.739FAQ 4.2.@.740FAQ 4.1.@.741FAQ 3.3.@.742FAQ 3.2.@.743FAQ 3.1.@.744FAQ 2.2.@.745FAQ 2.1.@.746FAQ 1.3.@.747FAQ 1.2.@.748FAQ 1.1.@.749FAQ 9.2: How much will sea level rise in the next few decades?Emissions scenarios influence little sea level rise of the coming decades but has a huge effect on sea level at the end of the century.

FAQ 9.2.cFAQ 9.2.lFAQ 9.1.tFAQ 9.1.aaFAQ 8.3.afFAQ 8.3.alFAQ 8.2.bwFAQ 8.2.cfFAQ 8.1.cyFAQ 8.1.djFAQ 7.3.dnFAQ 7.3.dwFAQ 7.2.ekFAQ 7.2.esFAQ 7.1.fjFAQ 7.1.fsFAQ 6.2.gqFAQ 6.2.gzFAQ 6.1.huFAQ 6.1.idFAQ 5.4.igFAQ 5.4.@.261FAQ 5.3.@.264FAQ 5.3.@.316FAQ 5.2.@.319FAQ 5.2.@.337FAQ 5.1.@.340FAQ 5.1.@.373FAQ 4.3.@.383FAQ 4.3.@.392FAQ 4.2.@.440FAQ 4.2.@.448FAQ 4.1.@.472FAQ 4.1.@.479FAQ 3.3.@.491FAQ 3.3.@.499FAQ 3.2.@.520FAQ 3.2.@.521FAQ 3.2.@.528FAQ 3.1.@.533FAQ 3.1.@.541FAQ 2.2.@.565FAQ 2.2.@.574FAQ 2.1.@.584FAQ 2.1.@.593FAQ 1.3.@.625FAQ 1.3.@.633FAQ 1.2.@.641FAQ 1.2.@.651FAQ 1.1.@.705FAQ 1.1.@.714FAQ 12.3.@.717FAQ 12.2.@.718FAQ 12.1.@.719FAQ 11.3.@.720FAQ 11.2.@.721FAQ 11.1.@.722FAQ 10.2.@.723FAQ 10.1.@.724FAQ 9.3.@.725FAQ 9.2.@.726FAQ 9.1.@.727FAQ 8.3.@.728FAQ 8.2.@.729FAQ 8.1.@.730FAQ 7.3.@.731FAQ 7.2.@.732FAQ 7.1.@.733FAQ 6.2.@.734FAQ 6.1.@.735FAQ 5.4.@.736FAQ 5.3.@.737FAQ 5.2.@.738FAQ 5.1.@.739FAQ 4.3.@.740FAQ 4.2.@.741FAQ 4.1.@.742FAQ 3.3.@.743FAQ 3.2.@.744FAQ 3.1.@.745FAQ 2.2.@.746FAQ 2.1.@.747FAQ 1.3.@.748FAQ 1.2.@.749FAQ 1.1.@.750FAQ

FAQ 9.2.dFAQ 9.2.mFAQ 9.1.uFAQ 9.1.abFAQ 8.3.agFAQ 8.3.amFAQ 8.2.bxFAQ 8.2.cgFAQ 8.1.czFAQ 8.1.dkFAQ 7.3.doFAQ 7.3.dxFAQ 7.2.elFAQ 7.2.etFAQ 7.1.fkFAQ 7.1.ftFAQ 6.2.grFAQ 6.2.haFAQ 6.1.hvFAQ 6.1.ieFAQ 5.4.ihFAQ 5.4.@.262FAQ 5.3.@.265FAQ 5.3.@.317FAQ 5.2.@.320FAQ 5.2.@.338FAQ 5.1.@.341FAQ 5.1.@.374FAQ 4.3.@.384FAQ 4.3.@.393FAQ 4.2.@.441FAQ 4.2.@.449FAQ 4.1.@.473FAQ 4.1.@.480FAQ 3.3.@.492FAQ 3.3.@.500FAQ 3.2.@.521FAQ 3.2.@.522FAQ 3.2.@.529FAQ 3.1.@.534FAQ 3.1.@.542FAQ 2.2.@.566FAQ 2.2.@.575FAQ 2.1.@.585FAQ 2.1.@.594FAQ 1.3.@.626FAQ 1.3.@.634FAQ 1.2.@.642FAQ 1.2.@.652FAQ 1.1.@.706FAQ 1.1.@.715FAQ 12.3.@.718FAQ 12.2.@.719FAQ 12.1.@.720FAQ 11.3.@.721FAQ 11.2.@.722FAQ 11.1.@.723FAQ 10.2.@.724FAQ 10.1.@.725FAQ 9.3.@.726FAQ 9.2.@.727FAQ 9.1.@.728FAQ 8.3.@.729FAQ 8.2.@.730FAQ 8.1.@.731FAQ 7.3.@.732FAQ 7.2.@.733FAQ 7.1.@.734FAQ 6.2.@.735FAQ 6.1.@.736FAQ 5.4.@.737FAQ 5.3.@.738FAQ 5.2.@.739FAQ 5.1.@.740FAQ 4.3.@.741FAQ 4.2.@.742FAQ 4.1.@.743FAQ 3.3.@.744FAQ 3.2.@.745FAQ 3.1.@.746FAQ 2.2.@.747FAQ 2.1.@.748FAQ 1.3.@.749FAQ 1.2.@.750FAQ 1.1.@.751Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 9.2.eFAQ 9.2.nFAQ 9.1.vFAQ 9.1.acFAQ 8.3.ahFAQ 8.3.anFAQ 8.2.byFAQ 8.2.chFAQ 8.1.daFAQ 8.1.dlFAQ 7.3.dpFAQ 7.3.dyFAQ 7.2.emFAQ 7.2.euFAQ 7.1.flFAQ 7.1.fuFAQ 6.2.gsFAQ 6.2.hbFAQ 6.1.hwFAQ 6.1.ifFAQ 5.4.iiFAQ 5.4.@.263FAQ 5.3.@.266FAQ 5.3.@.318FAQ 5.2.@.321FAQ 5.2.@.339FAQ 5.1.@.342FAQ 5.1.@.375FAQ 4.3.@.385FAQ 4.3.@.394FAQ 4.2.@.442FAQ 4.2.@.450FAQ 4.1.@.474FAQ 4.1.@.481FAQ 3.3.@.493FAQ 3.3.@.501FAQ 3.2.@.522FAQ 3.2.@.523FAQ 3.2.@.530FAQ 3.1.@.535FAQ 3.1.@.543FAQ 2.2.@.567FAQ 2.2.@.576FAQ 2.1.@.586FAQ 2.1.@.595FAQ 1.3.@.627FAQ 1.3.@.635FAQ 1.2.@.643FAQ 1.2.@.653FAQ 1.1.@.707FAQ 1.1.@.716FAQ 12.3.@.719FAQ 12.2.@.720FAQ 12.1.@.721FAQ 11.3.@.722FAQ 11.2.@.723FAQ 11.1.@.724FAQ 10.2.@.725FAQ 10.1.@.726FAQ 9.3.@.727FAQ 9.2.@.728FAQ 9.1.@.729FAQ 8.3.@.730FAQ 8.2.@.731FAQ 8.1.@.732FAQ 7.3.@.733FAQ 7.2.@.734FAQ 7.1.@.735FAQ 6.2.@.736FAQ 6.1.@.737FAQ 5.4.@.738FAQ 5.3.@.739FAQ 5.2.@.740FAQ 5.1.@.741FAQ 4.3.@.742FAQ 4.2.@.743FAQ 4.1.@.744FAQ 3.3.@.745FAQ 3.2.@.746FAQ 3.1.@.747FAQ 2.2.@.748FAQ 2.1.@.749FAQ 1.3.@.750FAQ 1.2.@.751FAQ 1.1.@.752FAQ 9.3 | Will the Gulf Stream Shut Down?

FAQ 9.3.aFAQ 9.2.fFAQ 9.2.oFAQ 9.1.wFAQ 9.1.adFAQ 8.3.aiFAQ 8.3.aoFAQ 8.2.bzFAQ 8.2.ciFAQ 8.1.dbFAQ 8.1.dmFAQ 7.3.dqFAQ 7.3.dzFAQ 7.2.enFAQ 7.2.evFAQ 7.1.fmFAQ 7.1.fvFAQ 6.2.gtFAQ 6.2.hcFAQ 6.1.hxFAQ 6.1.igFAQ 5.4.ijFAQ 5.4.@.264FAQ 5.3.@.267FAQ 5.3.@.319FAQ 5.2.@.322FAQ 5.2.@.340FAQ 5.1.@.343FAQ 5.1.@.376FAQ 4.3.@.386FAQ 4.3.@.395FAQ 4.2.@.443FAQ 4.2.@.451FAQ 4.1.@.475FAQ 4.1.@.482FAQ 3.3.@.494FAQ 3.3.@.502FAQ 3.2.@.523FAQ 3.2.@.524FAQ 3.2.@.531FAQ 3.1.@.536FAQ 3.1.@.544FAQ 2.2.@.568FAQ 2.2.@.577FAQ 2.1.@.587FAQ 2.1.@.596FAQ 1.3.@.628FAQ 1.3.@.636FAQ 1.2.@.644FAQ 1.2.@.654FAQ 1.1.@.708FAQ 1.1.@.717FAQ 12.3.@.720FAQ 12.2.@.721FAQ 12.1.@.722FAQ 11.3.@.723FAQ 11.2.@.724FAQ 11.1.@.725FAQ 10.2.@.726FAQ 10.1.@.727FAQ 9.3.@.728FAQ 9.2.@.729FAQ 9.1.@.730FAQ 8.3.@.731FAQ 8.2.@.732FAQ 8.1.@.733FAQ 7.3.@.734FAQ 7.2.@.735FAQ 7.1.@.736FAQ 6.2.@.737FAQ 6.1.@.738FAQ 5.4.@.739FAQ 5.3.@.740FAQ 5.2.@.741FAQ 5.1.@.742FAQ 4.3.@.743FAQ 4.2.@.744FAQ 4.1.@.745FAQ 3.3.@.746FAQ 3.2.@.747FAQ 3.1.@.748FAQ 2.2.@.749FAQ 2.1.@.750FAQ 1.3.@.751FAQ 1.2.@.752FAQ 1.1.@.753The Gulf Stream is part of two circulation patterns in the North Atlantic: the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. Based on models and theory, scientific studies indicate that, while the AMOC is expected to slow in a warming climate, the Gulf Stream will not change much and would not shut down totally, even if the AMOC did. Most climate models project that the AMOC slows in the later 21st century under most emissions scenarios, with some models showing it slowing even sooner. The Gulf Stream affects the weather and sea level, so if it slows, North America will see higher sea levels and Europe’s weather and rate of relative warming will be affected.

FAQ 9.3.bFAQ 9.2.gFAQ 9.2.pFAQ 9.1.xFAQ 9.1.aeFAQ 8.3.ajFAQ 8.3.apFAQ 8.2.caFAQ 8.2.cjFAQ 8.1.dcFAQ 8.1.dnFAQ 7.3.drFAQ 7.3.eaFAQ 7.2.eoFAQ 7.2.ewFAQ 7.1.fnFAQ 7.1.fwFAQ 6.2.guFAQ 6.2.hdFAQ 6.1.hyFAQ 6.1.ihFAQ 5.4.ikFAQ 5.4.@.265FAQ 5.3.@.268FAQ 5.3.@.320FAQ 5.2.@.323FAQ 5.2.@.341FAQ 5.1.@.344FAQ 5.1.@.377FAQ 4.3.@.387FAQ 4.3.@.396FAQ 4.2.@.444FAQ 4.2.@.452FAQ 4.1.@.476FAQ 4.1.@.483FAQ 3.3.@.495FAQ 3.3.@.503FAQ 3.2.@.524FAQ 3.2.@.525FAQ 3.2.@.532FAQ 3.1.@.537FAQ 3.1.@.545FAQ 2.2.@.569FAQ 2.2.@.578FAQ 2.1.@.588FAQ 2.1.@.597FAQ 1.3.@.629FAQ 1.3.@.637FAQ 1.2.@.645FAQ 1.2.@.655FAQ 1.1.@.709FAQ 1.1.@.718FAQ 12.3.@.721FAQ 12.2.@.722FAQ 12.1.@.723FAQ 11.3.@.724FAQ 11.2.@.725FAQ 11.1.@.726FAQ 10.2.@.727FAQ 10.1.@.728FAQ 9.3.@.729FAQ 9.2.@.730FAQ 9.1.@.731FAQ 8.3.@.732FAQ 8.2.@.733FAQ 8.1.@.734FAQ 7.3.@.735FAQ 7.2.@.736FAQ 7.1.@.737FAQ 6.2.@.738FAQ 6.1.@.739FAQ 5.4.@.740FAQ 5.3.@.741FAQ 5.2.@.742FAQ 5.1.@.743FAQ 4.3.@.744FAQ 4.2.@.745FAQ 4.1.@.746FAQ 3.3.@.747FAQ 3.2.@.748FAQ 3.1.@.749FAQ 2.2.@.750FAQ 2.1.@.751FAQ 1.3.@.752FAQ 1.2.@.753FAQ 1.1.@.754The Gulf Stream is the biggest current in the North Atlantic Ocean. It transports about 30 billion kilograms of water per second northward past points on the east coast of North America. It is a warm current, with temperatures 5°C to 15°C warmer than surrounding waters, so it carries warmer water (thermal energy) from its southern origins and releases warmth to the atmosphere and surrounding water.

FAQ 9.3.cFAQ 9.2.hFAQ 9.2.qFAQ 9.1.yFAQ 9.1.afFAQ 8.3.akFAQ 8.3.aqFAQ 8.2.cbFAQ 8.2.ckFAQ 8.1.ddFAQ 8.1.doFAQ 7.3.dsFAQ 7.3.ebFAQ 7.2.epFAQ 7.2.exFAQ 7.1.foFAQ 7.1.fxFAQ 6.2.gvFAQ 6.2.heFAQ 6.1.hzFAQ 6.1.iiFAQ 5.4.ilFAQ 5.4.@.266FAQ 5.3.@.269FAQ 5.3.@.321FAQ 5.2.@.324FAQ 5.2.@.342FAQ 5.1.@.345FAQ 5.1.@.378FAQ 4.3.@.388FAQ 4.3.@.397FAQ 4.2.@.445FAQ 4.2.@.453FAQ 4.1.@.477FAQ 4.1.@.484FAQ 3.3.@.496FAQ 3.3.@.504FAQ 3.2.@.525FAQ 3.2.@.526FAQ 3.2.@.533FAQ 3.1.@.538FAQ 3.1.@.546FAQ 2.2.@.570FAQ 2.2.@.579FAQ 2.1.@.589FAQ 2.1.@.598FAQ 1.3.@.630FAQ 1.3.@.638FAQ 1.2.@.646FAQ 1.2.@.656FAQ 1.1.@.710FAQ 1.1.@.719FAQ 12.3.@.722FAQ 12.2.@.723FAQ 12.1.@.724FAQ 11.3.@.725FAQ 11.2.@.726FAQ 11.1.@.727FAQ 10.2.@.728FAQ 10.1.@.729FAQ 9.3.@.730FAQ 9.2.@.731FAQ 9.1.@.732FAQ 8.3.@.733FAQ 8.2.@.734FAQ 8.1.@.735FAQ 7.3.@.736FAQ 7.2.@.737FAQ 7.1.@.738FAQ 6.2.@.739FAQ 6.1.@.740FAQ 5.4.@.741FAQ 5.3.@.742FAQ 5.2.@.743FAQ 5.1.@.744FAQ 4.3.@.745FAQ 4.2.@.746FAQ 4.1.@.747FAQ 3.3.@.748FAQ 3.2.@.749FAQ 3.1.@.750FAQ 2.2.@.751FAQ 2.1.@.752FAQ 1.3.@.753FAQ 1.2.@.754FAQ 1.1.@.755The Gulf Stream is part of two major circulation patterns, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (FAQ 9.3, Figure 1). The rotation of the Earth causes the big currents in both circulations to stay on the western side of their basin, which in the Atlantic means the circulations combine to form the Gulf Stream. Other large currents contribute to gyres, such as the Kuroshio in the North Pacific and the East Australian Current in the South Pacific, but the Gulf Stream is special in its dual role. There is no comparable deep overturning circulation in the North Pacific to the AMOC, so the Kuroshio plays only one role as part of a gyre.

FAQ 9.3.dFAQ 9.2.iFAQ 9.2.rFAQ 9.1.zFAQ 9.1.agFAQ 8.3.alFAQ 8.3.arFAQ 8.2.ccFAQ 8.2.clFAQ 8.1.deFAQ 8.1.dpFAQ 7.3.dtFAQ 7.3.ecFAQ 7.2.eqFAQ 7.2.eyFAQ 7.1.fpFAQ 7.1.fyFAQ 6.2.gwFAQ 6.2.hfFAQ 6.1.iaFAQ 6.1.ijFAQ 5.4.imFAQ 5.4.@.267FAQ 5.3.@.270FAQ 5.3.@.322FAQ 5.2.@.325FAQ 5.2.@.343FAQ 5.1.@.346FAQ 5.1.@.379FAQ 4.3.@.389FAQ 4.3.@.398FAQ 4.2.@.446FAQ 4.2.@.454FAQ 4.1.@.478FAQ 4.1.@.485FAQ 3.3.@.497FAQ 3.3.@.505FAQ 3.2.@.526FAQ 3.2.@.527FAQ 3.2.@.534FAQ 3.1.@.539FAQ 3.1.@.547FAQ 2.2.@.571FAQ 2.2.@.580FAQ 2.1.@.590FAQ 2.1.@.599FAQ 1.3.@.631FAQ 1.3.@.639FAQ 1.2.@.647FAQ 1.2.@.657FAQ 1.1.@.711FAQ 1.1.@.720FAQ 12.3.@.723FAQ 12.2.@.724FAQ 12.1.@.725FAQ 11.3.@.726FAQ 11.2.@.727FAQ 11.1.@.728FAQ 10.2.@.729FAQ 10.1.@.730FAQ 9.3.@.731FAQ 9.2.@.732FAQ 9.1.@.733FAQ 8.3.@.734FAQ 8.2.@.735FAQ 8.1.@.736FAQ 7.3.@.737FAQ 7.2.@.738FAQ 7.1.@.739FAQ 6.2.@.740FAQ 6.1.@.741FAQ 5.4.@.742FAQ 5.3.@.743FAQ 5.2.@.744FAQ 5.1.@.745FAQ 4.3.@.746FAQ 4.2.@.747FAQ 4.1.@.748FAQ 3.3.@.749FAQ 3.2.@.750FAQ 3.1.@.751FAQ 2.2.@.752FAQ 2.1.@.753FAQ 1.3.@.754FAQ 1.2.@.755FAQ 1.1.@.756The gyres circulate surface waters and result primarily from winds driving the circulation. These winds are not expected to change much and so neither will the gyres, which means the gyre portion of the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio will continue to transport thermal energy poleward from the equator much as they do now. The gyre contribution to the Gulf Stream is 2 to 10 times larger than the AMOC contribution.

FAQ 9.3.eFAQ 9.2.jFAQ 9.2.sFAQ 9.1.aaFAQ 9.1.ahFAQ 8.3.amFAQ 8.3.asFAQ 8.2.cdFAQ 8.2.cmFAQ 8.1.dfFAQ 8.1.dqFAQ 7.3.duFAQ 7.3.edFAQ 7.2.erFAQ 7.2.ezFAQ 7.1.fqFAQ 7.1.fzFAQ 6.2.gxFAQ 6.2.hgFAQ 6.1.ibFAQ 6.1.ikFAQ 5.4.inFAQ 5.4.@.268FAQ 5.3.@.271FAQ 5.3.@.323FAQ 5.2.@.326FAQ 5.2.@.344FAQ 5.1.@.347FAQ 5.1.@.380FAQ 4.3.@.390FAQ 4.3.@.399FAQ 4.2.@.447FAQ 4.2.@.455FAQ 4.1.@.479FAQ 4.1.@.486FAQ 3.3.@.498FAQ 3.3.@.506FAQ 3.2.@.527FAQ 3.2.@.528FAQ 3.2.@.535FAQ 3.1.@.540FAQ 3.1.@.548FAQ 2.2.@.572FAQ 2.2.@.581FAQ 2.1.@.591FAQ 2.1.@.600FAQ 1.3.@.632FAQ 1.3.@.640FAQ 1.2.@.648FAQ 1.2.@.658FAQ 1.1.@.712FAQ 1.1.@.721FAQ 12.3.@.724FAQ 12.2.@.725FAQ 12.1.@.726FAQ 11.3.@.727FAQ 11.2.@.728FAQ 11.1.@.729FAQ 10.2.@.730FAQ 10.1.@.731FAQ 9.3.@.732FAQ 9.2.@.733FAQ 9.1.@.734FAQ 8.3.@.735FAQ 8.2.@.736FAQ 8.1.@.737FAQ 7.3.@.738FAQ 7.2.@.739FAQ 7.1.@.740FAQ 6.2.@.741FAQ 6.1.@.742FAQ 5.4.@.743FAQ 5.3.@.744FAQ 5.2.@.745FAQ 5.1.@.746FAQ 4.3.@.747FAQ 4.2.@.748FAQ 4.1.@.749FAQ 3.3.@.750FAQ 3.2.@.751FAQ 3.1.@.752FAQ 2.2.@.753FAQ 2.1.@.754FAQ 1.3.@.755FAQ 1.2.@.756FAQ 1.1.@.757The Gulf Stream’s role in the AMOC is supplying surface source water that cools, becomes denser and sinks to form cold, deep waters that travel back equatorward, spilling over features on the ocean floor and mixing with other deep Atlantic waters to form a southward current at a depth of about 1500 metres beneath the Gulf Stream. This overturning flow is the AMOC, with the Gulf Stream in the upper kilometre flowing northward, and the colder deep water flowing southward.

FAQ 9.3.fFAQ 9.2.kFAQ 9.2.tFAQ 9.1.abFAQ 9.1.aiFAQ 8.3.anFAQ 8.3.atFAQ 8.2.ceFAQ 8.2.cnFAQ 8.1.dgFAQ 8.1.drFAQ 7.3.dvFAQ 7.3.eeFAQ 7.2.esFAQ 7.2.faFAQ 7.1.frFAQ 7.1.gaFAQ 6.2.gyFAQ 6.2.hhFAQ 6.1.icFAQ 6.1.ilFAQ 5.4.ioFAQ 5.4.@.269FAQ 5.3.@.272FAQ 5.3.@.324FAQ 5.2.@.327FAQ 5.2.@.345FAQ 5.1.@.348FAQ 5.1.@.381FAQ 4.3.@.391FAQ 4.3.@.400FAQ 4.2.@.448FAQ 4.2.@.456FAQ 4.1.@.480FAQ 4.1.@.487FAQ 3.3.@.499FAQ 3.3.@.507FAQ 3.2.@.528FAQ 3.2.@.529FAQ 3.2.@.536FAQ 3.1.@.541FAQ 3.1.@.549FAQ 2.2.@.573FAQ 2.2.@.582FAQ 2.1.@.592FAQ 2.1.@.601FAQ 1.3.@.633FAQ 1.3.@.641FAQ 1.2.@.649FAQ 1.2.@.659FAQ 1.1.@.713FAQ 1.1.@.722FAQ 12.3.@.725FAQ 12.2.@.726FAQ 12.1.@.727FAQ 11.3.@.728FAQ 11.2.@.729FAQ 11.1.@.730FAQ 10.2.@.731FAQ 10.1.@.732FAQ 9.3.@.733FAQ 9.2.@.734FAQ 9.1.@.735FAQ 8.3.@.736FAQ 8.2.@.737FAQ 8.1.@.738FAQ 7.3.@.739FAQ 7.2.@.740FAQ 7.1.@.741FAQ 6.2.@.742FAQ 6.1.@.743FAQ 5.4.@.744FAQ 5.3.@.745FAQ 5.2.@.746FAQ 5.1.@.747FAQ 4.3.@.748FAQ 4.2.@.749FAQ 4.1.@.750FAQ 3.3.@.751FAQ 3.2.@.752FAQ 3.1.@.753FAQ 2.2.@.754FAQ 2.1.@.755FAQ 1.3.@.756FAQ 1.2.@.757FAQ 1.1.@.758The AMOC is expected to slow over the coming centuries. One reason why is freshening of the ocean waters: by meltwater from Greenland, changing Arctic sea ice, and increased precipitation over warmer northern seas. An array of moorings across the Atlantic has been monitoring the AMOC since 2004, with recently expanded capabilities. The monitoring of the AMOC has not been long enough for a trend to emerge from variability and detect long-term changes that may be underway (see FAQ 1.2). Other indirect signs may indicate slowing overturning – for example, slower warming where the Gulf Stream’s surface waters sink. Climate models show that this ‘cold spot’ of slower-than-average warming occurs as the AMOC weakens, and they project that this will continue. Paleoclimate evidence indicates that the AMOC changed significantly in the past, especially during transitions from colder climates to warmer ones, but that it has been stable for 8000 years.

FAQ 9.3.gFAQ 9.2.lFAQ 9.2.uFAQ 9.1.acFAQ 9.1.ajFAQ 8.3.aoFAQ 8.3.auFAQ 8.2.cfFAQ 8.2.coFAQ 8.1.dhFAQ 8.1.dsFAQ 7.3.dwFAQ 7.3.efFAQ 7.2.etFAQ 7.2.fbFAQ 7.1.fsFAQ 7.1.gbFAQ 6.2.gzFAQ 6.2.hiFAQ 6.1.idFAQ 6.1.imFAQ 5.4.ipFAQ 5.4.@.270FAQ 5.3.@.273FAQ 5.3.@.325FAQ 5.2.@.328FAQ 5.2.@.346FAQ 5.1.@.349FAQ 5.1.@.382FAQ 4.3.@.392FAQ 4.3.@.401FAQ 4.2.@.449FAQ 4.2.@.457FAQ 4.1.@.481FAQ 4.1.@.488FAQ 3.3.@.500FAQ 3.3.@.508FAQ 3.2.@.529FAQ 3.2.@.530FAQ 3.2.@.537FAQ 3.1.@.542FAQ 3.1.@.550FAQ 2.2.@.574FAQ 2.2.@.583FAQ 2.1.@.593FAQ 2.1.@.602FAQ 1.3.@.634FAQ 1.3.@.642FAQ 1.2.@.650FAQ 1.2.@.660FAQ 1.1.@.714FAQ 1.1.@.723FAQ 12.3.@.726FAQ 12.2.@.727FAQ 12.1.@.728FAQ 11.3.@.729FAQ 11.2.@.730FAQ 11.1.@.731FAQ 10.2.@.732FAQ 10.1.@.733FAQ 9.3.@.734FAQ 9.2.@.735FAQ 9.1.@.736FAQ 8.3.@.737FAQ 8.2.@.738FAQ 8.1.@.739FAQ 7.3.@.740FAQ 7.2.@.741FAQ 7.1.@.742FAQ 6.2.@.743FAQ 6.1.@.744FAQ 5.4.@.745FAQ 5.3.@.746FAQ 5.2.@.747FAQ 5.1.@.748FAQ 4.3.@.749FAQ 4.2.@.750FAQ 4.1.@.751FAQ 3.3.@.752FAQ 3.2.@.753FAQ 3.1.@.754FAQ 2.2.@.755FAQ 2.1.@.756FAQ 1.3.@.757FAQ 1.2.@.758FAQ 1.1.@.759What happens if the AMOC slows in a warming world? The atmosphere adjusts somewhat by carrying more heat, compensating partly for the decreases in heat carried by AMOC. But the ‘cold spot’ makes parts of Europe warm more slowly. Models indicate that weather patterns in Greenland and around the Atlantic will be affected, with reduced precipitation in the mid-latitudes, changing strong precipitation patterns in the tropics and Europe, and stronger storms in the North Atlantic storm track. The slowing of this current combined with the rotation of the Earth means that sea level along North America rises as the AMOC contribution to the Gulf Stream slows.

FAQ 9.3.hFAQ 9.2.mFAQ 9.2.vFAQ 9.1.adFAQ 9.1.akFAQ 8.3.apFAQ 8.3.avFAQ 8.2.cgFAQ 8.2.cpFAQ 8.1.diFAQ 8.1.dtFAQ 7.3.dxFAQ 7.3.egFAQ 7.2.euFAQ 7.2.fcFAQ 7.1.ftFAQ 7.1.gcFAQ 6.2.haFAQ 6.2.hjFAQ 6.1.ieFAQ 6.1.inFAQ 5.4.iqFAQ 5.4.@.271FAQ 5.3.@.274FAQ 5.3.@.326FAQ 5.2.@.329FAQ 5.2.@.347FAQ 5.1.@.350FAQ 5.1.@.383FAQ 4.3.@.393FAQ 4.3.@.402FAQ 4.2.@.450FAQ 4.2.@.458FAQ 4.1.@.482FAQ 4.1.@.489FAQ 3.3.@.501FAQ 3.3.@.509FAQ 3.2.@.530FAQ 3.2.@.531FAQ 3.2.@.538FAQ 3.1.@.543FAQ 3.1.@.551FAQ 2.2.@.575FAQ 2.2.@.584FAQ 2.1.@.594FAQ 2.1.@.603FAQ 1.3.@.635FAQ 1.3.@.643FAQ 1.2.@.651FAQ 1.2.@.661FAQ 1.1.@.715FAQ 1.1.@.724FAQ 12.3.@.727FAQ 12.2.@.728FAQ 12.1.@.729FAQ 11.3.@.730FAQ 11.2.@.731FAQ 11.1.@.732FAQ 10.2.@.733FAQ 10.1.@.734FAQ 9.3.@.735FAQ 9.2.@.736FAQ 9.1.@.737FAQ 8.3.@.738FAQ 8.2.@.739FAQ 8.1.@.740FAQ 7.3.@.741FAQ 7.2.@.742FAQ 7.1.@.743FAQ 6.2.@.744FAQ 6.1.@.745FAQ 5.4.@.746FAQ 5.3.@.747FAQ 5.2.@.748FAQ 5.1.@.749FAQ 4.3.@.750FAQ 4.2.@.751FAQ 4.1.@.752FAQ 3.3.@.753FAQ 3.2.@.754FAQ 3.1.@.755FAQ 2.2.@.756FAQ 2.1.@.757FAQ 1.3.@.758FAQ 1.2.@.759FAQ 1.1.@.760The North Atlantic is not the only site of sensitive meridional overturning. Around Antarctica, the world’s densest seawater is formed by freezing into sea ice, leaving behind salty, cold water that sinks to the bottom and spreads northward. Recent studies show that melting of the Antarctic Ice Sheet and changing winds over the Southern Ocean can affect this southern meridional overturning, affecting regional weather.

FAQ 9.3.iFAQ 9.2.nFAQ 9.2.wFAQ 9.1.aeFAQ 9.1.alFAQ 8.3.aqFAQ 8.3.awFAQ 8.2.chFAQ 8.2.cqFAQ 8.1.djFAQ 8.1.duFAQ 7.3.dyFAQ 7.3.ehFAQ 7.2.evFAQ 7.2.fdFAQ 7.1.fuFAQ 7.1.gdFAQ 6.2.hbFAQ 6.2.hkFAQ 6.1.ifFAQ 6.1.ioFAQ 5.4.irFAQ 5.4.@.272FAQ 5.3.@.275FAQ 5.3.@.327FAQ 5.2.@.330FAQ 5.2.@.348FAQ 5.1.@.351FAQ 5.1.@.384FAQ 4.3.@.394FAQ 4.3.@.403FAQ 4.2.@.451FAQ 4.2.@.459FAQ 4.1.@.483FAQ 4.1.@.490FAQ 3.3.@.502FAQ 3.3.@.510FAQ 3.2.@.531FAQ 3.2.@.532FAQ 3.2.@.539FAQ 3.1.@.544FAQ 3.1.@.552FAQ 2.2.@.576FAQ 2.2.@.585FAQ 2.1.@.595FAQ 2.1.@.604FAQ 1.3.@.636FAQ 1.3.@.644FAQ 1.2.@.652FAQ 1.2.@.662FAQ 1.1.@.716FAQ 1.1.@.725FAQ 12.3.@.728FAQ 12.2.@.729FAQ 12.1.@.730FAQ 11.3.@.731FAQ 11.2.@.732FAQ 11.1.@.733FAQ 10.2.@.734FAQ 10.1.@.735FAQ 9.3.@.736FAQ 9.2.@.737FAQ 9.1.@.738FAQ 8.3.@.739FAQ 8.2.@.740FAQ 8.1.@.741FAQ 7.3.@.742FAQ 7.2.@.743FAQ 7.1.@.744FAQ 6.2.@.745FAQ 6.1.@.746FAQ 5.4.@.747FAQ 5.3.@.748FAQ 5.2.@.749FAQ 5.1.@.750FAQ 4.3.@.751FAQ 4.2.@.752FAQ 4.1.@.753FAQ 3.3.@.754FAQ 3.2.@.755FAQ 3.1.@.756FAQ 2.2.@.757FAQ 2.1.@.758FAQ 1.3.@.759FAQ 1.2.@.760FAQ 1.1.@.761FAQ

FAQ 9.3.jFAQ 9.2.oFAQ 9.2.xFAQ 9.1.afFAQ 9.1.amFAQ 8.3.arFAQ 8.3.axFAQ 8.2.ciFAQ 8.2.crFAQ 8.1.dkFAQ 8.1.dvFAQ 7.3.dzFAQ 7.3.eiFAQ 7.2.ewFAQ 7.2.feFAQ 7.1.fvFAQ 7.1.geFAQ 6.2.hcFAQ 6.2.hlFAQ 6.1.igFAQ 6.1.ipFAQ 5.4.isFAQ 5.4.@.273FAQ 5.3.@.276FAQ 5.3.@.328FAQ 5.2.@.331FAQ 5.2.@.349FAQ 5.1.@.352FAQ 5.1.@.385FAQ 4.3.@.395FAQ 4.3.@.404FAQ 4.2.@.452FAQ 4.2.@.460FAQ 4.1.@.484FAQ 4.1.@.491FAQ 3.3.@.503FAQ 3.3.@.511FAQ 3.2.@.532FAQ 3.2.@.533FAQ 3.2.@.540FAQ 3.1.@.545FAQ 3.1.@.553FAQ 2.2.@.577FAQ 2.2.@.586FAQ 2.1.@.596FAQ 2.1.@.605FAQ 1.3.@.637FAQ 1.3.@.645FAQ 1.2.@.653FAQ 1.2.@.663FAQ 1.1.@.717FAQ 1.1.@.726FAQ 12.3.@.729FAQ 12.2.@.730FAQ 12.1.@.731FAQ 11.3.@.732FAQ 11.2.@.733FAQ 11.1.@.734FAQ 10.2.@.735FAQ 10.1.@.736FAQ 9.3.@.737FAQ 9.2.@.738FAQ 9.1.@.739FAQ 8.3.@.740FAQ 8.2.@.741FAQ 8.1.@.742FAQ 7.3.@.743FAQ 7.2.@.744FAQ 7.1.@.745FAQ 6.2.@.746FAQ 6.1.@.747FAQ 5.4.@.748FAQ 5.3.@.749FAQ 5.2.@.750FAQ 5.1.@.751FAQ 4.3.@.752FAQ 4.2.@.753FAQ 4.1.@.754FAQ 3.3.@.755FAQ 3.2.@.756FAQ 3.1.@.757FAQ 2.2.@.758FAQ 2.1.@.759FAQ 1.3.@.760FAQ 1.2.@.761FAQ 1.1.@.762FAQ 9.3 (continued)

FAQ 9.3.aFAQ 9.3.kFAQ 9.2.pFAQ 9.2.yFAQ 9.1.agFAQ 9.1.anFAQ 8.3.asFAQ 8.3.ayFAQ 8.2.cjFAQ 8.2.csFAQ 8.1.dlFAQ 8.1.dwFAQ 7.3.eaFAQ 7.3.ejFAQ 7.2.exFAQ 7.2.ffFAQ 7.1.fwFAQ 7.1.gfFAQ 6.2.hdFAQ 6.2.hmFAQ 6.1.ihFAQ 6.1.iqFAQ 5.4.itFAQ 5.4.@.274FAQ 5.3.@.277FAQ 5.3.@.329FAQ 5.2.@.332FAQ 5.2.@.350FAQ 5.1.@.353FAQ 5.1.@.386FAQ 4.3.@.396FAQ 4.3.@.405FAQ 4.2.@.453FAQ 4.2.@.461FAQ 4.1.@.485FAQ 4.1.@.492FAQ 3.3.@.504FAQ 3.3.@.512FAQ 3.2.@.533FAQ 3.2.@.534FAQ 3.2.@.541FAQ 3.1.@.546FAQ 3.1.@.554FAQ 2.2.@.578FAQ 2.2.@.587FAQ 2.1.@.597FAQ 2.1.@.606FAQ 1.3.@.638FAQ 1.3.@.646FAQ 1.2.@.654FAQ 1.2.@.664FAQ 1.1.@.718FAQ 1.1.@.727FAQ 12.3.@.730FAQ 12.2.@.731FAQ 12.1.@.732FAQ 11.3.@.733FAQ 11.2.@.734FAQ 11.1.@.735FAQ 10.2.@.736FAQ 10.1.@.737FAQ 9.3.@.738FAQ 9.2.@.739FAQ 9.1.@.740FAQ 8.3.@.741FAQ 8.2.@.742FAQ 8.1.@.743FAQ 7.3.@.744FAQ 7.2.@.745FAQ 7.1.@.746FAQ 6.2.@.747FAQ 6.1.@.748FAQ 5.4.@.749FAQ 5.3.@.750FAQ 5.2.@.751FAQ 5.1.@.752FAQ 4.3.@.753FAQ 4.2.@.754FAQ 4.1.@.755FAQ 3.3.@.756FAQ 3.2.@.757FAQ 3.1.@.758FAQ 2.2.@.759FAQ 2.1.@.760FAQ 1.3.@.761FAQ 1.2.@.762FAQ 1.1.@.763FAQ 9.3, Figure 1 | Horizontal (gyre) and vertical (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, AMOC) circulations in the Atlantic today (left) and in a warmer world (right). The Gulf Stream is a warm current composed of both circulations.

FAQ 9.3.bFAQ 9.3.lFAQ 9.2.qFAQ 9.2.zFAQ 9.1.ahFAQ 9.1.aoFAQ 8.3.atFAQ 8.3.azFAQ 8.2.ckFAQ 8.2.ctFAQ 8.1.dmFAQ 8.1.dxFAQ 7.3.ebFAQ 7.3.ekFAQ 7.2.eyFAQ 7.2.fgFAQ 7.1.fxFAQ 7.1.ggFAQ 6.2.heFAQ 6.2.hnFAQ 6.1.iiFAQ 6.1.irFAQ 5.4.iuFAQ 5.4.@.275FAQ 5.3.@.278FAQ 5.3.@.330FAQ 5.2.@.333FAQ 5.2.@.351FAQ 5.1.@.354FAQ 5.1.@.387FAQ 4.3.@.397FAQ 4.3.@.406FAQ 4.2.@.454FAQ 4.2.@.462FAQ 4.1.@.486FAQ 4.1.@.493FAQ 3.3.@.505FAQ 3.3.@.513FAQ 3.2.@.534FAQ 3.2.@.535FAQ 3.2.@.542FAQ 3.1.@.547FAQ 3.1.@.555FAQ 2.2.@.579FAQ 2.2.@.588FAQ 2.1.@.598FAQ 2.1.@.607FAQ 1.3.@.639FAQ 1.3.@.647FAQ 1.2.@.655FAQ 1.2.@.665FAQ 1.1.@.719FAQ 1.1.@.728FAQ 12.3.@.731FAQ 12.2.@.732FAQ 12.1.@.733FAQ 11.3.@.734FAQ 11.2.@.735FAQ 11.1.@.736FAQ 10.2.@.737FAQ 10.1.@.738FAQ 9.3.@.739FAQ 9.2.@.740FAQ 9.1.@.741FAQ 8.3.@.742FAQ 8.2.@.743FAQ 8.1.@.744FAQ 7.3.@.745FAQ 7.2.@.746FAQ 7.1.@.747FAQ 6.2.@.748FAQ 6.1.@.749FAQ 5.4.@.750FAQ 5.3.@.751FAQ 5.2.@.752FAQ 5.1.@.753FAQ 4.3.@.754FAQ 4.2.@.755FAQ 4.1.@.756FAQ 3.3.@.757FAQ 3.2.@.758FAQ 3.1.@.759FAQ 2.2.@.760FAQ 2.1.@.761FAQ 1.3.@.762FAQ 1.2.@.763FAQ 1.1.@.764The Gulf Stream, a warm current, is expected to weaken but not cease. This slowdown will affect regional weather and sea level.

FAQ 9.3.cFAQ 9.3.mFAQ 9.2.rFAQ 9.2.aaFAQ 9.1.aiFAQ 9.1.apFAQ 8.3.auFAQ 8.3.baFAQ 8.2.clFAQ 8.2.cuFAQ 8.1.dnFAQ 8.1.dyFAQ 7.3.ecFAQ 7.3.elFAQ 7.2.ezFAQ 7.2.fhFAQ 7.1.fyFAQ 7.1.ghFAQ 6.2.hfFAQ 6.2.hoFAQ 6.1.ijFAQ 6.1.isFAQ 5.4.ivFAQ 5.4.@.276FAQ 5.3.@.279FAQ 5.3.@.331FAQ 5.2.@.334FAQ 5.2.@.352FAQ 5.1.@.355FAQ 5.1.@.388FAQ 4.3.@.398FAQ 4.3.@.407FAQ 4.2.@.455FAQ 4.2.@.463FAQ 4.1.@.487FAQ 4.1.@.494FAQ 3.3.@.506FAQ 3.3.@.514FAQ 3.2.@.535FAQ 3.2.@.536FAQ 3.2.@.543FAQ 3.1.@.548FAQ 3.1.@.556FAQ 2.2.@.580FAQ 2.2.@.589FAQ 2.1.@.599FAQ 2.1.@.608FAQ 1.3.@.640FAQ 1.3.@.648FAQ 1.2.@.656FAQ 1.2.@.666FAQ 1.1.@.720FAQ 1.1.@.729FAQ 12.3.@.732FAQ 12.2.@.733FAQ 12.1.@.734FAQ 11.3.@.735FAQ 11.2.@.736FAQ 11.1.@.737FAQ 10.2.@.738FAQ 10.1.@.739FAQ 9.3.@.740FAQ 9.2.@.741FAQ 9.1.@.742FAQ 8.3.@.743FAQ 8.2.@.744FAQ 8.1.@.745FAQ 7.3.@.746FAQ 7.2.@.747FAQ 7.1.@.748FAQ 6.2.@.749FAQ 6.1.@.750FAQ 5.4.@.751FAQ 5.3.@.752FAQ 5.2.@.753FAQ 5.1.@.754FAQ 4.3.@.755FAQ 4.2.@.756FAQ 4.1.@.757FAQ 3.3.@.758FAQ 3.2.@.759FAQ 3.1.@.760FAQ 2.2.@.761FAQ 2.1.@.762FAQ 1.3.@.763FAQ 1.2.@.764FAQ 1.1.@.765Warm surface current driven by winds and replenishing sinking

FAQ 9.3.dFAQ 9.3.nFAQ 9.2.sFAQ 9.2.abFAQ 9.1.ajFAQ 9.1.aqFAQ 8.3.avFAQ 8.3.bbFAQ 8.2.cmFAQ 8.2.cvFAQ 8.1.doFAQ 8.1.dzFAQ 7.3.edFAQ 7.3.emFAQ 7.2.faFAQ 7.2.fiFAQ 7.1.fzFAQ 7.1.giFAQ 6.2.hgFAQ 6.2.hpFAQ 6.1.ikFAQ 6.1.itFAQ 5.4.@.256FAQ 5.4.@.277FAQ 5.3.@.280FAQ 5.3.@.332FAQ 5.2.@.335FAQ 5.2.@.353FAQ 5.1.@.356FAQ 5.1.@.389FAQ 4.3.@.399FAQ 4.3.@.408FAQ 4.2.@.456FAQ 4.2.@.464FAQ 4.1.@.488FAQ 4.1.@.495FAQ 3.3.@.507FAQ 3.3.@.515FAQ 3.2.@.536FAQ 3.2.@.537FAQ 3.2.@.544FAQ 3.1.@.549FAQ 3.1.@.557FAQ 2.2.@.581FAQ 2.2.@.590FAQ 2.1.@.600FAQ 2.1.@.609FAQ 1.3.@.641FAQ 1.3.@.649FAQ 1.2.@.657FAQ 1.2.@.667FAQ 1.1.@.721FAQ 1.1.@.730FAQ 12.3.@.733FAQ 12.2.@.734FAQ 12.1.@.735FAQ 11.3.@.736FAQ 11.2.@.737FAQ 11.1.@.738FAQ 10.2.@.739FAQ 10.1.@.740FAQ 9.3.@.741FAQ 9.2.@.742FAQ 9.1.@.743FAQ 8.3.@.744FAQ 8.2.@.745FAQ 8.1.@.746FAQ 7.3.@.747FAQ 7.2.@.748FAQ 7.1.@.749FAQ 6.2.@.750FAQ 6.1.@.751FAQ 5.4.@.752FAQ 5.3.@.753FAQ 5.2.@.754FAQ 5.1.@.755FAQ 4.3.@.756FAQ 4.2.@.757FAQ 4.1.@.758FAQ 3.3.@.759FAQ 3.2.@.760FAQ 3.1.@.761FAQ 2.2.@.762FAQ 2.1.@.763FAQ 1.3.@.764FAQ 1.2.@.765FAQ 1.1.@.7661

FAQ 9.3.eFAQ 9.3.oFAQ 9.2.tFAQ 9.2.acFAQ 9.1.akFAQ 9.1.arFAQ 8.3.awFAQ 8.3.bcFAQ 8.2.cnFAQ 8.2.cwFAQ 8.1.dpFAQ 8.1.eaFAQ 7.3.eeFAQ 7.3.enFAQ 7.2.fbFAQ 7.2.fjFAQ 7.1.gaFAQ 7.1.gjFAQ 6.2.hhFAQ 6.2.hqFAQ 6.1.ilFAQ 6.1.iuFAQ 5.4.@.257FAQ 5.4.@.278FAQ 5.3.@.281FAQ 5.3.@.333FAQ 5.2.@.336FAQ 5.2.@.354FAQ 5.1.@.357FAQ 5.1.@.390FAQ 4.3.@.400FAQ 4.3.@.409FAQ 4.2.@.457FAQ 4.2.@.465FAQ 4.1.@.489FAQ 4.1.@.496FAQ 3.3.@.508FAQ 3.3.@.516FAQ 3.2.@.537FAQ 3.2.@.538FAQ 3.2.@.545FAQ 3.1.@.550FAQ 3.1.@.558FAQ 2.2.@.582FAQ 2.2.@.591FAQ 2.1.@.601FAQ 2.1.@.610FAQ 1.3.@.642FAQ 1.3.@.650FAQ 1.2.@.658FAQ 1.2.@.668FAQ 1.1.@.722FAQ 1.1.@.731FAQ 12.3.@.734FAQ 12.2.@.735FAQ 12.1.@.736FAQ 11.3.@.737FAQ 11.2.@.738FAQ 11.1.@.739FAQ 10.2.@.740FAQ 10.1.@.741FAQ 9.3.@.742FAQ 9.2.@.743FAQ 9.1.@.744FAQ 8.3.@.745FAQ 8.2.@.746FAQ 8.1.@.747FAQ 7.3.@.748FAQ 7.2.@.749FAQ 7.1.@.750FAQ 6.2.@.751FAQ 6.1.@.752FAQ 5.4.@.753FAQ 5.3.@.754FAQ 5.2.@.755FAQ 5.1.@.756FAQ 4.3.@.757FAQ 4.2.@.758FAQ 4.1.@.759FAQ 3.3.@.760FAQ 3.2.@.761FAQ 3.1.@.762FAQ 2.2.@.763FAQ 2.1.@.764FAQ 1.3.@.765FAQ 1.2.@.766FAQ 1.1.@.767Water has become fresher and lighter and therefore sinks less

FAQ 9.3.fFAQ 9.3.pFAQ 9.2.uFAQ 9.2.adFAQ 9.1.alFAQ 9.1.asFAQ 8.3.axFAQ 8.3.bdFAQ 8.2.coFAQ 8.2.cxFAQ 8.1.dqFAQ 8.1.ebFAQ 7.3.efFAQ 7.3.eoFAQ 7.2.fcFAQ 7.2.fkFAQ 7.1.gbFAQ 7.1.gkFAQ 6.2.hiFAQ 6.2.hrFAQ 6.1.imFAQ 6.1.ivFAQ 5.4.@.258FAQ 5.4.@.279FAQ 5.3.@.282FAQ 5.3.@.334FAQ 5.2.@.337FAQ 5.2.@.355FAQ 5.1.@.358FAQ 5.1.@.391FAQ 4.3.@.401FAQ 4.3.@.410FAQ 4.2.@.458FAQ 4.2.@.466FAQ 4.1.@.490FAQ 4.1.@.497FAQ 3.3.@.509FAQ 3.3.@.517FAQ 3.2.@.538FAQ 3.2.@.539FAQ 3.2.@.546FAQ 3.1.@.551FAQ 3.1.@.559FAQ 2.2.@.583FAQ 2.2.@.592FAQ 2.1.@.602FAQ 2.1.@.611FAQ 1.3.@.643FAQ 1.3.@.651FAQ 1.2.@.659FAQ 1.2.@.669FAQ 1.1.@.723FAQ 1.1.@.732FAQ 12.3.@.735FAQ 12.2.@.736FAQ 12.1.@.737FAQ 11.3.@.738FAQ 11.2.@.739FAQ 11.1.@.740FAQ 10.2.@.741FAQ 10.1.@.742FAQ 9.3.@.743FAQ 9.2.@.744FAQ 9.1.@.745FAQ 8.3.@.746FAQ 8.2.@.747FAQ 8.1.@.748FAQ 7.3.@.749FAQ 7.2.@.750FAQ 7.1.@.751FAQ 6.2.@.752FAQ 6.1.@.753FAQ 5.4.@.754FAQ 5.3.@.755FAQ 5.2.@.756FAQ 5.1.@.757FAQ 4.3.@.758FAQ 4.2.@.759FAQ 4.1.@.760FAQ 3.3.@.761FAQ 3.2.@.762FAQ 3.1.@.763FAQ 2.2.@.764FAQ 2.1.@.765FAQ 1.3.@.766FAQ 1.2.@.767FAQ 1.1.@.7682 Much less heat and water are transferred

FAQ 9.3.gFAQ 9.3.qFAQ 9.2.vFAQ 9.2.aeFAQ 9.1.amFAQ 9.1.atFAQ 8.3.ayFAQ 8.3.beFAQ 8.2.cpFAQ 8.2.cyFAQ 8.1.drFAQ 8.1.ecFAQ 7.3.egFAQ 7.3.epFAQ 7.2.fdFAQ 7.2.flFAQ 7.1.gcFAQ 7.1.glFAQ 6.2.hjFAQ 6.2.hsFAQ 6.1.inFAQ 6.1.@.256FAQ 5.4.@.259FAQ 5.4.@.280FAQ 5.3.@.283FAQ 5.3.@.335FAQ 5.2.@.338FAQ 5.2.@.356FAQ 5.1.@.359FAQ 5.1.@.392FAQ 4.3.@.402FAQ 4.3.@.411FAQ 4.2.@.459FAQ 4.2.@.467FAQ 4.1.@.491FAQ 4.1.@.498FAQ 3.3.@.510FAQ 3.3.@.518FAQ 3.2.@.539FAQ 3.2.@.540FAQ 3.2.@.547FAQ 3.1.@.552FAQ 3.1.@.560FAQ 2.2.@.584FAQ 2.2.@.593FAQ 2.1.@.603FAQ 2.1.@.612FAQ 1.3.@.644FAQ 1.3.@.652FAQ 1.2.@.660FAQ 1.2.@.670FAQ 1.1.@.724FAQ 1.1.@.733FAQ 12.3.@.736FAQ 12.2.@.737FAQ 12.1.@.738FAQ 11.3.@.739FAQ 11.2.@.740FAQ 11.1.@.741FAQ 10.2.@.742FAQ 10.1.@.743FAQ 9.3.@.744FAQ 9.2.@.745FAQ 9.1.@.746FAQ 8.3.@.747FAQ 8.2.@.748FAQ 8.1.@.749FAQ 7.3.@.750FAQ 7.2.@.751FAQ 7.1.@.752FAQ 6.2.@.753FAQ 6.1.@.754FAQ 5.4.@.755FAQ 5.3.@.756FAQ 5.2.@.757FAQ 5.1.@.758FAQ 4.3.@.759FAQ 4.2.@.760FAQ 4.1.@.761FAQ 3.3.@.762FAQ 3.2.@.763FAQ 3.1.@.764FAQ 2.2.@.765FAQ 2.1.@.766FAQ 1.3.@.767FAQ 1.2.@.768FAQ 1.1.@.7693The Gulf Stream weakens but the portion pushed by winds remains

FAQ 9.3.hFAQ 9.3.rFAQ 9.2.wFAQ 9.2.afFAQ 9.1.anFAQ 9.1.auFAQ 8.3.azFAQ 8.3.bfFAQ 8.2.cqFAQ 8.2.czFAQ 8.1.dsFAQ 8.1.edFAQ 7.3.ehFAQ 7.3.eqFAQ 7.2.feFAQ 7.2.fmFAQ 7.1.gdFAQ 7.1.gmFAQ 6.2.hkFAQ 6.2.htFAQ 6.1.ioFAQ 6.1.@.257FAQ 5.4.@.260FAQ 5.4.@.281FAQ 5.3.@.284FAQ 5.3.@.336FAQ 5.2.@.339FAQ 5.2.@.357FAQ 5.1.@.360FAQ 5.1.@.393FAQ 4.3.@.403FAQ 4.3.@.412FAQ 4.2.@.460FAQ 4.2.@.468FAQ 4.1.@.492FAQ 4.1.@.499FAQ 3.3.@.511FAQ 3.3.@.519FAQ 3.2.@.540FAQ 3.2.@.541FAQ 3.2.@.548FAQ 3.1.@.553FAQ 3.1.@.561FAQ 2.2.@.585FAQ 2.2.@.594FAQ 2.1.@.604FAQ 2.1.@.613FAQ 1.3.@.645FAQ 1.3.@.653FAQ 1.2.@.661FAQ 1.2.@.671FAQ 1.1.@.725FAQ 1.1.@.734FAQ 12.3.@.737FAQ 12.2.@.738FAQ 12.1.@.739FAQ 11.3.@.740FAQ 11.2.@.741FAQ 11.1.@.742FAQ 10.2.@.743FAQ 10.1.@.744FAQ 9.3.@.745FAQ 9.2.@.746FAQ 9.1.@.747FAQ 8.3.@.748FAQ 8.2.@.749FAQ 8.1.@.750FAQ 7.3.@.751FAQ 7.2.@.752FAQ 7.1.@.753FAQ 6.2.@.754FAQ 6.1.@.755FAQ 5.4.@.756FAQ 5.3.@.757FAQ 5.2.@.758FAQ 5.1.@.759FAQ 4.3.@.760FAQ 4.2.@.761FAQ 4.1.@.762FAQ 3.3.@.763FAQ 3.2.@.764FAQ 3.1.@.765FAQ 2.2.@.766FAQ 2.1.@.767FAQ 1.3.@.768FAQ 1.2.@.769FAQ 1.1.@.770The Gulf Stream is part of both the horizontal, subtropical gyre and the vertical, Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

FAQ 9.3.iFAQ 9.3.sFAQ 9.2.xFAQ 9.2.agFAQ 9.1.aoFAQ 9.1.avFAQ 8.3.baFAQ 8.3.bgFAQ 8.2.crFAQ 8.2.daFAQ 8.1.dtFAQ 8.1.eeFAQ 7.3.eiFAQ 7.3.erFAQ 7.2.ffFAQ 7.2.fnFAQ 7.1.geFAQ 7.1.gnFAQ 6.2.hlFAQ 6.2.huFAQ 6.1.ipFAQ 6.1.@.258FAQ 5.4.@.261FAQ 5.4.@.282FAQ 5.3.@.285FAQ 5.3.@.337FAQ 5.2.@.340FAQ 5.2.@.358FAQ 5.1.@.361FAQ 5.1.@.394FAQ 4.3.@.404FAQ 4.3.@.413FAQ 4.2.@.461FAQ 4.2.@.469FAQ 4.1.@.493FAQ 4.1.@.500FAQ 3.3.@.512FAQ 3.3.@.520FAQ 3.2.@.541FAQ 3.2.@.542FAQ 3.2.@.549FAQ 3.1.@.554FAQ 3.1.@.562FAQ 2.2.@.586FAQ 2.2.@.595FAQ 2.1.@.605FAQ 2.1.@.614FAQ 1.3.@.646FAQ 1.3.@.654FAQ 1.2.@.662FAQ 1.2.@.672FAQ 1.1.@.726FAQ 1.1.@.735FAQ 12.3.@.738FAQ 12.2.@.739FAQ 12.1.@.740FAQ 11.3.@.741FAQ 11.2.@.742FAQ 11.1.@.743FAQ 10.2.@.744FAQ 10.1.@.745FAQ 9.3.@.746FAQ 9.2.@.747FAQ 9.1.@.748FAQ 8.3.@.749FAQ 8.2.@.750FAQ 8.1.@.751FAQ 7.3.@.752FAQ 7.2.@.753FAQ 7.1.@.754FAQ 6.2.@.755FAQ 6.1.@.756FAQ 5.4.@.757FAQ 5.3.@.758FAQ 5.2.@.759FAQ 5.1.@.760FAQ 4.3.@.761FAQ 4.2.@.762FAQ 4.1.@.763FAQ 3.3.@.764FAQ 3.2.@.765FAQ 3.1.@.766FAQ 2.2.@.767FAQ 2.1.@.768FAQ 1.3.@.769FAQ 1.2.@.770FAQ 1.1.@.771Climate change weakens the AMOC, which slows the Gulf Stream down

FAQ 9.3.jFAQ 9.3.tFAQ 9.2.yFAQ 9.2.ahFAQ 9.1.apFAQ 9.1.awFAQ 8.3.bbFAQ 8.3.bhFAQ 8.2.csFAQ 8.2.dbFAQ 8.1.duFAQ 8.1.efFAQ 7.3.ejFAQ 7.3.esFAQ 7.2.fgFAQ 7.2.foFAQ 7.1.gfFAQ 7.1.goFAQ 6.2.hmFAQ 6.2.hvFAQ 6.1.iqFAQ 6.1.@.259FAQ 5.4.@.262FAQ 5.4.@.283FAQ 5.3.@.286FAQ 5.3.@.338FAQ 5.2.@.341FAQ 5.2.@.359FAQ 5.1.@.362FAQ 5.1.@.395FAQ 4.3.@.405FAQ 4.3.@.414FAQ 4.2.@.462FAQ 4.2.@.470FAQ 4.1.@.494FAQ 4.1.@.501FAQ 3.3.@.513FAQ 3.3.@.521FAQ 3.2.@.542FAQ 3.2.@.543FAQ 3.2.@.550FAQ 3.1.@.555FAQ 3.1.@.563FAQ 2.2.@.587FAQ 2.2.@.596FAQ 2.1.@.606FAQ 2.1.@.615FAQ 1.3.@.647FAQ 1.3.@.655FAQ 1.2.@.663FAQ 1.2.@.673FAQ 1.1.@.727FAQ 1.1.@.736FAQ 12.3.@.739FAQ 12.2.@.740FAQ 12.1.@.741FAQ 11.3.@.742FAQ 11.2.@.743FAQ 11.1.@.744FAQ 10.2.@.745FAQ 10.1.@.746FAQ 9.3.@.747FAQ 9.2.@.748FAQ 9.1.@.749FAQ 8.3.@.750FAQ 8.2.@.751FAQ 8.1.@.752FAQ 7.3.@.753FAQ 7.2.@.754FAQ 7.1.@.755FAQ 6.2.@.756FAQ 6.1.@.757FAQ 5.4.@.758FAQ 5.3.@.759FAQ 5.2.@.760FAQ 5.1.@.761FAQ 4.3.@.762FAQ 4.2.@.763FAQ 4.1.@.764FAQ 3.3.@.765FAQ 3.2.@.766FAQ 3.1.@.767FAQ 2.2.@.768FAQ 2.1.@.769FAQ 1.3.@.770FAQ 1.2.@.771FAQ 1.1.@.7722Water and heat transferred from the tropics to northern latitudes

FAQ 9.3.kFAQ 9.3.uFAQ 9.2.zFAQ 9.2.aiFAQ 9.1.aqFAQ 9.1.axFAQ 8.3.bcFAQ 8.3.biFAQ 8.2.ctFAQ 8.2.dcFAQ 8.1.dvFAQ 8.1.egFAQ 7.3.ekFAQ 7.3.etFAQ 7.2.fhFAQ 7.2.fpFAQ 7.1.ggFAQ 7.1.gpFAQ 6.2.hnFAQ 6.2.hwFAQ 6.1.irFAQ 6.1.@.260FAQ 5.4.@.263FAQ 5.4.@.284FAQ 5.3.@.287FAQ 5.3.@.339FAQ 5.2.@.342FAQ 5.2.@.360FAQ 5.1.@.363FAQ 5.1.@.396FAQ 4.3.@.406FAQ 4.3.@.415FAQ 4.2.@.463FAQ 4.2.@.471FAQ 4.1.@.495FAQ 4.1.@.502FAQ 3.3.@.514FAQ 3.3.@.522FAQ 3.2.@.543FAQ 3.2.@.544FAQ 3.2.@.551FAQ 3.1.@.556FAQ 3.1.@.564FAQ 2.2.@.588FAQ 2.2.@.597FAQ 2.1.@.607FAQ 2.1.@.616FAQ 1.3.@.648FAQ 1.3.@.656FAQ 1.2.@.664FAQ 1.2.@.674FAQ 1.1.@.728FAQ 1.1.@.737FAQ 12.3.@.740FAQ 12.2.@.741FAQ 12.1.@.742FAQ 11.3.@.743FAQ 11.2.@.744FAQ 11.1.@.745FAQ 10.2.@.746FAQ 10.1.@.747FAQ 9.3.@.748FAQ 9.2.@.749FAQ 9.1.@.750FAQ 8.3.@.751FAQ 8.2.@.752FAQ 8.1.@.753FAQ 7.3.@.754FAQ 7.2.@.755FAQ 7.1.@.756FAQ 6.2.@.757FAQ 6.1.@.758FAQ 5.4.@.759FAQ 5.3.@.760FAQ 5.2.@.761FAQ 5.1.@.762FAQ 4.3.@.763FAQ 4.2.@.764FAQ 4.1.@.765FAQ 3.3.@.766FAQ 3.2.@.767FAQ 3.1.@.768FAQ 2.2.@.769FAQ 2.1.@.770FAQ 1.3.@.771FAQ 1.2.@.772FAQ 1.1.@.773Close to the poles,water cools, becomes heavier and sinks to the bottom

FAQ 9.3.lFAQ 9.3.vFAQ 9.2.aaFAQ 9.2.ajFAQ 9.1.arFAQ 9.1.ayFAQ 8.3.bdFAQ 8.3.bjFAQ 8.2.cuFAQ 8.2.ddFAQ 8.1.dwFAQ 8.1.ehFAQ 7.3.elFAQ 7.3.euFAQ 7.2.fiFAQ 7.2.fqFAQ 7.1.ghFAQ 7.1.gqFAQ 6.2.hoFAQ 6.2.hxFAQ 6.1.isFAQ 6.1.@.261FAQ 5.4.@.264FAQ 5.4.@.285FAQ 5.3.@.288FAQ 5.3.@.340FAQ 5.2.@.343FAQ 5.2.@.361FAQ 5.1.@.364FAQ 5.1.@.397FAQ 4.3.@.407FAQ 4.3.@.416FAQ 4.2.@.464FAQ 4.2.@.472FAQ 4.1.@.496FAQ 4.1.@.503FAQ 3.3.@.515FAQ 3.3.@.523FAQ 3.2.@.544FAQ 3.2.@.545FAQ 3.2.@.552FAQ 3.1.@.557FAQ 3.1.@.565FAQ 2.2.@.589FAQ 2.2.@.598FAQ 2.1.@.608FAQ 2.1.@.617FAQ 1.3.@.649FAQ 1.3.@.657FAQ 1.2.@.665FAQ 1.2.@.675FAQ 1.1.@.729FAQ 1.1.@.738FAQ 12.3.@.741FAQ 12.2.@.742FAQ 12.1.@.743FAQ 11.3.@.744FAQ 11.2.@.745FAQ 11.1.@.746FAQ 10.2.@.747FAQ 10.1.@.748FAQ 9.3.@.749FAQ 9.2.@.750FAQ 9.1.@.751FAQ 8.3.@.752FAQ 8.2.@.753FAQ 8.1.@.754FAQ 7.3.@.755FAQ 7.2.@.756FAQ 7.1.@.757FAQ 6.2.@.758FAQ 6.1.@.759FAQ 5.4.@.760FAQ 5.3.@.761FAQ 5.2.@.762FAQ 5.1.@.763FAQ 4.3.@.764FAQ 4.2.@.765FAQ 4.1.@.766FAQ 3.3.@.767FAQ 3.2.@.768FAQ 3.1.@.769FAQ 2.2.@.770FAQ 2.1.@.771FAQ 1.3.@.772FAQ 1.2.@.773FAQ 1.1.@.7744The cold deep water is exported southward

FAQ 9.3.mFAQ 9.3.wFAQ 9.2.abFAQ 9.2.akFAQ 9.1.asFAQ 9.1.azFAQ 8.3.beFAQ 8.3.bkFAQ 8.2.cvFAQ 8.2.deFAQ 8.1.dxFAQ 8.1.eiFAQ 7.3.emFAQ 7.3.evFAQ 7.2.fjFAQ 7.2.frFAQ 7.1.giFAQ 7.1.grFAQ 6.2.hpFAQ 6.2.hyFAQ 6.1.itFAQ 6.1.@.262FAQ 5.4.@.265FAQ 5.4.@.286FAQ 5.3.@.289FAQ 5.3.@.341FAQ 5.2.@.344FAQ 5.2.@.362FAQ 5.1.@.365FAQ 5.1.@.398FAQ 4.3.@.408FAQ 4.3.@.417FAQ 4.2.@.465FAQ 4.2.@.473FAQ 4.1.@.497FAQ 4.1.@.504FAQ 3.3.@.516FAQ 3.3.@.524FAQ 3.2.@.545FAQ 3.2.@.546FAQ 3.2.@.553FAQ 3.1.@.558FAQ 3.1.@.566FAQ 2.2.@.590FAQ 2.2.@.599FAQ 2.1.@.609FAQ 2.1.@.618FAQ 1.3.@.650FAQ 1.3.@.658FAQ 1.2.@.666FAQ 1.2.@.676FAQ 1.1.@.730FAQ 1.1.@.739FAQ 12.3.@.742FAQ 12.2.@.743FAQ 12.1.@.744FAQ 11.3.@.745FAQ 11.2.@.746FAQ 11.1.@.747FAQ 10.2.@.748FAQ 10.1.@.749FAQ 9.3.@.750FAQ 9.2.@.751FAQ 9.1.@.752FAQ 8.3.@.753FAQ 8.2.@.754FAQ 8.1.@.755FAQ 7.3.@.756FAQ 7.2.@.757FAQ 7.1.@.758FAQ 6.2.@.759FAQ 6.1.@.760FAQ 5.4.@.761FAQ 5.3.@.762FAQ 5.2.@.763FAQ 5.1.@.764FAQ 4.3.@.765FAQ 4.2.@.766FAQ 4.1.@.767FAQ 3.3.@.768FAQ 3.2.@.769FAQ 3.1.@.770FAQ 2.2.@.771FAQ 2.1.@.772FAQ 1.3.@.773FAQ 1.2.@.774FAQ 1.1.@.775TodayIn a warmer world

FAQ 9.3.nFAQ 9.3.xFAQ 9.2.acFAQ 9.2.alFAQ 9.1.atFAQ 9.1.baFAQ 8.3.bfFAQ 8.3.blFAQ 8.2.cwFAQ 8.2.dfFAQ 8.1.dyFAQ 8.1.ejFAQ 7.3.enFAQ 7.3.ewFAQ 7.2.fkFAQ 7.2.fsFAQ 7.1.gjFAQ 7.1.gsFAQ 6.2.hqFAQ 6.2.hzFAQ 6.1.iuFAQ 6.1.@.263FAQ 5.4.@.266FAQ 5.4.@.287FAQ 5.3.@.290FAQ 5.3.@.342FAQ 5.2.@.345FAQ 5.2.@.363FAQ 5.1.@.366FAQ 5.1.@.399FAQ 4.3.@.409FAQ 4.3.@.418FAQ 4.2.@.466FAQ 4.2.@.474FAQ 4.1.@.498FAQ 4.1.@.505FAQ 3.3.@.517FAQ 3.3.@.525FAQ 3.2.@.546FAQ 3.2.@.547FAQ 3.2.@.554FAQ 3.1.@.559FAQ 3.1.@.567FAQ 2.2.@.591FAQ 2.2.@.600FAQ 2.1.@.610FAQ 2.1.@.619FAQ 1.3.@.651FAQ 1.3.@.659FAQ 1.2.@.667FAQ 1.2.@.677FAQ 1.1.@.731FAQ 1.1.@.740FAQ 12.3.@.743FAQ 12.2.@.744FAQ 12.1.@.745FAQ 11.3.@.746FAQ 11.2.@.747FAQ 11.1.@.748FAQ 10.2.@.749FAQ 10.1.@.750FAQ 9.3.@.751FAQ 9.2.@.752FAQ 9.1.@.753FAQ 8.3.@.754FAQ 8.2.@.755FAQ 8.1.@.756FAQ 7.3.@.757FAQ 7.2.@.758FAQ 7.1.@.759FAQ 6.2.@.760FAQ 6.1.@.761FAQ 5.4.@.762FAQ 5.3.@.763FAQ 5.2.@.764FAQ 5.1.@.765FAQ 4.3.@.766FAQ 4.2.@.767FAQ 4.1.@.768FAQ 3.3.@.769FAQ 3.2.@.770FAQ 3.1.@.771FAQ 2.2.@.772FAQ 2.1.@.773FAQ 1.3.@.774FAQ 1.2.@.775FAQ 1.1.@.776FAQ 9.3: Will the Gulf Stream shut down?

FAQ 9.3.oFAQ 9.3.yFAQ 9.2.adFAQ 9.2.amFAQ 9.1.auFAQ 9.1.bbFAQ 8.3.bgFAQ 8.3.bmFAQ 8.2.cxFAQ 8.2.dgFAQ 8.1.dzFAQ 8.1.ekFAQ 7.3.eoFAQ 7.3.exFAQ 7.2.flFAQ 7.2.ftFAQ 7.1.gkFAQ 7.1.gtFAQ 6.2.hrFAQ 6.2.iaFAQ 6.1.ivFAQ 6.1.@.264FAQ 5.4.@.267FAQ 5.4.@.288FAQ 5.3.@.291FAQ 5.3.@.343FAQ 5.2.@.346FAQ 5.2.@.364FAQ 5.1.@.367FAQ 5.1.@.400FAQ 4.3.@.410FAQ 4.3.@.419FAQ 4.2.@.467FAQ 4.2.@.475FAQ 4.1.@.499FAQ 4.1.@.506FAQ 3.3.@.518FAQ 3.3.@.526FAQ 3.2.@.547FAQ 3.2.@.548FAQ 3.2.@.555FAQ 3.1.@.560FAQ 3.1.@.568FAQ 2.2.@.592FAQ 2.2.@.601FAQ 2.1.@.611FAQ 2.1.@.620FAQ 1.3.@.652FAQ 1.3.@.660FAQ 1.2.@.668FAQ 1.2.@.678FAQ 1.1.@.732FAQ 1.1.@.741FAQ 12.3.@.744FAQ 12.2.@.745FAQ 12.1.@.746FAQ 11.3.@.747FAQ 11.2.@.748FAQ 11.1.@.749FAQ 10.2.@.750FAQ 10.1.@.751FAQ 9.3.@.752FAQ 9.2.@.753FAQ 9.1.@.754FAQ 8.3.@.755FAQ 8.2.@.756FAQ 8.1.@.757FAQ 7.3.@.758FAQ 7.2.@.759FAQ 7.1.@.760FAQ 6.2.@.761FAQ 6.1.@.762FAQ 5.4.@.763FAQ 5.3.@.764FAQ 5.2.@.765FAQ 5.1.@.766FAQ 4.3.@.767FAQ 4.2.@.768FAQ 4.1.@.769FAQ 3.3.@.770FAQ 3.2.@.771FAQ 3.1.@.772FAQ 2.2.@.773FAQ 2.1.@.774FAQ 1.3.@.775FAQ 1.2.@.776FAQ 1.1.@.777GULF STREAM

FAQ 9.3.pFAQ 9.3.zFAQ 9.2.aeFAQ 9.2.anFAQ 9.1.avFAQ 9.1.bcFAQ 8.3.bhFAQ 8.3.bnFAQ 8.2.cyFAQ 8.2.dhFAQ 8.1.eaFAQ 8.1.elFAQ 7.3.epFAQ 7.3.eyFAQ 7.2.fmFAQ 7.2.fuFAQ 7.1.glFAQ 7.1.guFAQ 6.2.hsFAQ 6.2.ibFAQ 6.1.@.256FAQ 6.1.@.265FAQ 5.4.@.268FAQ 5.4.@.289FAQ 5.3.@.292FAQ 5.3.@.344FAQ 5.2.@.347FAQ 5.2.@.365FAQ 5.1.@.368FAQ 5.1.@.401FAQ 4.3.@.411FAQ 4.3.@.420FAQ 4.2.@.468FAQ 4.2.@.476FAQ 4.1.@.500FAQ 4.1.@.507FAQ 3.3.@.519FAQ 3.3.@.527FAQ 3.2.@.548FAQ 3.2.@.549FAQ 3.2.@.556FAQ 3.1.@.561FAQ 3.1.@.569FAQ 2.2.@.593FAQ 2.2.@.602FAQ 2.1.@.612FAQ 2.1.@.621FAQ 1.3.@.653FAQ 1.3.@.661FAQ 1.2.@.669FAQ 1.2.@.679FAQ 1.1.@.733FAQ 1.1.@.742FAQ 12.3.@.745FAQ 12.2.@.746FAQ 12.1.@.747FAQ 11.3.@.748FAQ 11.2.@.749FAQ 11.1.@.750FAQ 10.2.@.751FAQ 10.1.@.752FAQ 9.3.@.753FAQ 9.2.@.754FAQ 9.1.@.755FAQ 8.3.@.756FAQ 8.2.@.757FAQ 8.1.@.758FAQ 7.3.@.759FAQ 7.2.@.760FAQ 7.1.@.761FAQ 6.2.@.762FAQ 6.1.@.763FAQ 5.4.@.764FAQ 5.3.@.765FAQ 5.2.@.766FAQ 5.1.@.767FAQ 4.3.@.768FAQ 4.2.@.769FAQ 4.1.@.770FAQ 3.3.@.771FAQ 3.2.@.772FAQ 3.1.@.773FAQ 2.2.@.774FAQ 2.1.@.775FAQ 1.3.@.776FAQ 1.2.@.777FAQ 1.1.@.778GULF STREAM

FAQ 9.3.qFAQ 9.3.aaFAQ 9.2.afFAQ 9.2.aoFAQ 9.1.awFAQ 9.1.bdFAQ 8.3.biFAQ 8.3.boFAQ 8.2.czFAQ 8.2.diFAQ 8.1.ebFAQ 8.1.emFAQ 7.3.eqFAQ 7.3.ezFAQ 7.2.fnFAQ 7.2.fvFAQ 7.1.gmFAQ 7.1.gvFAQ 6.2.htFAQ 6.2.icFAQ 6.1.@.257FAQ 6.1.@.266FAQ 5.4.@.269FAQ 5.4.@.290FAQ 5.3.@.293FAQ 5.3.@.345FAQ 5.2.@.348FAQ 5.2.@.366FAQ 5.1.@.369FAQ 5.1.@.402FAQ 4.3.@.412FAQ 4.3.@.421FAQ 4.2.@.469FAQ 4.2.@.477FAQ 4.1.@.501FAQ 4.1.@.508FAQ 3.3.@.520FAQ 3.3.@.528FAQ 3.2.@.549FAQ 3.2.@.550FAQ 3.2.@.557FAQ 3.1.@.562FAQ 3.1.@.570FAQ 2.2.@.594FAQ 2.2.@.603FAQ 2.1.@.613FAQ 2.1.@.622FAQ 1.3.@.654FAQ 1.3.@.662FAQ 1.2.@.670FAQ 1.2.@.680FAQ 1.1.@.734FAQ 1.1.@.743FAQ 12.3.@.746FAQ 12.2.@.747FAQ 12.1.@.748FAQ 11.3.@.749FAQ 11.2.@.750FAQ 11.1.@.751FAQ 10.2.@.752FAQ 10.1.@.753FAQ 9.3.@.754FAQ 9.2.@.755FAQ 9.1.@.756FAQ 8.3.@.757FAQ 8.2.@.758FAQ 8.1.@.759FAQ 7.3.@.760FAQ 7.2.@.761FAQ 7.1.@.762FAQ 6.2.@.763FAQ 6.1.@.764FAQ 5.4.@.765FAQ 5.3.@.766FAQ 5.2.@.767FAQ 5.1.@.768FAQ 4.3.@.769FAQ 4.2.@.770FAQ 4.1.@.771FAQ 3.3.@.772FAQ 3.2.@.773FAQ 3.1.@.774FAQ 2.2.@.775FAQ 2.1.@.776FAQ 1.3.@.777FAQ 1.2.@.778FAQ 1.1.@.779Weakened AMOCAMOC

FAQ 9.3.rFAQ 9.3.abFAQ 9.2.agFAQ 9.2.apFAQ 9.1.axFAQ 9.1.beFAQ 8.3.bjFAQ 8.3.bpFAQ 8.2.daFAQ 8.2.djFAQ 8.1.ecFAQ 8.1.enFAQ 7.3.erFAQ 7.3.faFAQ 7.2.foFAQ 7.2.fwFAQ 7.1.gnFAQ 7.1.gwFAQ 6.2.huFAQ 6.2.idFAQ 6.1.@.258FAQ 6.1.@.267FAQ 5.4.@.270FAQ 5.4.@.291FAQ 5.3.@.294FAQ 5.3.@.346FAQ 5.2.@.349FAQ 5.2.@.367FAQ 5.1.@.370FAQ 5.1.@.403FAQ 4.3.@.413FAQ 4.3.@.422FAQ 4.2.@.470FAQ 4.2.@.478FAQ 4.1.@.502FAQ 4.1.@.509FAQ 3.3.@.521FAQ 3.3.@.529FAQ 3.2.@.550FAQ 3.2.@.551FAQ 3.2.@.558FAQ 3.1.@.563FAQ 3.1.@.571FAQ 2.2.@.595FAQ 2.2.@.604FAQ 2.1.@.614FAQ 2.1.@.623FAQ 1.3.@.655FAQ 1.3.@.663FAQ 1.2.@.671FAQ 1.2.@.681FAQ 1.1.@.735FAQ 1.1.@.744FAQ 12.3.@.747FAQ 12.2.@.748FAQ 12.1.@.749FAQ 11.3.@.750FAQ 11.2.@.751FAQ 11.1.@.752FAQ 10.2.@.753FAQ 10.1.@.754FAQ 9.3.@.755FAQ 9.2.@.756FAQ 9.1.@.757FAQ 8.3.@.758FAQ 8.2.@.759FAQ 8.1.@.760FAQ 7.3.@.761FAQ 7.2.@.762FAQ 7.1.@.763FAQ 6.2.@.764FAQ 6.1.@.765FAQ 5.4.@.766FAQ 5.3.@.767FAQ 5.2.@.768FAQ 5.1.@.769FAQ 4.3.@.770FAQ 4.2.@.771FAQ 4.1.@.772FAQ 3.3.@.773FAQ 3.2.@.774FAQ 3.1.@.775FAQ 2.2.@.776FAQ 2.1.@.777FAQ 1.3.@.778FAQ 1.2.@.779FAQ 1.1.@.780GYREGYRE

FAQ 9.3.sFAQ 9.3.acFAQ 9.2.ahFAQ 9.2.aqFAQ 9.1.ayFAQ 9.1.bfFAQ 8.3.bkFAQ 8.3.bqFAQ 8.2.dbFAQ 8.2.dkFAQ 8.1.edFAQ 8.1.eoFAQ 7.3.esFAQ 7.3.fbFAQ 7.2.fpFAQ 7.2.fxFAQ 7.1.goFAQ 7.1.gxFAQ 6.2.hvFAQ 6.2.ieFAQ 6.1.@.259FAQ 6.1.@.268FAQ 5.4.@.271FAQ 5.4.@.292FAQ 5.3.@.295FAQ 5.3.@.347FAQ 5.2.@.350FAQ 5.2.@.368FAQ 5.1.@.371FAQ 5.1.@.404FAQ 4.3.@.414FAQ 4.3.@.423FAQ 4.2.@.471FAQ 4.2.@.479FAQ 4.1.@.503FAQ 4.1.@.510FAQ 3.3.@.522FAQ 3.3.@.530FAQ 3.2.@.551FAQ 3.2.@.552FAQ 3.2.@.559FAQ 3.1.@.564FAQ 3.1.@.572FAQ 2.2.@.596FAQ 2.2.@.605FAQ 2.1.@.615FAQ 2.1.@.624FAQ 1.3.@.656FAQ 1.3.@.664FAQ 1.2.@.672FAQ 1.2.@.682FAQ 1.1.@.736FAQ 1.1.@.745FAQ 12.3.@.748FAQ 12.2.@.749FAQ 12.1.@.750FAQ 11.3.@.751FAQ 11.2.@.752FAQ 11.1.@.753FAQ 10.2.@.754FAQ 10.1.@.755FAQ 9.3.@.756FAQ 9.2.@.757FAQ 9.1.@.758FAQ 8.3.@.759FAQ 8.2.@.760FAQ 8.1.@.761FAQ 7.3.@.762FAQ 7.2.@.763FAQ 7.1.@.764FAQ 6.2.@.765FAQ 6.1.@.766FAQ 5.4.@.767FAQ 5.3.@.768FAQ 5.2.@.769FAQ 5.1.@.770FAQ 4.3.@.771FAQ 4.2.@.772FAQ 4.1.@.773FAQ 3.3.@.774FAQ 3.2.@.775FAQ 3.1.@.776FAQ 2.2.@.777FAQ 2.1.@.778FAQ 1.3.@.779FAQ 1.2.@.780FAQ 1.1.@.7813

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FAQ 9.3.uFAQ 9.3.aeFAQ 9.2.ajFAQ 9.2.asFAQ 9.1.baFAQ 9.1.bhFAQ 8.3.bmFAQ 8.3.bsFAQ 8.2.ddFAQ 8.2.dmFAQ 8.1.efFAQ 8.1.eqFAQ 7.3.euFAQ 7.3.fdFAQ 7.2.frFAQ 7.2.fzFAQ 7.1.gqFAQ 7.1.gzFAQ 6.2.hxFAQ 6.2.igFAQ 6.1.@.261FAQ 6.1.@.270FAQ 5.4.@.273FAQ 5.4.@.294FAQ 5.3.@.297FAQ 5.3.@.349FAQ 5.2.@.352FAQ 5.2.@.370FAQ 5.1.@.373FAQ 5.1.@.406FAQ 4.3.@.416FAQ 4.3.@.425FAQ 4.2.@.473FAQ 4.2.@.481FAQ 4.1.@.505FAQ 4.1.@.512FAQ 3.3.@.524FAQ 3.3.@.532FAQ 3.2.@.553FAQ 3.2.@.554FAQ 3.2.@.561FAQ 3.1.@.566FAQ 3.1.@.574FAQ 2.2.@.598FAQ 2.2.@.607FAQ 2.1.@.617FAQ 2.1.@.626FAQ 1.3.@.658FAQ 1.3.@.666FAQ 1.2.@.674FAQ 1.2.@.684FAQ 1.1.@.738FAQ 1.1.@.747FAQ 12.3.@.750FAQ 12.2.@.751FAQ 12.1.@.752FAQ 11.3.@.753FAQ 11.2.@.754FAQ 11.1.@.755FAQ 10.2.@.756FAQ 10.1.@.757FAQ 9.3.@.758FAQ 9.2.@.759FAQ 9.1.@.760FAQ 8.3.@.761FAQ 8.2.@.762FAQ 8.1.@.763FAQ 7.3.@.764FAQ 7.2.@.765FAQ 7.1.@.766FAQ 6.2.@.767FAQ 6.1.@.768FAQ 5.4.@.769FAQ 5.3.@.770FAQ 5.2.@.771FAQ 5.1.@.772FAQ 4.3.@.773FAQ 4.2.@.774FAQ 4.1.@.775FAQ 3.3.@.776FAQ 3.2.@.777FAQ 3.1.@.778FAQ 2.2.@.779FAQ 2.1.@.780FAQ 1.3.@.781FAQ 1.2.@.782FAQ 1.1.@.783FAQ

FAQ 9.3.vFAQ 9.3.afFAQ 9.2.akFAQ 9.2.atFAQ 9.1.bbFAQ 9.1.biFAQ 8.3.bnFAQ 8.3.btFAQ 8.2.deFAQ 8.2.dnFAQ 8.1.egFAQ 8.1.erFAQ 7.3.evFAQ 7.3.feFAQ 7.2.fsFAQ 7.2.gaFAQ 7.1.grFAQ 7.1.haFAQ 6.2.hyFAQ 6.2.ihFAQ 6.1.@.262FAQ 6.1.@.271FAQ 5.4.@.274FAQ 5.4.@.295FAQ 5.3.@.298FAQ 5.3.@.350FAQ 5.2.@.353FAQ 5.2.@.371FAQ 5.1.@.374FAQ 5.1.@.407FAQ 4.3.@.417FAQ 4.3.@.426FAQ 4.2.@.474FAQ 4.2.@.482FAQ 4.1.@.506FAQ 4.1.@.513FAQ 3.3.@.525FAQ 3.3.@.533FAQ 3.2.@.554FAQ 3.2.@.555FAQ 3.2.@.562FAQ 3.1.@.567FAQ 3.1.@.575FAQ 2.2.@.599FAQ 2.2.@.608FAQ 2.1.@.618FAQ 2.1.@.627FAQ 1.3.@.659FAQ 1.3.@.667FAQ 1.2.@.675FAQ 1.2.@.685FAQ 1.1.@.739FAQ 1.1.@.748FAQ 12.3.@.751FAQ 12.2.@.752FAQ 12.1.@.753FAQ 11.3.@.754FAQ 11.2.@.755FAQ 11.1.@.756FAQ 10.2.@.757FAQ 10.1.@.758FAQ 9.3.@.759FAQ 9.2.@.760FAQ 9.1.@.761FAQ 8.3.@.762FAQ 8.2.@.763FAQ 8.1.@.764FAQ 7.3.@.765FAQ 7.2.@.766FAQ 7.1.@.767FAQ 6.2.@.768FAQ 6.1.@.769FAQ 5.4.@.770FAQ 5.3.@.771FAQ 5.2.@.772FAQ 5.1.@.773FAQ 4.3.@.774FAQ 4.2.@.775FAQ 4.1.@.776FAQ 3.3.@.777FAQ 3.2.@.778FAQ 3.1.@.779FAQ 2.2.@.780FAQ 2.1.@.781FAQ 1.3.@.782FAQ 1.2.@.783FAQ 1.1.@.784Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 9.3.wFAQ 9.3.agFAQ 9.2.alFAQ 9.2.auFAQ 9.1.bcFAQ 9.1.bjFAQ 8.3.boFAQ 8.3.buFAQ 8.2.dfFAQ 8.2.doFAQ 8.1.ehFAQ 8.1.esFAQ 7.3.ewFAQ 7.3.ffFAQ 7.2.ftFAQ 7.2.gbFAQ 7.1.gsFAQ 7.1.hbFAQ 6.2.hzFAQ 6.2.iiFAQ 6.1.@.263FAQ 6.1.@.272FAQ 5.4.@.275FAQ 5.4.@.296FAQ 5.3.@.299FAQ 5.3.@.351FAQ 5.2.@.354FAQ 5.2.@.372FAQ 5.1.@.375FAQ 5.1.@.408FAQ 4.3.@.418FAQ 4.3.@.427FAQ 4.2.@.475FAQ 4.2.@.483FAQ 4.1.@.507FAQ 4.1.@.514FAQ 3.3.@.526FAQ 3.3.@.534FAQ 3.2.@.555FAQ 3.2.@.556FAQ 3.2.@.563FAQ 3.1.@.568FAQ 3.1.@.576FAQ 2.2.@.600FAQ 2.2.@.609FAQ 2.1.@.619FAQ 2.1.@.628FAQ 1.3.@.660FAQ 1.3.@.668FAQ 1.2.@.676FAQ 1.2.@.686FAQ 1.1.@.740FAQ 1.1.@.749FAQ 12.3.@.752FAQ 12.2.@.753FAQ 12.1.@.754FAQ 11.3.@.755FAQ 11.2.@.756FAQ 11.1.@.757FAQ 10.2.@.758FAQ 10.1.@.759FAQ 9.3.@.760FAQ 9.2.@.761FAQ 9.1.@.762FAQ 8.3.@.763FAQ 8.2.@.764FAQ 8.1.@.765FAQ 7.3.@.766FAQ 7.2.@.767FAQ 7.1.@.768FAQ 6.2.@.769FAQ 6.1.@.770FAQ 5.4.@.771FAQ 5.3.@.772FAQ 5.2.@.773FAQ 5.1.@.774FAQ 4.3.@.775FAQ 4.2.@.776FAQ 4.1.@.777FAQ 3.3.@.778FAQ 3.2.@.779FAQ 3.1.@.780FAQ 2.2.@.781FAQ 2.1.@.782FAQ 1.3.@.783FAQ 1.2.@.784FAQ 1.1.@.785FAQ 10.1 | How Can We Provide Useful Climate Information for Regional Stakeholders?

FAQ 10.1.aFAQ 9.3.xFAQ 9.3.ahFAQ 9.2.amFAQ 9.2.avFAQ 9.1.bdFAQ 9.1.bkFAQ 8.3.bpFAQ 8.3.bvFAQ 8.2.dgFAQ 8.2.dpFAQ 8.1.eiFAQ 8.1.etFAQ 7.3.exFAQ 7.3.fgFAQ 7.2.fuFAQ 7.2.gcFAQ 7.1.gtFAQ 7.1.hcFAQ 6.2.iaFAQ 6.2.ijFAQ 6.1.@.264FAQ 6.1.@.273FAQ 5.4.@.276FAQ 5.4.@.297FAQ 5.3.@.300FAQ 5.3.@.352FAQ 5.2.@.355FAQ 5.2.@.373FAQ 5.1.@.376FAQ 5.1.@.409FAQ 4.3.@.419FAQ 4.3.@.428FAQ 4.2.@.476FAQ 4.2.@.484FAQ 4.1.@.508FAQ 4.1.@.515FAQ 3.3.@.527FAQ 3.3.@.535FAQ 3.2.@.556FAQ 3.2.@.557FAQ 3.2.@.564FAQ 3.1.@.569FAQ 3.1.@.577FAQ 2.2.@.601FAQ 2.2.@.610FAQ 2.1.@.620FAQ 2.1.@.629FAQ 1.3.@.661FAQ 1.3.@.669FAQ 1.2.@.677FAQ 1.2.@.687FAQ 1.1.@.741FAQ 1.1.@.750FAQ 12.3.@.753FAQ 12.2.@.754FAQ 12.1.@.755FAQ 11.3.@.756FAQ 11.2.@.757FAQ 11.1.@.758FAQ 10.2.@.759FAQ 10.1.@.760FAQ 9.3.@.761FAQ 9.2.@.762FAQ 9.1.@.763FAQ 8.3.@.764FAQ 8.2.@.765FAQ 8.1.@.766FAQ 7.3.@.767FAQ 7.2.@.768FAQ 7.1.@.769FAQ 6.2.@.770FAQ 6.1.@.771FAQ 5.4.@.772FAQ 5.3.@.773FAQ 5.2.@.774FAQ 5.1.@.775FAQ 4.3.@.776FAQ 4.2.@.777FAQ 4.1.@.778FAQ 3.3.@.779FAQ 3.2.@.780FAQ 3.1.@.781FAQ 2.2.@.782FAQ 2.1.@.783FAQ 1.3.@.784FAQ 1.2.@.785FAQ 1.1.@.786The world is physically and culturally diverse, and the challenges posed by climate change vary by region and location. Because climate change affects so many aspects of people’s daily work and living, climate change information can help with decision-making, but only when the information is relevant for the people involved in making those decisions. Users of climate information may be highly diverse, ranging from professionals in areas such as human health, agriculture or water management to a broader community that experiences the impacts of changing climate. Providing information that supports response actions thus requires engaging all relevant stakeholders, their knowledge and their experiences, formulating appropriate information, and developing a mutual understanding of the usefulness and limitations of the information.

FAQ 10.1.bFAQ 9.3.yFAQ 9.3.aiFAQ 9.2.anFAQ 9.2.awFAQ 9.1.beFAQ 9.1.blFAQ 8.3.bqFAQ 8.3.bwFAQ 8.2.dhFAQ 8.2.dqFAQ 8.1.ejFAQ 8.1.euFAQ 7.3.eyFAQ 7.3.fhFAQ 7.2.fvFAQ 7.2.gdFAQ 7.1.guFAQ 7.1.hdFAQ 6.2.ibFAQ 6.2.ikFAQ 6.1.@.265FAQ 6.1.@.274FAQ 5.4.@.277FAQ 5.4.@.298FAQ 5.3.@.301FAQ 5.3.@.353FAQ 5.2.@.356FAQ 5.2.@.374FAQ 5.1.@.377FAQ 5.1.@.410FAQ 4.3.@.420FAQ 4.3.@.429FAQ 4.2.@.477FAQ 4.2.@.485FAQ 4.1.@.509FAQ 4.1.@.516FAQ 3.3.@.528FAQ 3.3.@.536FAQ 3.2.@.557FAQ 3.2.@.558FAQ 3.2.@.565FAQ 3.1.@.570FAQ 3.1.@.578FAQ 2.2.@.602FAQ 2.2.@.611FAQ 2.1.@.621FAQ 2.1.@.630FAQ 1.3.@.662FAQ 1.3.@.670FAQ 1.2.@.678FAQ 1.2.@.688FAQ 1.1.@.742FAQ 1.1.@.751FAQ 12.3.@.754FAQ 12.2.@.755FAQ 12.1.@.756FAQ 11.3.@.757FAQ 11.2.@.758FAQ 11.1.@.759FAQ 10.2.@.760FAQ 10.1.@.761FAQ 9.3.@.762FAQ 9.2.@.763FAQ 9.1.@.764FAQ 8.3.@.765FAQ 8.2.@.766FAQ 8.1.@.767FAQ 7.3.@.768FAQ 7.2.@.769FAQ 7.1.@.770FAQ 6.2.@.771FAQ 6.1.@.772FAQ 5.4.@.773FAQ 5.3.@.774FAQ 5.2.@.775FAQ 5.1.@.776FAQ 4.3.@.777FAQ 4.2.@.778FAQ 4.1.@.779FAQ 3.3.@.780FAQ 3.2.@.781FAQ 3.1.@.782FAQ 2.2.@.783FAQ 2.1.@.784FAQ 1.3.@.785FAQ 1.2.@.786FAQ 1.1.@.787The development, delivery, and use of climate change information requires engaging all parties involved: those producing the climate data and related knowledge, those communicating it, and those who combine that information with their knowledge of the community, region or activity that climate change may impact. To be successful, these parties need to work together to explore the climate data and thus co-develop the climate information needed to make decisions or solve problems, distilling output from the various sources of climate knowledge into relevant climate information. Effective partnerships recognize and respond to the diversity of all parties involved (including their values, beliefs and interests), especially when they involve culturally diverse communities and their indigenous and local knowledge of weather, climate and their society. This is particularly true for climate change – a global issue posing challenges that vary by region. By recognizing this diversity, climate information can be relevant and credible, most notably when conveying the complexity of risks for human systems and ecosystems and for building resilience.

FAQ 10.1.cFAQ 9.3.zFAQ 9.3.ajFAQ 9.2.aoFAQ 9.2.axFAQ 9.1.bfFAQ 9.1.bmFAQ 8.3.brFAQ 8.3.bxFAQ 8.2.diFAQ 8.2.drFAQ 8.1.ekFAQ 8.1.evFAQ 7.3.ezFAQ 7.3.fiFAQ 7.2.fwFAQ 7.2.geFAQ 7.1.gvFAQ 7.1.heFAQ 6.2.icFAQ 6.2.ilFAQ 6.1.@.266FAQ 6.1.@.275FAQ 5.4.@.278FAQ 5.4.@.299FAQ 5.3.@.302FAQ 5.3.@.354FAQ 5.2.@.357FAQ 5.2.@.375FAQ 5.1.@.378FAQ 5.1.@.411FAQ 4.3.@.421FAQ 4.3.@.430FAQ 4.2.@.478FAQ 4.2.@.486FAQ 4.1.@.510FAQ 4.1.@.517FAQ 3.3.@.529FAQ 3.3.@.537FAQ 3.2.@.558FAQ 3.2.@.559FAQ 3.2.@.566FAQ 3.1.@.571FAQ 3.1.@.579FAQ 2.2.@.603FAQ 2.2.@.612FAQ 2.1.@.622FAQ 2.1.@.631FAQ 1.3.@.663FAQ 1.3.@.671FAQ 1.2.@.679FAQ 1.2.@.689FAQ 1.1.@.743FAQ 1.1.@.752FAQ 12.3.@.755FAQ 12.2.@.756FAQ 12.1.@.757FAQ 11.3.@.758FAQ 11.2.@.759FAQ 11.1.@.760FAQ 10.2.@.761FAQ 10.1.@.762FAQ 9.3.@.763FAQ 9.2.@.764FAQ 9.1.@.765FAQ 8.3.@.766FAQ 8.2.@.767FAQ 8.1.@.768FAQ 7.3.@.769FAQ 7.2.@.770FAQ 7.1.@.771FAQ 6.2.@.772FAQ 6.1.@.773FAQ 5.4.@.774FAQ 5.3.@.775FAQ 5.2.@.776FAQ 5.1.@.777FAQ 4.3.@.778FAQ 4.2.@.779FAQ 4.1.@.780FAQ 3.3.@.781FAQ 3.2.@.782FAQ 3.1.@.783FAQ 2.2.@.784FAQ 2.1.@.785FAQ 1.3.@.786FAQ 1.2.@.787FAQ 1.1.@.788Constructing useful climate information requires considering all available sources in order to capture the fullest possible representation of projected changes and distilling the information in a way that meets the needs of the stakeholders and communities impacted by the changes. For example, climate scientists can provide information on future changes by using simulations of global and/or regional climate and inferring changes in the weather behaviour influencing a region. An effective distillation process (FAQ 10.1, Figure 1) engages with the intended recipients of the information, especially stakeholders whose work involves non-climatic factors, such as human health, agriculture or water resources. The distillation evaluates the accuracy of all information sources (observations, simulations, expert judgement), weighs the credibility of possible conflicting information, and arrives at climate information that includes estimating the confidence a user should have in it. Producers of climate data should further recognize that the geographic regions and time periods governing stakeholders’ interest (for example, the growing season of an agricultural zone) may not align well with the time and space resolution of available climate data; thus additional model development or data processing may be required to extract useful climate information.

FAQ 10.1.dFAQ 9.3.aaFAQ 9.3.akFAQ 9.2.apFAQ 9.2.ayFAQ 9.1.bgFAQ 9.1.bnFAQ 8.3.bsFAQ 8.3.byFAQ 8.2.djFAQ 8.2.dsFAQ 8.1.elFAQ 8.1.ewFAQ 7.3.faFAQ 7.3.fjFAQ 7.2.fxFAQ 7.2.gfFAQ 7.1.gwFAQ 7.1.hfFAQ 6.2.idFAQ 6.2.imFAQ 6.1.@.267FAQ 6.1.@.276FAQ 5.4.@.279FAQ 5.4.@.300FAQ 5.3.@.303FAQ 5.3.@.355FAQ 5.2.@.358FAQ 5.2.@.376FAQ 5.1.@.379FAQ 5.1.@.412FAQ 4.3.@.422FAQ 4.3.@.431FAQ 4.2.@.479FAQ 4.2.@.487FAQ 4.1.@.511FAQ 4.1.@.518FAQ 3.3.@.530FAQ 3.3.@.538FAQ 3.2.@.559FAQ 3.2.@.560FAQ 3.2.@.567FAQ 3.1.@.572FAQ 3.1.@.580FAQ 2.2.@.604FAQ 2.2.@.613FAQ 2.1.@.623FAQ 2.1.@.632FAQ 1.3.@.664FAQ 1.3.@.672FAQ 1.2.@.680FAQ 1.2.@.690FAQ 1.1.@.744FAQ 1.1.@.753FAQ 12.3.@.756FAQ 12.2.@.757FAQ 12.1.@.758FAQ 11.3.@.759FAQ 11.2.@.760FAQ 11.1.@.761FAQ 10.2.@.762FAQ 10.1.@.763FAQ 9.3.@.764FAQ 9.2.@.765FAQ 9.1.@.766FAQ 8.3.@.767FAQ 8.2.@.768FAQ 8.1.@.769FAQ 7.3.@.770FAQ 7.2.@.771FAQ 7.1.@.772FAQ 6.2.@.773FAQ 6.1.@.774FAQ 5.4.@.775FAQ 5.3.@.776FAQ 5.2.@.777FAQ 5.1.@.778FAQ 4.3.@.779FAQ 4.2.@.780FAQ 4.1.@.781FAQ 3.3.@.782FAQ 3.2.@.783FAQ 3.1.@.784FAQ 2.2.@.785FAQ 2.1.@.786FAQ 1.3.@.787FAQ 1.2.@.788FAQ 1.1.@.789One way to distil complex information for stakeholder applications is to connect this information to experiences stakeholders have already had through storylines as plausible unfoldings of weather and climate events related to stakeholders’ experiences. Dialogue between stakeholders and climate scientists can determine the most relevant experiences to evaluate for possible future behaviour. The development of storylines uses the experience and expertise of stakeholders, such as water-resource managers and health professionals, who seek to develop appropriate response measures. Storylines are thus a pathway through the distillation process that can make climate information more accessible and physically comprehensible. For example, a storyline may take a common experience like an extended drought, with depleted water availability and damaged crops, and show how droughts may change in the future, perhaps with even greater precipitation deficits or longer duration. With appropriate choices, storylines can engage nuances of the climate information in a meaningful way by building on common experiences, thus enhancing the information’s usefulness.

FAQ 10.1.eFAQ 9.3.abFAQ 9.3.alFAQ 9.2.aqFAQ 9.2.azFAQ 9.1.bhFAQ 9.1.boFAQ 8.3.btFAQ 8.3.bzFAQ 8.2.dkFAQ 8.2.dtFAQ 8.1.emFAQ 8.1.exFAQ 7.3.fbFAQ 7.3.fkFAQ 7.2.fyFAQ 7.2.ggFAQ 7.1.gxFAQ 7.1.hgFAQ 6.2.ieFAQ 6.2.inFAQ 6.1.@.268FAQ 6.1.@.277FAQ 5.4.@.280FAQ 5.4.@.301FAQ 5.3.@.304FAQ 5.3.@.356FAQ 5.2.@.359FAQ 5.2.@.377FAQ 5.1.@.380FAQ 5.1.@.413FAQ 4.3.@.423FAQ 4.3.@.432FAQ 4.2.@.480FAQ 4.2.@.488FAQ 4.1.@.512FAQ 4.1.@.519FAQ 3.3.@.531FAQ 3.3.@.539FAQ 3.2.@.560FAQ 3.2.@.561FAQ 3.2.@.568FAQ 3.1.@.573FAQ 3.1.@.581FAQ 2.2.@.605FAQ 2.2.@.614FAQ 2.1.@.624FAQ 2.1.@.633FAQ 1.3.@.665FAQ 1.3.@.673FAQ 1.2.@.681FAQ 1.2.@.691FAQ 1.1.@.745FAQ 1.1.@.754FAQ 12.3.@.757FAQ 12.2.@.758FAQ 12.1.@.759FAQ 11.3.@.760FAQ 11.2.@.761FAQ 11.1.@.762FAQ 10.2.@.763FAQ 10.1.@.764FAQ 9.3.@.765FAQ 9.2.@.766FAQ 9.1.@.767FAQ 8.3.@.768FAQ 8.2.@.769FAQ 8.1.@.770FAQ 7.3.@.771FAQ 7.2.@.772FAQ 7.1.@.773FAQ 6.2.@.774FAQ 6.1.@.775FAQ 5.4.@.776FAQ 5.3.@.777FAQ 5.2.@.778FAQ 5.1.@.779FAQ 4.3.@.780FAQ 4.2.@.781FAQ 4.1.@.782FAQ 3.3.@.783FAQ 3.2.@.784FAQ 3.1.@.785FAQ 2.2.@.786FAQ 2.1.@.787FAQ 1.3.@.788FAQ 1.2.@.789FAQ 1.1.@.790Forging partnerships among all involved with producing, exploring and distilling climate data into climate information is at the centre of creating stakeholder-relevant information. These partnerships can occur through direct interaction between climate scientists and stakeholders as well as through organizations that have emerged to facilitate this process, such as climate services, national and regional climate forums, and consulting firms providing specialized climate information. These so-called ‘boundary organizations’ can serve the varied needs of all who would fold climate information into their decision processes. All of these partnerships are vital

FAQ 10.1.fFAQ 9.3.acFAQ 9.3.amFAQ 9.2.arFAQ 9.2.baFAQ 9.1.biFAQ 9.1.bpFAQ 8.3.buFAQ 8.3.caFAQ 8.2.dlFAQ 8.2.duFAQ 8.1.enFAQ 8.1.eyFAQ 7.3.fcFAQ 7.3.flFAQ 7.2.fzFAQ 7.2.ghFAQ 7.1.gyFAQ 7.1.hhFAQ 6.2.ifFAQ 6.2.ioFAQ 6.1.@.269FAQ 6.1.@.278FAQ 5.4.@.281FAQ 5.4.@.302FAQ 5.3.@.305FAQ 5.3.@.357FAQ 5.2.@.360FAQ 5.2.@.378FAQ 5.1.@.381FAQ 5.1.@.414FAQ 4.3.@.424FAQ 4.3.@.433FAQ 4.2.@.481FAQ 4.2.@.489FAQ 4.1.@.513FAQ 4.1.@.520FAQ 3.3.@.532FAQ 3.3.@.540FAQ 3.2.@.561FAQ 3.2.@.562FAQ 3.2.@.569FAQ 3.1.@.574FAQ 3.1.@.582FAQ 2.2.@.606FAQ 2.2.@.615FAQ 2.1.@.625FAQ 2.1.@.634FAQ 1.3.@.666FAQ 1.3.@.674FAQ 1.2.@.682FAQ 1.2.@.692FAQ 1.1.@.746FAQ 1.1.@.755FAQ 12.3.@.758FAQ 12.2.@.759FAQ 12.1.@.760FAQ 11.3.@.761FAQ 11.2.@.762FAQ 11.1.@.763FAQ 10.2.@.764FAQ 10.1.@.765FAQ 9.3.@.766FAQ 9.2.@.767FAQ 9.1.@.768FAQ 8.3.@.769FAQ 8.2.@.770FAQ 8.1.@.771FAQ 7.3.@.772FAQ 7.2.@.773FAQ 7.1.@.774FAQ 6.2.@.775FAQ 6.1.@.776FAQ 5.4.@.777FAQ 5.3.@.778FAQ 5.2.@.779FAQ 5.1.@.780FAQ 4.3.@.781FAQ 4.2.@.782FAQ 4.1.@.783FAQ 3.3.@.784FAQ 3.2.@.785FAQ 3.1.@.786FAQ 2.2.@.787FAQ 2.1.@.788FAQ 1.3.@.789FAQ 1.2.@.790FAQ 1.1.@.791FAQ

FAQ 10.1.gFAQ 9.3.adFAQ 9.3.anFAQ 9.2.asFAQ 9.2.bbFAQ 9.1.bjFAQ 9.1.bqFAQ 8.3.bvFAQ 8.3.cbFAQ 8.2.dmFAQ 8.2.dvFAQ 8.1.eoFAQ 8.1.ezFAQ 7.3.fdFAQ 7.3.fmFAQ 7.2.gaFAQ 7.2.giFAQ 7.1.gzFAQ 7.1.hiFAQ 6.2.igFAQ 6.2.ipFAQ 6.1.@.270FAQ 6.1.@.279FAQ 5.4.@.282FAQ 5.4.@.303FAQ 5.3.@.306FAQ 5.3.@.358FAQ 5.2.@.361FAQ 5.2.@.379FAQ 5.1.@.382FAQ 5.1.@.415FAQ 4.3.@.425FAQ 4.3.@.434FAQ 4.2.@.482FAQ 4.2.@.490FAQ 4.1.@.514FAQ 4.1.@.521FAQ 3.3.@.533FAQ 3.3.@.541FAQ 3.2.@.562FAQ 3.2.@.563FAQ 3.2.@.570FAQ 3.1.@.575FAQ 3.1.@.583FAQ 2.2.@.607FAQ 2.2.@.616FAQ 2.1.@.626FAQ 2.1.@.635FAQ 1.3.@.667FAQ 1.3.@.675FAQ 1.2.@.683FAQ 1.2.@.693FAQ 1.1.@.747FAQ 1.1.@.756FAQ 12.3.@.759FAQ 12.2.@.760FAQ 12.1.@.761FAQ 11.3.@.762FAQ 11.2.@.763FAQ 11.1.@.764FAQ 10.2.@.765FAQ 10.1.@.766FAQ 9.3.@.767FAQ 9.2.@.768FAQ 9.1.@.769FAQ 8.3.@.770FAQ 8.2.@.771FAQ 8.1.@.772FAQ 7.3.@.773FAQ 7.2.@.774FAQ 7.1.@.775FAQ 6.2.@.776FAQ 6.1.@.777FAQ 5.4.@.778FAQ 5.3.@.779FAQ 5.2.@.780FAQ 5.1.@.781FAQ 4.3.@.782FAQ 4.2.@.783FAQ 4.1.@.784FAQ 3.3.@.785FAQ 3.2.@.786FAQ 3.1.@.787FAQ 2.2.@.788FAQ 2.1.@.789FAQ 1.3.@.790FAQ 1.2.@.791FAQ 1.1.@.792FAQ 10.1 (continued)for arriving at climate information that responds to physical and cultural diversity and to challenges posed by climate change that can vary region-by-region around the world.

FAQ 10.1.aFAQ 10.1.hFAQ 9.3.aeFAQ 9.3.aoFAQ 9.2.atFAQ 9.2.bcFAQ 9.1.bkFAQ 9.1.brFAQ 8.3.bwFAQ 8.3.ccFAQ 8.2.dnFAQ 8.2.dwFAQ 8.1.epFAQ 8.1.faFAQ 7.3.feFAQ 7.3.fnFAQ 7.2.gbFAQ 7.2.gjFAQ 7.1.haFAQ 7.1.hjFAQ 6.2.ihFAQ 6.2.iqFAQ 6.1.@.271FAQ 6.1.@.280FAQ 5.4.@.283FAQ 5.4.@.304FAQ 5.3.@.307FAQ 5.3.@.359FAQ 5.2.@.362FAQ 5.2.@.380FAQ 5.1.@.383FAQ 5.1.@.416FAQ 4.3.@.426FAQ 4.3.@.435FAQ 4.2.@.483FAQ 4.2.@.491FAQ 4.1.@.515FAQ 4.1.@.522FAQ 3.3.@.534FAQ 3.3.@.542FAQ 3.2.@.563FAQ 3.2.@.564FAQ 3.2.@.571FAQ 3.1.@.576FAQ 3.1.@.584FAQ 2.2.@.608FAQ 2.2.@.617FAQ 2.1.@.627FAQ 2.1.@.636FAQ 1.3.@.668FAQ 1.3.@.676FAQ 1.2.@.684FAQ 1.2.@.694FAQ 1.1.@.748FAQ 1.1.@.757FAQ 12.3.@.760FAQ 12.2.@.761FAQ 12.1.@.762FAQ 11.3.@.763FAQ 11.2.@.764FAQ 11.1.@.765FAQ 10.2.@.766FAQ 10.1.@.767FAQ 9.3.@.768FAQ 9.2.@.769FAQ 9.1.@.770FAQ 8.3.@.771FAQ 8.2.@.772FAQ 8.1.@.773FAQ 7.3.@.774FAQ 7.2.@.775FAQ 7.1.@.776FAQ 6.2.@.777FAQ 6.1.@.778FAQ 5.4.@.779FAQ 5.3.@.780FAQ 5.2.@.781FAQ 5.1.@.782FAQ 4.3.@.783FAQ 4.2.@.784FAQ 4.1.@.785FAQ 3.3.@.786FAQ 3.2.@.787FAQ 3.1.@.788FAQ 2.2.@.789FAQ 2.1.@.790FAQ 1.3.@.791FAQ 1.2.@.792FAQ 1.1.@.793FAQ 10.1, Figure 1 | Climate information for decision makers is more useful if the physical and cultural diversity across the world is considered. The figure illustrates schematically the broad range of knowledge that must be blended with the diversity of users to distil information that will have relevance and credibility. This blending or distillation should engage the values and knowledge of both the stakeholders and the scientists. The bottom row contains examples of stakeholders’ interests and is not all-inclusive. As part of the distillation, the outcomes can advance the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, covered in part by these examples.

FAQ 10.1.bFAQ 10.1.iFAQ 9.3.afFAQ 9.3.apFAQ 9.2.auFAQ 9.2.bdFAQ 9.1.blFAQ 9.1.bsFAQ 8.3.bxFAQ 8.3.cdFAQ 8.2.doFAQ 8.2.dxFAQ 8.1.eqFAQ 8.1.fbFAQ 7.3.ffFAQ 7.3.foFAQ 7.2.gcFAQ 7.2.gkFAQ 7.1.hbFAQ 7.1.hkFAQ 6.2.iiFAQ 6.2.irFAQ 6.1.@.272FAQ 6.1.@.281FAQ 5.4.@.284FAQ 5.4.@.305FAQ 5.3.@.308FAQ 5.3.@.360FAQ 5.2.@.363FAQ 5.2.@.381FAQ 5.1.@.384FAQ 5.1.@.417FAQ 4.3.@.427FAQ 4.3.@.436FAQ 4.2.@.484FAQ 4.2.@.492FAQ 4.1.@.516FAQ 4.1.@.523FAQ 3.3.@.535FAQ 3.3.@.543FAQ 3.2.@.564FAQ 3.2.@.565FAQ 3.2.@.572FAQ 3.1.@.577FAQ 3.1.@.585FAQ 2.2.@.609FAQ 2.2.@.618FAQ 2.1.@.628FAQ 2.1.@.637FAQ 1.3.@.669FAQ 1.3.@.677FAQ 1.2.@.685FAQ 1.2.@.695FAQ 1.1.@.749FAQ 1.1.@.758FAQ 12.3.@.761FAQ 12.2.@.762FAQ 12.1.@.763FAQ 11.3.@.764FAQ 11.2.@.765FAQ 11.1.@.766FAQ 10.2.@.767FAQ 10.1.@.768FAQ 9.3.@.769FAQ 9.2.@.770FAQ 9.1.@.771FAQ 8.3.@.772FAQ 8.2.@.773FAQ 8.1.@.774FAQ 7.3.@.775FAQ 7.2.@.776FAQ 7.1.@.777FAQ 6.2.@.778FAQ 6.1.@.779FAQ 5.4.@.780FAQ 5.3.@.781FAQ 5.2.@.782FAQ 5.1.@.783FAQ 4.3.@.784FAQ 4.2.@.785FAQ 4.1.@.786FAQ 3.3.@.787FAQ 3.2.@.788FAQ 3.1.@.789FAQ 2.2.@.790FAQ 2.1.@.791FAQ 1.3.@.792FAQ 1.2.@.793FAQ 1.1.@.794Climate simulations

FAQ 10.1.cFAQ 10.1.jFAQ 9.3.agFAQ 9.3.aqFAQ 9.2.avFAQ 9.2.beFAQ 9.1.bmFAQ 9.1.btFAQ 8.3.byFAQ 8.3.ceFAQ 8.2.dpFAQ 8.2.dyFAQ 8.1.erFAQ 8.1.fcFAQ 7.3.fgFAQ 7.3.fpFAQ 7.2.gdFAQ 7.2.glFAQ 7.1.hcFAQ 7.1.hlFAQ 6.2.ijFAQ 6.2.isFAQ 6.1.@.273FAQ 6.1.@.282FAQ 5.4.@.285FAQ 5.4.@.306FAQ 5.3.@.309FAQ 5.3.@.361FAQ 5.2.@.364FAQ 5.2.@.382FAQ 5.1.@.385FAQ 5.1.@.418FAQ 4.3.@.428FAQ 4.3.@.437FAQ 4.2.@.485FAQ 4.2.@.493FAQ 4.1.@.517FAQ 4.1.@.524FAQ 3.3.@.536FAQ 3.3.@.544FAQ 3.2.@.565FAQ 3.2.@.566FAQ 3.2.@.573FAQ 3.1.@.578FAQ 3.1.@.586FAQ 2.2.@.610FAQ 2.2.@.619FAQ 2.1.@.629FAQ 2.1.@.638FAQ 1.3.@.670FAQ 1.3.@.678FAQ 1.2.@.686FAQ 1.2.@.696FAQ 1.1.@.750FAQ 1.1.@.759FAQ 12.3.@.762FAQ 12.2.@.763FAQ 12.1.@.764FAQ 11.3.@.765FAQ 11.2.@.766FAQ 11.1.@.767FAQ 10.2.@.768FAQ 10.1.@.769FAQ 9.3.@.770FAQ 9.2.@.771FAQ 9.1.@.772FAQ 8.3.@.773FAQ 8.2.@.774FAQ 8.1.@.775FAQ 7.3.@.776FAQ 7.2.@.777FAQ 7.1.@.778FAQ 6.2.@.779FAQ 6.1.@.780FAQ 5.4.@.781FAQ 5.3.@.782FAQ 5.2.@.783FAQ 5.1.@.784FAQ 4.3.@.785FAQ 4.2.@.786FAQ 4.1.@.787FAQ 3.3.@.788FAQ 3.2.@.789FAQ 3.1.@.790FAQ 2.2.@.791FAQ 2.1.@.792FAQ 1.3.@.793FAQ 1.2.@.794FAQ 1.1.@.795Human healthAgricultureWater resourcesTransportation

FAQ 10.1.dFAQ 10.1.kFAQ 9.3.ahFAQ 9.3.arFAQ 9.2.awFAQ 9.2.bfFAQ 9.1.bnFAQ 9.1.buFAQ 8.3.bzFAQ 8.3.cfFAQ 8.2.dqFAQ 8.2.dzFAQ 8.1.esFAQ 8.1.fdFAQ 7.3.fhFAQ 7.3.fqFAQ 7.2.geFAQ 7.2.gmFAQ 7.1.hdFAQ 7.1.hmFAQ 6.2.ikFAQ 6.2.itFAQ 6.1.@.274FAQ 6.1.@.283FAQ 5.4.@.286FAQ 5.4.@.307FAQ 5.3.@.310FAQ 5.3.@.362FAQ 5.2.@.365FAQ 5.2.@.383FAQ 5.1.@.386FAQ 5.1.@.419FAQ 4.3.@.429FAQ 4.3.@.438FAQ 4.2.@.486FAQ 4.2.@.494FAQ 4.1.@.518FAQ 4.1.@.525FAQ 3.3.@.537FAQ 3.3.@.545FAQ 3.2.@.566FAQ 3.2.@.567FAQ 3.2.@.574FAQ 3.1.@.579FAQ 3.1.@.587FAQ 2.2.@.611FAQ 2.2.@.620FAQ 2.1.@.630FAQ 2.1.@.639FAQ 1.3.@.671FAQ 1.3.@.679FAQ 1.2.@.687FAQ 1.2.@.697FAQ 1.1.@.751FAQ 1.1.@.760FAQ 12.3.@.763FAQ 12.2.@.764FAQ 12.1.@.765FAQ 11.3.@.766FAQ 11.2.@.767FAQ 11.1.@.768FAQ 10.2.@.769FAQ 10.1.@.770FAQ 9.3.@.771FAQ 9.2.@.772FAQ 9.1.@.773FAQ 8.3.@.774FAQ 8.2.@.775FAQ 8.1.@.776FAQ 7.3.@.777FAQ 7.2.@.778FAQ 7.1.@.779FAQ 6.2.@.780FAQ 6.1.@.781FAQ 5.4.@.782FAQ 5.3.@.783FAQ 5.2.@.784FAQ 5.1.@.785FAQ 4.3.@.786FAQ 4.2.@.787FAQ 4.1.@.788FAQ 3.3.@.789FAQ 3.2.@.790FAQ 3.1.@.791FAQ 2.2.@.792FAQ 2.1.@.793FAQ 1.3.@.794FAQ 1.2.@.795FAQ 1.1.@.796Distillationinvolving scientists and stakeholders

FAQ 10.1.eFAQ 10.1.lFAQ 9.3.aiFAQ 9.3.asFAQ 9.2.axFAQ 9.2.bgFAQ 9.1.boFAQ 9.1.bvFAQ 8.3.caFAQ 8.3.cgFAQ 8.2.drFAQ 8.2.eaFAQ 8.1.etFAQ 8.1.feFAQ 7.3.fiFAQ 7.3.frFAQ 7.2.gfFAQ 7.2.gnFAQ 7.1.heFAQ 7.1.hnFAQ 6.2.ilFAQ 6.2.iuFAQ 6.1.@.275FAQ 6.1.@.284FAQ 5.4.@.287FAQ 5.4.@.308FAQ 5.3.@.311FAQ 5.3.@.363FAQ 5.2.@.366FAQ 5.2.@.384FAQ 5.1.@.387FAQ 5.1.@.420FAQ 4.3.@.430FAQ 4.3.@.439FAQ 4.2.@.487FAQ 4.2.@.495FAQ 4.1.@.519FAQ 4.1.@.526FAQ 3.3.@.538FAQ 3.3.@.546FAQ 3.2.@.567FAQ 3.2.@.568FAQ 3.2.@.575FAQ 3.1.@.580FAQ 3.1.@.588FAQ 2.2.@.612FAQ 2.2.@.621FAQ 2.1.@.631FAQ 2.1.@.640FAQ 1.3.@.672FAQ 1.3.@.680FAQ 1.2.@.688FAQ 1.2.@.698FAQ 1.1.@.752FAQ 1.1.@.761FAQ 12.3.@.764FAQ 12.2.@.765FAQ 12.1.@.766FAQ 11.3.@.767FAQ 11.2.@.768FAQ 11.1.@.769FAQ 10.2.@.770FAQ 10.1.@.771FAQ 9.3.@.772FAQ 9.2.@.773FAQ 9.1.@.774FAQ 8.3.@.775FAQ 8.2.@.776FAQ 8.1.@.777FAQ 7.3.@.778FAQ 7.2.@.779FAQ 7.1.@.780FAQ 6.2.@.781FAQ 6.1.@.782FAQ 5.4.@.783FAQ 5.3.@.784FAQ 5.2.@.785FAQ 5.1.@.786FAQ 4.3.@.787FAQ 4.2.@.788FAQ 4.1.@.789FAQ 3.3.@.790FAQ 3.2.@.791FAQ 3.1.@.792FAQ 2.2.@.793FAQ 2.1.@.794FAQ 1.3.@.795FAQ 1.2.@.796FAQ 1.1.@.797Fisheries management Natural ecosystems Human habitationsEnergy resources

FAQ 10.1.fFAQ 10.1.mFAQ 9.3.ajFAQ 9.3.atFAQ 9.2.ayFAQ 9.2.bhFAQ 9.1.bpFAQ 9.1.bwFAQ 8.3.cbFAQ 8.3.chFAQ 8.2.dsFAQ 8.2.ebFAQ 8.1.euFAQ 8.1.ffFAQ 7.3.fjFAQ 7.3.fsFAQ 7.2.ggFAQ 7.2.goFAQ 7.1.hfFAQ 7.1.hoFAQ 6.2.imFAQ 6.2.ivFAQ 6.1.@.276FAQ 6.1.@.285FAQ 5.4.@.288FAQ 5.4.@.309FAQ 5.3.@.312FAQ 5.3.@.364FAQ 5.2.@.367FAQ 5.2.@.385FAQ 5.1.@.388FAQ 5.1.@.421FAQ 4.3.@.431FAQ 4.3.@.440FAQ 4.2.@.488FAQ 4.2.@.496FAQ 4.1.@.520FAQ 4.1.@.527FAQ 3.3.@.539FAQ 3.3.@.547FAQ 3.2.@.568FAQ 3.2.@.569FAQ 3.2.@.576FAQ 3.1.@.581FAQ 3.1.@.589FAQ 2.2.@.613FAQ 2.2.@.622FAQ 2.1.@.632FAQ 2.1.@.641FAQ 1.3.@.673FAQ 1.3.@.681FAQ 1.2.@.689FAQ 1.2.@.699FAQ 1.1.@.753FAQ 1.1.@.762FAQ 12.3.@.765FAQ 12.2.@.766FAQ 12.1.@.767FAQ 11.3.@.768FAQ 11.2.@.769FAQ 11.1.@.770FAQ 10.2.@.771FAQ 10.1.@.772FAQ 9.3.@.773FAQ 9.2.@.774FAQ 9.1.@.775FAQ 8.3.@.776FAQ 8.2.@.777FAQ 8.1.@.778FAQ 7.3.@.779FAQ 7.2.@.780FAQ 7.1.@.781FAQ 6.2.@.782FAQ 6.1.@.783FAQ 5.4.@.784FAQ 5.3.@.785FAQ 5.2.@.786FAQ 5.1.@.787FAQ 4.3.@.788FAQ 4.2.@.789FAQ 4.1.@.790FAQ 3.3.@.791FAQ 3.2.@.792FAQ 3.1.@.793FAQ 2.2.@.794FAQ 2.1.@.795FAQ 1.3.@.796FAQ 1.2.@.797FAQ 1.1.@.798Historical trends and observations

FAQ 10.1.gFAQ 10.1.nFAQ 9.3.akFAQ 9.3.auFAQ 9.2.azFAQ 9.2.biFAQ 9.1.bqFAQ 9.1.bxFAQ 8.3.ccFAQ 8.3.ciFAQ 8.2.dtFAQ 8.2.ecFAQ 8.1.evFAQ 8.1.fgFAQ 7.3.fkFAQ 7.3.ftFAQ 7.2.ghFAQ 7.2.gpFAQ 7.1.hgFAQ 7.1.hpFAQ 6.2.inFAQ 6.2.@.256FAQ 6.1.@.277FAQ 6.1.@.286FAQ 5.4.@.289FAQ 5.4.@.310FAQ 5.3.@.313FAQ 5.3.@.365FAQ 5.2.@.368FAQ 5.2.@.386FAQ 5.1.@.389FAQ 5.1.@.422FAQ 4.3.@.432FAQ 4.3.@.441FAQ 4.2.@.489FAQ 4.2.@.497FAQ 4.1.@.521FAQ 4.1.@.528FAQ 3.3.@.540FAQ 3.3.@.548FAQ 3.2.@.569FAQ 3.2.@.570FAQ 3.2.@.577FAQ 3.1.@.582FAQ 3.1.@.590FAQ 2.2.@.614FAQ 2.2.@.623FAQ 2.1.@.633FAQ 2.1.@.642FAQ 1.3.@.674FAQ 1.3.@.682FAQ 1.2.@.690FAQ 1.2.@.700FAQ 1.1.@.754FAQ 1.1.@.763FAQ 12.3.@.766FAQ 12.2.@.767FAQ 12.1.@.768FAQ 11.3.@.769FAQ 11.2.@.770FAQ 11.1.@.771FAQ 10.2.@.772FAQ 10.1.@.773FAQ 9.3.@.774FAQ 9.2.@.775FAQ 9.1.@.776FAQ 8.3.@.777FAQ 8.2.@.778FAQ 8.1.@.779FAQ 7.3.@.780FAQ 7.2.@.781FAQ 7.1.@.782FAQ 6.2.@.783FAQ 6.1.@.784FAQ 5.4.@.785FAQ 5.3.@.786FAQ 5.2.@.787FAQ 5.1.@.788FAQ 4.3.@.789FAQ 4.2.@.790FAQ 4.1.@.791FAQ 3.3.@.792FAQ 3.2.@.793FAQ 3.1.@.794FAQ 2.2.@.795FAQ 2.1.@.796FAQ 1.3.@.797FAQ 1.2.@.798FAQ 1.1.@.799Storylines of complex, high impact events

FAQ 10.1.hFAQ 10.1.oFAQ 9.3.alFAQ 9.3.avFAQ 9.2.baFAQ 9.2.bjFAQ 9.1.brFAQ 9.1.byFAQ 8.3.cdFAQ 8.3.cjFAQ 8.2.duFAQ 8.2.edFAQ 8.1.ewFAQ 8.1.fhFAQ 7.3.flFAQ 7.3.fuFAQ 7.2.giFAQ 7.2.gqFAQ 7.1.hhFAQ 7.1.hqFAQ 6.2.ioFAQ 6.2.@.257FAQ 6.1.@.278FAQ 6.1.@.287FAQ 5.4.@.290FAQ 5.4.@.311FAQ 5.3.@.314FAQ 5.3.@.366FAQ 5.2.@.369FAQ 5.2.@.387FAQ 5.1.@.390FAQ 5.1.@.423FAQ 4.3.@.433FAQ 4.3.@.442FAQ 4.2.@.490FAQ 4.2.@.498FAQ 4.1.@.522FAQ 4.1.@.529FAQ 3.3.@.541FAQ 3.3.@.549FAQ 3.2.@.570FAQ 3.2.@.571FAQ 3.2.@.578FAQ 3.1.@.583FAQ 3.1.@.591FAQ 2.2.@.615FAQ 2.2.@.624FAQ 2.1.@.634FAQ 2.1.@.643FAQ 1.3.@.675FAQ 1.3.@.683FAQ 1.2.@.691FAQ 1.2.@.701FAQ 1.1.@.755FAQ 1.1.@.764FAQ 12.3.@.767FAQ 12.2.@.768FAQ 12.1.@.769FAQ 11.3.@.770FAQ 11.2.@.771FAQ 11.1.@.772FAQ 10.2.@.773FAQ 10.1.@.774FAQ 9.3.@.775FAQ 9.2.@.776FAQ 9.1.@.777FAQ 8.3.@.778FAQ 8.2.@.779FAQ 8.1.@.780FAQ 7.3.@.781FAQ 7.2.@.782FAQ 7.1.@.783FAQ 6.2.@.784FAQ 6.1.@.785FAQ 5.4.@.786FAQ 5.3.@.787FAQ 5.2.@.788FAQ 5.1.@.789FAQ 4.3.@.790FAQ 4.2.@.791FAQ 4.1.@.792FAQ 3.3.@.793FAQ 3.2.@.794FAQ 3.1.@.795FAQ 2.2.@.796FAQ 2.1.@.797FAQ 1.3.@.798FAQ 1.2.@.799FAQ 1.1.@.800Dominant weather & climate processes

FAQ 10.1.iFAQ 10.1.pFAQ 9.3.amFAQ 9.3.awFAQ 9.2.bbFAQ 9.2.bkFAQ 9.1.bsFAQ 9.1.bzFAQ 8.3.ceFAQ 8.3.ckFAQ 8.2.dvFAQ 8.2.eeFAQ 8.1.exFAQ 8.1.fiFAQ 7.3.fmFAQ 7.3.fvFAQ 7.2.gjFAQ 7.2.grFAQ 7.1.hiFAQ 7.1.hrFAQ 6.2.ipFAQ 6.2.@.258FAQ 6.1.@.279FAQ 6.1.@.288FAQ 5.4.@.291FAQ 5.4.@.312FAQ 5.3.@.315FAQ 5.3.@.367FAQ 5.2.@.370FAQ 5.2.@.388FAQ 5.1.@.391FAQ 5.1.@.424FAQ 4.3.@.434FAQ 4.3.@.443FAQ 4.2.@.491FAQ 4.2.@.499FAQ 4.1.@.523FAQ 4.1.@.530FAQ 3.3.@.542FAQ 3.3.@.550FAQ 3.2.@.571FAQ 3.2.@.572FAQ 3.2.@.579FAQ 3.1.@.584FAQ 3.1.@.592FAQ 2.2.@.616FAQ 2.2.@.625FAQ 2.1.@.635FAQ 2.1.@.644FAQ 1.3.@.676FAQ 1.3.@.684FAQ 1.2.@.692FAQ 1.2.@.702FAQ 1.1.@.756FAQ 1.1.@.765FAQ 12.3.@.768FAQ 12.2.@.769FAQ 12.1.@.770FAQ 11.3.@.771FAQ 11.2.@.772FAQ 11.1.@.773FAQ 10.2.@.774FAQ 10.1.@.775FAQ 9.3.@.776FAQ 9.2.@.777FAQ 9.1.@.778FAQ 8.3.@.779FAQ 8.2.@.780FAQ 8.1.@.781FAQ 7.3.@.782FAQ 7.2.@.783FAQ 7.1.@.784FAQ 6.2.@.785FAQ 6.1.@.786FAQ 5.4.@.787FAQ 5.3.@.788FAQ 5.2.@.789FAQ 5.1.@.790FAQ 4.3.@.791FAQ 4.2.@.792FAQ 4.1.@.793FAQ 3.3.@.794FAQ 3.2.@.795FAQ 3.1.@.796FAQ 2.2.@.797FAQ 2.1.@.798FAQ 1.3.@.799FAQ 1.2.@.800FAQ 1.1.@.801FAQ 10.1: How can scientists provide useful regional climate information? In decision-making, climate information is more useful if the physical and cultural diversity across the world is considered.

FAQ 10.1.jFAQ 10.1.qFAQ 9.3.anFAQ 9.3.axFAQ 9.2.bcFAQ 9.2.blFAQ 9.1.btFAQ 9.1.caFAQ 8.3.cfFAQ 8.3.clFAQ 8.2.dwFAQ 8.2.efFAQ 8.1.eyFAQ 8.1.fjFAQ 7.3.fnFAQ 7.3.fwFAQ 7.2.gkFAQ 7.2.gsFAQ 7.1.hjFAQ 7.1.hsFAQ 6.2.iqFAQ 6.2.@.259FAQ 6.1.@.280FAQ 6.1.@.289FAQ 5.4.@.292FAQ 5.4.@.313FAQ 5.3.@.316FAQ 5.3.@.368FAQ 5.2.@.371FAQ 5.2.@.389FAQ 5.1.@.392FAQ 5.1.@.425FAQ 4.3.@.435FAQ 4.3.@.444FAQ 4.2.@.492FAQ 4.2.@.500FAQ 4.1.@.524FAQ 4.1.@.531FAQ 3.3.@.543FAQ 3.3.@.551FAQ 3.2.@.572FAQ 3.2.@.573FAQ 3.2.@.580FAQ 3.1.@.585FAQ 3.1.@.593FAQ 2.2.@.617FAQ 2.2.@.626FAQ 2.1.@.636FAQ 2.1.@.645FAQ 1.3.@.677FAQ 1.3.@.685FAQ 1.2.@.693FAQ 1.2.@.703FAQ 1.1.@.757FAQ 1.1.@.766FAQ 12.3.@.769FAQ 12.2.@.770FAQ 12.1.@.771FAQ 11.3.@.772FAQ 11.2.@.773FAQ 11.1.@.774FAQ 10.2.@.775FAQ 10.1.@.776FAQ 9.3.@.777FAQ 9.2.@.778FAQ 9.1.@.779FAQ 8.3.@.780FAQ 8.2.@.781FAQ 8.1.@.782FAQ 7.3.@.783FAQ 7.2.@.784FAQ 7.1.@.785FAQ 6.2.@.786FAQ 6.1.@.787FAQ 5.4.@.788FAQ 5.3.@.789FAQ 5.2.@.790FAQ 5.1.@.791FAQ 4.3.@.792FAQ 4.2.@.793FAQ 4.1.@.794FAQ 3.3.@.795FAQ 3.2.@.796FAQ 3.1.@.797FAQ 2.2.@.798FAQ 2.1.@.799FAQ 1.3.@.800FAQ 1.2.@.801FAQ 1.1.@.802FAQ

FAQ 10.1.kFAQ 10.1.rFAQ 9.3.aoFAQ 9.3.ayFAQ 9.2.bdFAQ 9.2.bmFAQ 9.1.buFAQ 9.1.cbFAQ 8.3.cgFAQ 8.3.cmFAQ 8.2.dxFAQ 8.2.egFAQ 8.1.ezFAQ 8.1.fkFAQ 7.3.foFAQ 7.3.fxFAQ 7.2.glFAQ 7.2.gtFAQ 7.1.hkFAQ 7.1.htFAQ 6.2.irFAQ 6.2.@.260FAQ 6.1.@.281FAQ 6.1.@.290FAQ 5.4.@.293FAQ 5.4.@.314FAQ 5.3.@.317FAQ 5.3.@.369FAQ 5.2.@.372FAQ 5.2.@.390FAQ 5.1.@.393FAQ 5.1.@.426FAQ 4.3.@.436FAQ 4.3.@.445FAQ 4.2.@.493FAQ 4.2.@.501FAQ 4.1.@.525FAQ 4.1.@.532FAQ 3.3.@.544FAQ 3.3.@.552FAQ 3.2.@.573FAQ 3.2.@.574FAQ 3.2.@.581FAQ 3.1.@.586FAQ 3.1.@.594FAQ 2.2.@.618FAQ 2.2.@.627FAQ 2.1.@.637FAQ 2.1.@.646FAQ 1.3.@.678FAQ 1.3.@.686FAQ 1.2.@.694FAQ 1.2.@.704FAQ 1.1.@.758FAQ 1.1.@.767FAQ 12.3.@.770FAQ 12.2.@.771FAQ 12.1.@.772FAQ 11.3.@.773FAQ 11.2.@.774FAQ 11.1.@.775FAQ 10.2.@.776FAQ 10.1.@.777FAQ 9.3.@.778FAQ 9.2.@.779FAQ 9.1.@.780FAQ 8.3.@.781FAQ 8.2.@.782FAQ 8.1.@.783FAQ 7.3.@.784FAQ 7.2.@.785FAQ 7.1.@.786FAQ 6.2.@.787FAQ 6.1.@.788FAQ 5.4.@.789FAQ 5.3.@.790FAQ 5.2.@.791FAQ 5.1.@.792FAQ 4.3.@.793FAQ 4.2.@.794FAQ 4.1.@.795FAQ 3.3.@.796FAQ 3.2.@.797FAQ 3.1.@.798FAQ 2.2.@.799FAQ 2.1.@.800FAQ 1.3.@.801FAQ 1.2.@.802FAQ 1.1.@.803Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 10.1.lFAQ 10.1.sFAQ 9.3.apFAQ 9.3.azFAQ 9.2.beFAQ 9.2.bnFAQ 9.1.bvFAQ 9.1.ccFAQ 8.3.chFAQ 8.3.cnFAQ 8.2.dyFAQ 8.2.ehFAQ 8.1.faFAQ 8.1.flFAQ 7.3.fpFAQ 7.3.fyFAQ 7.2.gmFAQ 7.2.guFAQ 7.1.hlFAQ 7.1.huFAQ 6.2.isFAQ 6.2.@.261FAQ 6.1.@.282FAQ 6.1.@.291FAQ 5.4.@.294FAQ 5.4.@.315FAQ 5.3.@.318FAQ 5.3.@.370FAQ 5.2.@.373FAQ 5.2.@.391FAQ 5.1.@.394FAQ 5.1.@.427FAQ 4.3.@.437FAQ 4.3.@.446FAQ 4.2.@.494FAQ 4.2.@.502FAQ 4.1.@.526FAQ 4.1.@.533FAQ 3.3.@.545FAQ 3.3.@.553FAQ 3.2.@.574FAQ 3.2.@.575FAQ 3.2.@.582FAQ 3.1.@.587FAQ 3.1.@.595FAQ 2.2.@.619FAQ 2.2.@.628FAQ 2.1.@.638FAQ 2.1.@.647FAQ 1.3.@.679FAQ 1.3.@.687FAQ 1.2.@.695FAQ 1.2.@.705FAQ 1.1.@.759FAQ 1.1.@.768FAQ 12.3.@.771FAQ 12.2.@.772FAQ 12.1.@.773FAQ 11.3.@.774FAQ 11.2.@.775FAQ 11.1.@.776FAQ 10.2.@.777FAQ 10.1.@.778FAQ 9.3.@.779FAQ 9.2.@.780FAQ 9.1.@.781FAQ 8.3.@.782FAQ 8.2.@.783FAQ 8.1.@.784FAQ 7.3.@.785FAQ 7.2.@.786FAQ 7.1.@.787FAQ 6.2.@.788FAQ 6.1.@.789FAQ 5.4.@.790FAQ 5.3.@.791FAQ 5.2.@.792FAQ 5.1.@.793FAQ 4.3.@.794FAQ 4.2.@.795FAQ 4.1.@.796FAQ 3.3.@.797FAQ 3.2.@.798FAQ 3.1.@.799FAQ 2.2.@.800FAQ 2.1.@.801FAQ 1.3.@.802FAQ 1.2.@.803FAQ 1.1.@.804FAQ 10.2 | Why Are Cities Hotspots of Global Warming?

FAQ 10.2.aFAQ 10.1.mFAQ 10.1.tFAQ 9.3.aqFAQ 9.3.baFAQ 9.2.bfFAQ 9.2.boFAQ 9.1.bwFAQ 9.1.cdFAQ 8.3.ciFAQ 8.3.coFAQ 8.2.dzFAQ 8.2.eiFAQ 8.1.fbFAQ 8.1.fmFAQ 7.3.fqFAQ 7.3.fzFAQ 7.2.gnFAQ 7.2.gvFAQ 7.1.hmFAQ 7.1.hvFAQ 6.2.itFAQ 6.2.@.262FAQ 6.1.@.283FAQ 6.1.@.292FAQ 5.4.@.295FAQ 5.4.@.316FAQ 5.3.@.319FAQ 5.3.@.371FAQ 5.2.@.374FAQ 5.2.@.392FAQ 5.1.@.395FAQ 5.1.@.428FAQ 4.3.@.438FAQ 4.3.@.447FAQ 4.2.@.495FAQ 4.2.@.503FAQ 4.1.@.527FAQ 4.1.@.534FAQ 3.3.@.546FAQ 3.3.@.554FAQ 3.2.@.575FAQ 3.2.@.576FAQ 3.2.@.583FAQ 3.1.@.588FAQ 3.1.@.596FAQ 2.2.@.620FAQ 2.2.@.629FAQ 2.1.@.639FAQ 2.1.@.648FAQ 1.3.@.680FAQ 1.3.@.688FAQ 1.2.@.696FAQ 1.2.@.706FAQ 1.1.@.760FAQ 1.1.@.769FAQ 12.3.@.772FAQ 12.2.@.773FAQ 12.1.@.774FAQ 11.3.@.775FAQ 11.2.@.776FAQ 11.1.@.777FAQ 10.2.@.778FAQ 10.1.@.779FAQ 9.3.@.780FAQ 9.2.@.781FAQ 9.1.@.782FAQ 8.3.@.783FAQ 8.2.@.784FAQ 8.1.@.785FAQ 7.3.@.786FAQ 7.2.@.787FAQ 7.1.@.788FAQ 6.2.@.789FAQ 6.1.@.790FAQ 5.4.@.791FAQ 5.3.@.792FAQ 5.2.@.793FAQ 5.1.@.794FAQ 4.3.@.795FAQ 4.2.@.796FAQ 4.1.@.797FAQ 3.3.@.798FAQ 3.2.@.799FAQ 3.1.@.800FAQ 2.2.@.801FAQ 2.1.@.802FAQ 1.3.@.803FAQ 1.2.@.804FAQ 1.1.@.805Urban areas experience air temperatures that can be several degrees Celsius warmer than surrounding areas, especially during the night. This ‘urban heat island’ effect results from several factors, including reduced ventilation and heat trapping due to the close proximity of tall buildings, heat generated directly from human activities, the heat-absorbing properties of concrete and other urban building materials, and the limited amount of vegetation. Continuing urbanization and increasingly severe heatwaves under climate change will further amplify this effect in the future.

FAQ 10.2.bFAQ 10.1.nFAQ 10.1.uFAQ 9.3.arFAQ 9.3.bbFAQ 9.2.bgFAQ 9.2.bpFAQ 9.1.bxFAQ 9.1.ceFAQ 8.3.cjFAQ 8.3.cpFAQ 8.2.eaFAQ 8.2.ejFAQ 8.1.fcFAQ 8.1.fnFAQ 7.3.frFAQ 7.3.gaFAQ 7.2.goFAQ 7.2.gwFAQ 7.1.hnFAQ 7.1.hwFAQ 6.2.iuFAQ 6.2.@.263FAQ 6.1.@.284FAQ 6.1.@.293FAQ 5.4.@.296FAQ 5.4.@.317FAQ 5.3.@.320FAQ 5.3.@.372FAQ 5.2.@.375FAQ 5.2.@.393FAQ 5.1.@.396FAQ 5.1.@.429FAQ 4.3.@.439FAQ 4.3.@.448FAQ 4.2.@.496FAQ 4.2.@.504FAQ 4.1.@.528FAQ 4.1.@.535FAQ 3.3.@.547FAQ 3.3.@.555FAQ 3.2.@.576FAQ 3.2.@.577FAQ 3.2.@.584FAQ 3.1.@.589FAQ 3.1.@.597FAQ 2.2.@.621FAQ 2.2.@.630FAQ 2.1.@.640FAQ 2.1.@.649FAQ 1.3.@.681FAQ 1.3.@.689FAQ 1.2.@.697FAQ 1.2.@.707FAQ 1.1.@.761FAQ 1.1.@.770FAQ 12.3.@.773FAQ 12.2.@.774FAQ 12.1.@.775FAQ 11.3.@.776FAQ 11.2.@.777FAQ 11.1.@.778FAQ 10.2.@.779FAQ 10.1.@.780FAQ 9.3.@.781FAQ 9.2.@.782FAQ 9.1.@.783FAQ 8.3.@.784FAQ 8.2.@.785FAQ 8.1.@.786FAQ 7.3.@.787FAQ 7.2.@.788FAQ 7.1.@.789FAQ 6.2.@.790FAQ 6.1.@.791FAQ 5.4.@.792FAQ 5.3.@.793FAQ 5.2.@.794FAQ 5.1.@.795FAQ 4.3.@.796FAQ 4.2.@.797FAQ 4.1.@.798FAQ 3.3.@.799FAQ 3.2.@.800FAQ 3.1.@.801FAQ 2.2.@.802FAQ 2.1.@.803FAQ 1.3.@.804FAQ 1.2.@.805FAQ 1.1.@.806Today, cities are home to 55% of the world’s population. This number is increasing, and every year cities welcome 67 million new residents, 90% of whom are moving to cities in developing countries. By 2030, almost 60% of the world’s population is expected to live in urban areas. Cities and their inhabitants are highly vulnerable to weather and climate extremes, particularly heatwaves, because urban areas already are local hotspots. Cities are generally warmer – up to several degrees Celsius at night – than their surroundings. This warming effect, called the urban heat island, occurs because cities both receive and retain more heat than the surrounding countryside areas and because natural cooling processes are weakened in cities compared to rural areas.

FAQ 10.2.cFAQ 10.1.oFAQ 10.1.vFAQ 9.3.asFAQ 9.3.bcFAQ 9.2.bhFAQ 9.2.bqFAQ 9.1.byFAQ 9.1.cfFAQ 8.3.ckFAQ 8.3.cqFAQ 8.2.ebFAQ 8.2.ekFAQ 8.1.fdFAQ 8.1.foFAQ 7.3.fsFAQ 7.3.gbFAQ 7.2.gpFAQ 7.2.gxFAQ 7.1.hoFAQ 7.1.hxFAQ 6.2.ivFAQ 6.2.@.264FAQ 6.1.@.285FAQ 6.1.@.294FAQ 5.4.@.297FAQ 5.4.@.318FAQ 5.3.@.321FAQ 5.3.@.373FAQ 5.2.@.376FAQ 5.2.@.394FAQ 5.1.@.397FAQ 5.1.@.430FAQ 4.3.@.440FAQ 4.3.@.449FAQ 4.2.@.497FAQ 4.2.@.505FAQ 4.1.@.529FAQ 4.1.@.536FAQ 3.3.@.548FAQ 3.3.@.556FAQ 3.2.@.577FAQ 3.2.@.578FAQ 3.2.@.585FAQ 3.1.@.590FAQ 3.1.@.598FAQ 2.2.@.622FAQ 2.2.@.631FAQ 2.1.@.641FAQ 2.1.@.650FAQ 1.3.@.682FAQ 1.3.@.690FAQ 1.2.@.698FAQ 1.2.@.708FAQ 1.1.@.762FAQ 1.1.@.771FAQ 12.3.@.774FAQ 12.2.@.775FAQ 12.1.@.776FAQ 11.3.@.777FAQ 11.2.@.778FAQ 11.1.@.779FAQ 10.2.@.780FAQ 10.1.@.781FAQ 9.3.@.782FAQ 9.2.@.783FAQ 9.1.@.784FAQ 8.3.@.785FAQ 8.2.@.786FAQ 8.1.@.787FAQ 7.3.@.788FAQ 7.2.@.789FAQ 7.1.@.790FAQ 6.2.@.791FAQ 6.1.@.792FAQ 5.4.@.793FAQ 5.3.@.794FAQ 5.2.@.795FAQ 5.1.@.796FAQ 4.3.@.797FAQ 4.2.@.798FAQ 4.1.@.799FAQ 3.3.@.800FAQ 3.2.@.801FAQ 3.1.@.802FAQ 2.2.@.803FAQ 2.1.@.804FAQ 1.3.@.805FAQ 1.2.@.806FAQ 1.1.@.807Three main factors contribute to amplify the warming of urban areas (orange bars in FAQ 10.2, Figure 1). The strongest contribution comes from urban geometry, which depends on the number of buildings, their size and their proximity. Tall buildings close to each other absorb and store heat and also reduce natural ventilation. Human activities, which are very concentrated in cities, also directly warm the atmosphere locally, due to heat released from domestic and industrial heating or cooling systems, running engines, and other sources. Finally, urban warming also results directly from the heat-retaining properties of the materials that make up cities, including concrete buildings, asphalt roadways, and dark rooftops. These materials are very good at absorbing and retaining heat, and then re-emitting that heat at night.

FAQ 10.2.dFAQ 10.1.pFAQ 10.1.wFAQ 9.3.atFAQ 9.3.bdFAQ 9.2.biFAQ 9.2.brFAQ 9.1.bzFAQ 9.1.cgFAQ 8.3.clFAQ 8.3.crFAQ 8.2.ecFAQ 8.2.elFAQ 8.1.feFAQ 8.1.fpFAQ 7.3.ftFAQ 7.3.gcFAQ 7.2.gqFAQ 7.2.gyFAQ 7.1.hpFAQ 7.1.hyFAQ 6.2.@.256FAQ 6.2.@.265FAQ 6.1.@.286FAQ 6.1.@.295FAQ 5.4.@.298FAQ 5.4.@.319FAQ 5.3.@.322FAQ 5.3.@.374FAQ 5.2.@.377FAQ 5.2.@.395FAQ 5.1.@.398FAQ 5.1.@.431FAQ 4.3.@.441FAQ 4.3.@.450FAQ 4.2.@.498FAQ 4.2.@.506FAQ 4.1.@.530FAQ 4.1.@.537FAQ 3.3.@.549FAQ 3.3.@.557FAQ 3.2.@.578FAQ 3.2.@.579FAQ 3.2.@.586FAQ 3.1.@.591FAQ 3.1.@.599FAQ 2.2.@.623FAQ 2.2.@.632FAQ 2.1.@.642FAQ 2.1.@.651FAQ 1.3.@.683FAQ 1.3.@.691FAQ 1.2.@.699FAQ 1.2.@.709FAQ 1.1.@.763FAQ 1.1.@.772FAQ 12.3.@.775FAQ 12.2.@.776FAQ 12.1.@.777FAQ 11.3.@.778FAQ 11.2.@.779FAQ 11.1.@.780FAQ 10.2.@.781FAQ 10.1.@.782FAQ 9.3.@.783FAQ 9.2.@.784FAQ 9.1.@.785FAQ 8.3.@.786FAQ 8.2.@.787FAQ 8.1.@.788FAQ 7.3.@.789FAQ 7.2.@.790FAQ 7.1.@.791FAQ 6.2.@.792FAQ 6.1.@.793FAQ 5.4.@.794FAQ 5.3.@.795FAQ 5.2.@.796FAQ 5.1.@.797FAQ 4.3.@.798FAQ 4.2.@.799FAQ 4.1.@.800FAQ 3.3.@.801FAQ 3.2.@.802FAQ 3.1.@.803FAQ 2.2.@.804FAQ 2.1.@.805FAQ 1.3.@.806FAQ 1.2.@.807FAQ 1.1.@.808The urban heat island effect is further amplified in cities that lack vegetation and water bodies, both of which can strongly contribute to local cooling (green bars in FAQ 10.2, Figure 1). This means that when enough vegetation and water are included in the urban fabric, they can counterbalance the urban heat island effect, to the point of even cancelling out the urban heat island effect in some neighbourhoods.

FAQ 10.2.eFAQ 10.1.qFAQ 10.1.xFAQ 9.3.auFAQ 9.3.beFAQ 9.2.bjFAQ 9.2.bsFAQ 9.1.caFAQ 9.1.chFAQ 8.3.cmFAQ 8.3.csFAQ 8.2.edFAQ 8.2.emFAQ 8.1.ffFAQ 8.1.fqFAQ 7.3.fuFAQ 7.3.gdFAQ 7.2.grFAQ 7.2.gzFAQ 7.1.hqFAQ 7.1.hzFAQ 6.2.@.257FAQ 6.2.@.266FAQ 6.1.@.287FAQ 6.1.@.296FAQ 5.4.@.299FAQ 5.4.@.320FAQ 5.3.@.323FAQ 5.3.@.375FAQ 5.2.@.378FAQ 5.2.@.396FAQ 5.1.@.399FAQ 5.1.@.432FAQ 4.3.@.442FAQ 4.3.@.451FAQ 4.2.@.499FAQ 4.2.@.507FAQ 4.1.@.531FAQ 4.1.@.538FAQ 3.3.@.550FAQ 3.3.@.558FAQ 3.2.@.579FAQ 3.2.@.580FAQ 3.2.@.587FAQ 3.1.@.592FAQ 3.1.@.600FAQ 2.2.@.624FAQ 2.2.@.633FAQ 2.1.@.643FAQ 2.1.@.652FAQ 1.3.@.684FAQ 1.3.@.692FAQ 1.2.@.700FAQ 1.2.@.710FAQ 1.1.@.764FAQ 1.1.@.773FAQ 12.3.@.776FAQ 12.2.@.777FAQ 12.1.@.778FAQ 11.3.@.779FAQ 11.2.@.780FAQ 11.1.@.781FAQ 10.2.@.782FAQ 10.1.@.783FAQ 9.3.@.784FAQ 9.2.@.785FAQ 9.1.@.786FAQ 8.3.@.787FAQ 8.2.@.788FAQ 8.1.@.789FAQ 7.3.@.790FAQ 7.2.@.791FAQ 7.1.@.792FAQ 6.2.@.793FAQ 6.1.@.794FAQ 5.4.@.795FAQ 5.3.@.796FAQ 5.2.@.797FAQ 5.1.@.798FAQ 4.3.@.799FAQ 4.2.@.800FAQ 4.1.@.801FAQ 3.3.@.802FAQ 3.2.@.803FAQ 3.1.@.804FAQ 2.2.@.805FAQ 2.1.@.806FAQ 1.3.@.807FAQ 1.2.@.808FAQ 1.1.@.809The urban heat island phenomenon is well-known and understood. For instance, temperature measurements from thermometers located in cities are corrected for this effect when global warming trends are calculated. Nevertheless, observations, including long-term measurements of the urban heat island effect are currently too limited to allow a full understanding of how the urban heat island varies across the world and across different types of cities and climatic zones, or how this effect will evolve in the future.

FAQ 10.2.fFAQ 10.1.rFAQ 10.1.yFAQ 9.3.avFAQ 9.3.bfFAQ 9.2.bkFAQ 9.2.btFAQ 9.1.cbFAQ 9.1.ciFAQ 8.3.cnFAQ 8.3.ctFAQ 8.2.eeFAQ 8.2.enFAQ 8.1.fgFAQ 8.1.frFAQ 7.3.fvFAQ 7.3.geFAQ 7.2.gsFAQ 7.2.haFAQ 7.1.hrFAQ 7.1.iaFAQ 6.2.@.258FAQ 6.2.@.267FAQ 6.1.@.288FAQ 6.1.@.297FAQ 5.4.@.300FAQ 5.4.@.321FAQ 5.3.@.324FAQ 5.3.@.376FAQ 5.2.@.379FAQ 5.2.@.397FAQ 5.1.@.400FAQ 5.1.@.433FAQ 4.3.@.443FAQ 4.3.@.452FAQ 4.2.@.500FAQ 4.2.@.508FAQ 4.1.@.532FAQ 4.1.@.539FAQ 3.3.@.551FAQ 3.3.@.559FAQ 3.2.@.580FAQ 3.2.@.581FAQ 3.2.@.588FAQ 3.1.@.593FAQ 3.1.@.601FAQ 2.2.@.625FAQ 2.2.@.634FAQ 2.1.@.644FAQ 2.1.@.653FAQ 1.3.@.685FAQ 1.3.@.693FAQ 1.2.@.701FAQ 1.2.@.711FAQ 1.1.@.765FAQ 1.1.@.774FAQ 12.3.@.777FAQ 12.2.@.778FAQ 12.1.@.779FAQ 11.3.@.780FAQ 11.2.@.781FAQ 11.1.@.782FAQ 10.2.@.783FAQ 10.1.@.784FAQ 9.3.@.785FAQ 9.2.@.786FAQ 9.1.@.787FAQ 8.3.@.788FAQ 8.2.@.789FAQ 8.1.@.790FAQ 7.3.@.791FAQ 7.2.@.792FAQ 7.1.@.793FAQ 6.2.@.794FAQ 6.1.@.795FAQ 5.4.@.796FAQ 5.3.@.797FAQ 5.2.@.798FAQ 5.1.@.799FAQ 4.3.@.800FAQ 4.2.@.801FAQ 4.1.@.802FAQ 3.3.@.803FAQ 3.2.@.804FAQ 3.1.@.805FAQ 2.2.@.806FAQ 2.1.@.807FAQ 1.3.@.808FAQ 1.2.@.809FAQ 1.1.@.810As a result, it is hard to assess how climate change will affect the urban heat island effect, and various studies disagree. Two things are, however, very clear. First, future urbanization will expand the urban heat island areas, thereby amplifying future warming in many places all over the world. In some places, the nighttime warming from the urban heat island effect could even be on the same order of magnitude as the warming expected from human-induced climate change. Second, more intense, longer and more frequent heatwaves caused by climate change will more strongly impact cities and their inhabitants, because the extra warming from the urban heat island effect will exacerbate the impacts of climate change.

FAQ 10.2.gFAQ 10.1.sFAQ 10.1.zFAQ 9.3.awFAQ 9.3.bgFAQ 9.2.blFAQ 9.2.buFAQ 9.1.ccFAQ 9.1.cjFAQ 8.3.coFAQ 8.3.cuFAQ 8.2.efFAQ 8.2.eoFAQ 8.1.fhFAQ 8.1.fsFAQ 7.3.fwFAQ 7.3.gfFAQ 7.2.gtFAQ 7.2.hbFAQ 7.1.hsFAQ 7.1.ibFAQ 6.2.@.259FAQ 6.2.@.268FAQ 6.1.@.289FAQ 6.1.@.298FAQ 5.4.@.301FAQ 5.4.@.322FAQ 5.3.@.325FAQ 5.3.@.377FAQ 5.2.@.380FAQ 5.2.@.398FAQ 5.1.@.401FAQ 5.1.@.434FAQ 4.3.@.444FAQ 4.3.@.453FAQ 4.2.@.501FAQ 4.2.@.509FAQ 4.1.@.533FAQ 4.1.@.540FAQ 3.3.@.552FAQ 3.3.@.560FAQ 3.2.@.581FAQ 3.2.@.582FAQ 3.2.@.589FAQ 3.1.@.594FAQ 3.1.@.602FAQ 2.2.@.626FAQ 2.2.@.635FAQ 2.1.@.645FAQ 2.1.@.654FAQ 1.3.@.686FAQ 1.3.@.694FAQ 1.2.@.702FAQ 1.2.@.712FAQ 1.1.@.766FAQ 1.1.@.775FAQ 12.3.@.778FAQ 12.2.@.779FAQ 12.1.@.780FAQ 11.3.@.781FAQ 11.2.@.782FAQ 11.1.@.783FAQ 10.2.@.784FAQ 10.1.@.785FAQ 9.3.@.786FAQ 9.2.@.787FAQ 9.1.@.788FAQ 8.3.@.789FAQ 8.2.@.790FAQ 8.1.@.791FAQ 7.3.@.792FAQ 7.2.@.793FAQ 7.1.@.794FAQ 6.2.@.795FAQ 6.1.@.796FAQ 5.4.@.797FAQ 5.3.@.798FAQ 5.2.@.799FAQ 5.1.@.800FAQ 4.3.@.801FAQ 4.2.@.802FAQ 4.1.@.803FAQ 3.3.@.804FAQ 3.2.@.805FAQ 3.1.@.806FAQ 2.2.@.807FAQ 2.1.@.808FAQ 1.3.@.809FAQ 1.2.@.810FAQ 1.1.@.811In summary, cities are currently local hotspots because their structure, material and activities trap and release heat and reduce natural cooling processes. In the future, climate change will, on average, have a limited effect on the magnitude of the urban heat island itself, but ongoing urbanization together with more frequent, longer and warmer heatwaves will make cities more exposed to global warming.

FAQ 10.2.hFAQ 10.1.tFAQ 10.1.aaFAQ 9.3.axFAQ 9.3.bhFAQ 9.2.bmFAQ 9.2.bvFAQ 9.1.cdFAQ 9.1.ckFAQ 8.3.cpFAQ 8.3.cvFAQ 8.2.egFAQ 8.2.epFAQ 8.1.fiFAQ 8.1.ftFAQ 7.3.fxFAQ 7.3.ggFAQ 7.2.guFAQ 7.2.hcFAQ 7.1.htFAQ 7.1.icFAQ 6.2.@.260FAQ 6.2.@.269FAQ 6.1.@.290FAQ 6.1.@.299FAQ 5.4.@.302FAQ 5.4.@.323FAQ 5.3.@.326FAQ 5.3.@.378FAQ 5.2.@.381FAQ 5.2.@.399FAQ 5.1.@.402FAQ 5.1.@.435FAQ 4.3.@.445FAQ 4.3.@.454FAQ 4.2.@.502FAQ 4.2.@.510FAQ 4.1.@.534FAQ 4.1.@.541FAQ 3.3.@.553FAQ 3.3.@.561FAQ 3.2.@.582FAQ 3.2.@.583FAQ 3.2.@.590FAQ 3.1.@.595FAQ 3.1.@.603FAQ 2.2.@.627FAQ 2.2.@.636FAQ 2.1.@.646FAQ 2.1.@.655FAQ 1.3.@.687FAQ 1.3.@.695FAQ 1.2.@.703FAQ 1.2.@.713FAQ 1.1.@.767FAQ 1.1.@.776FAQ 12.3.@.779FAQ 12.2.@.780FAQ 12.1.@.781FAQ 11.3.@.782FAQ 11.2.@.783FAQ 11.1.@.784FAQ 10.2.@.785FAQ 10.1.@.786FAQ 9.3.@.787FAQ 9.2.@.788FAQ 9.1.@.789FAQ 8.3.@.790FAQ 8.2.@.791FAQ 8.1.@.792FAQ 7.3.@.793FAQ 7.2.@.794FAQ 7.1.@.795FAQ 6.2.@.796FAQ 6.1.@.797FAQ 5.4.@.798FAQ 5.3.@.799FAQ 5.2.@.800FAQ 5.1.@.801FAQ 4.3.@.802FAQ 4.2.@.803FAQ 4.1.@.804FAQ 3.3.@.805FAQ 3.2.@.806FAQ 3.1.@.807FAQ 2.2.@.808FAQ 2.1.@.809FAQ 1.3.@.810FAQ 1.2.@.811FAQ 1.1.@.812FAQ

FAQ 10.2.iFAQ 10.1.uFAQ 10.1.abFAQ 9.3.ayFAQ 9.3.biFAQ 9.2.bnFAQ 9.2.bwFAQ 9.1.ceFAQ 9.1.clFAQ 8.3.cqFAQ 8.3.cwFAQ 8.2.ehFAQ 8.2.eqFAQ 8.1.fjFAQ 8.1.fuFAQ 7.3.fyFAQ 7.3.ghFAQ 7.2.gvFAQ 7.2.hdFAQ 7.1.huFAQ 7.1.idFAQ 6.2.@.261FAQ 6.2.@.270FAQ 6.1.@.291FAQ 6.1.@.300FAQ 5.4.@.303FAQ 5.4.@.324FAQ 5.3.@.327FAQ 5.3.@.379FAQ 5.2.@.382FAQ 5.2.@.400FAQ 5.1.@.403FAQ 5.1.@.436FAQ 4.3.@.446FAQ 4.3.@.455FAQ 4.2.@.503FAQ 4.2.@.511FAQ 4.1.@.535FAQ 4.1.@.542FAQ 3.3.@.554FAQ 3.3.@.562FAQ 3.2.@.583FAQ 3.2.@.584FAQ 3.2.@.591FAQ 3.1.@.596FAQ 3.1.@.604FAQ 2.2.@.628FAQ 2.2.@.637FAQ 2.1.@.647FAQ 2.1.@.656FAQ 1.3.@.688FAQ 1.3.@.696FAQ 1.2.@.704FAQ 1.2.@.714FAQ 1.1.@.768FAQ 1.1.@.777FAQ 12.3.@.780FAQ 12.2.@.781FAQ 12.1.@.782FAQ 11.3.@.783FAQ 11.2.@.784FAQ 11.1.@.785FAQ 10.2.@.786FAQ 10.1.@.787FAQ 9.3.@.788FAQ 9.2.@.789FAQ 9.1.@.790FAQ 8.3.@.791FAQ 8.2.@.792FAQ 8.1.@.793FAQ 7.3.@.794FAQ 7.2.@.795FAQ 7.1.@.796FAQ 6.2.@.797FAQ 6.1.@.798FAQ 5.4.@.799FAQ 5.3.@.800FAQ 5.2.@.801FAQ 5.1.@.802FAQ 4.3.@.803FAQ 4.2.@.804FAQ 4.1.@.805FAQ 3.3.@.806FAQ 3.2.@.807FAQ 3.1.@.808FAQ 2.2.@.809FAQ 2.1.@.810FAQ 1.3.@.811FAQ 1.2.@.812FAQ 1.1.@.813FAQ 10.2 (continued)

FAQ 10.2.aFAQ 10.2.jFAQ 10.1.vFAQ 10.1.acFAQ 9.3.azFAQ 9.3.bjFAQ 9.2.boFAQ 9.2.bxFAQ 9.1.cfFAQ 9.1.cmFAQ 8.3.crFAQ 8.3.cxFAQ 8.2.eiFAQ 8.2.erFAQ 8.1.fkFAQ 8.1.fvFAQ 7.3.fzFAQ 7.3.giFAQ 7.2.gwFAQ 7.2.heFAQ 7.1.hvFAQ 7.1.ieFAQ 6.2.@.262FAQ 6.2.@.271FAQ 6.1.@.292FAQ 6.1.@.301FAQ 5.4.@.304FAQ 5.4.@.325FAQ 5.3.@.328FAQ 5.3.@.380FAQ 5.2.@.383FAQ 5.2.@.401FAQ 5.1.@.404FAQ 5.1.@.437FAQ 4.3.@.447FAQ 4.3.@.456FAQ 4.2.@.504FAQ 4.2.@.512FAQ 4.1.@.536FAQ 4.1.@.543FAQ 3.3.@.555FAQ 3.3.@.563FAQ 3.2.@.584FAQ 3.2.@.585FAQ 3.2.@.592FAQ 3.1.@.597FAQ 3.1.@.605FAQ 2.2.@.629FAQ 2.2.@.638FAQ 2.1.@.648FAQ 2.1.@.657FAQ 1.3.@.689FAQ 1.3.@.697FAQ 1.2.@.705FAQ 1.2.@.715FAQ 1.1.@.769FAQ 1.1.@.778FAQ 12.3.@.781FAQ 12.2.@.782FAQ 12.1.@.783FAQ 11.3.@.784FAQ 11.2.@.785FAQ 11.1.@.786FAQ 10.2.@.787FAQ 10.1.@.788FAQ 9.3.@.789FAQ 9.2.@.790FAQ 9.1.@.791FAQ 8.3.@.792FAQ 8.2.@.793FAQ 8.1.@.794FAQ 7.3.@.795FAQ 7.2.@.796FAQ 7.1.@.797FAQ 6.2.@.798FAQ 6.1.@.799FAQ 5.4.@.800FAQ 5.3.@.801FAQ 5.2.@.802FAQ 5.1.@.803FAQ 4.3.@.804FAQ 4.2.@.805FAQ 4.1.@.806FAQ 3.3.@.807FAQ 3.2.@.808FAQ 3.1.@.809FAQ 2.2.@.810FAQ 2.1.@.811FAQ 1.3.@.812FAQ 1.2.@.813FAQ 1.1.@.814FAQ 10.2, Figure 1 | Efficiency of the various factors at warming up or cooling down neighbourhoods of urban areas. Overall, cities tend to be warmer than their surroundings. This is called the ‘urban heat island’ effect. The hatched areas on the bars show how the strength of the warming or cooling effects of each factor varies depending on the local climate. For example, vegetation has a stronger cooling effect in temperate and warm climates. Further details on data sources are available in the chapter data table (Table 10.SM.11).

FAQ 10.2.bFAQ 10.2.kFAQ 10.1.wFAQ 10.1.adFAQ 9.3.baFAQ 9.3.bkFAQ 9.2.bpFAQ 9.2.byFAQ 9.1.cgFAQ 9.1.cnFAQ 8.3.csFAQ 8.3.cyFAQ 8.2.ejFAQ 8.2.esFAQ 8.1.flFAQ 8.1.fwFAQ 7.3.gaFAQ 7.3.gjFAQ 7.2.gxFAQ 7.2.hfFAQ 7.1.hwFAQ 7.1.ifFAQ 6.2.@.263FAQ 6.2.@.272FAQ 6.1.@.293FAQ 6.1.@.302FAQ 5.4.@.305FAQ 5.4.@.326FAQ 5.3.@.329FAQ 5.3.@.381FAQ 5.2.@.384FAQ 5.2.@.402FAQ 5.1.@.405FAQ 5.1.@.438FAQ 4.3.@.448FAQ 4.3.@.457FAQ 4.2.@.505FAQ 4.2.@.513FAQ 4.1.@.537FAQ 4.1.@.544FAQ 3.3.@.556FAQ 3.3.@.564FAQ 3.2.@.585FAQ 3.2.@.586FAQ 3.2.@.593FAQ 3.1.@.598FAQ 3.1.@.606FAQ 2.2.@.630FAQ 2.2.@.639FAQ 2.1.@.649FAQ 2.1.@.658FAQ 1.3.@.690FAQ 1.3.@.698FAQ 1.2.@.706FAQ 1.2.@.716FAQ 1.1.@.770FAQ 1.1.@.779FAQ 12.3.@.782FAQ 12.2.@.783FAQ 12.1.@.784FAQ 11.3.@.785FAQ 11.2.@.786FAQ 11.1.@.787FAQ 10.2.@.788FAQ 10.1.@.789FAQ 9.3.@.790FAQ 9.2.@.791FAQ 9.1.@.792FAQ 8.3.@.793FAQ 8.2.@.794FAQ 8.1.@.795FAQ 7.3.@.796FAQ 7.2.@.797FAQ 7.1.@.798FAQ 6.2.@.799FAQ 6.1.@.800FAQ 5.4.@.801FAQ 5.3.@.802FAQ 5.2.@.803FAQ 5.1.@.804FAQ 4.3.@.805FAQ 4.2.@.806FAQ 4.1.@.807FAQ 3.3.@.808FAQ 3.2.@.809FAQ 3.1.@.810FAQ 2.2.@.811FAQ 2.1.@.812FAQ 1.3.@.813FAQ 1.2.@.814FAQ 1.1.@.815Local effect on temperature (ºC) COOLINGWARMING

FAQ 10.2.cFAQ 10.2.lFAQ 10.1.xFAQ 10.1.aeFAQ 9.3.bbFAQ 9.3.blFAQ 9.2.bqFAQ 9.2.bzFAQ 9.1.chFAQ 9.1.coFAQ 8.3.ctFAQ 8.3.czFAQ 8.2.ekFAQ 8.2.etFAQ 8.1.fmFAQ 8.1.fxFAQ 7.3.gbFAQ 7.3.gkFAQ 7.2.gyFAQ 7.2.hgFAQ 7.1.hxFAQ 7.1.igFAQ 6.2.@.264FAQ 6.2.@.273FAQ 6.1.@.294FAQ 6.1.@.303FAQ 5.4.@.306FAQ 5.4.@.327FAQ 5.3.@.330FAQ 5.3.@.382FAQ 5.2.@.385FAQ 5.2.@.403FAQ 5.1.@.406FAQ 5.1.@.439FAQ 4.3.@.449FAQ 4.3.@.458FAQ 4.2.@.506FAQ 4.2.@.514FAQ 4.1.@.538FAQ 4.1.@.545FAQ 3.3.@.557FAQ 3.3.@.565FAQ 3.2.@.586FAQ 3.2.@.587FAQ 3.2.@.594FAQ 3.1.@.599FAQ 3.1.@.607FAQ 2.2.@.631FAQ 2.2.@.640FAQ 2.1.@.650FAQ 2.1.@.659FAQ 1.3.@.691FAQ 1.3.@.699FAQ 1.2.@.707FAQ 1.2.@.717FAQ 1.1.@.771FAQ 1.1.@.780FAQ 12.3.@.783FAQ 12.2.@.784FAQ 12.1.@.785FAQ 11.3.@.786FAQ 11.2.@.787FAQ 11.1.@.788FAQ 10.2.@.789FAQ 10.1.@.790FAQ 9.3.@.791FAQ 9.2.@.792FAQ 9.1.@.793FAQ 8.3.@.794FAQ 8.2.@.795FAQ 8.1.@.796FAQ 7.3.@.797FAQ 7.2.@.798FAQ 7.1.@.799FAQ 6.2.@.800FAQ 6.1.@.801FAQ 5.4.@.802FAQ 5.3.@.803FAQ 5.2.@.804FAQ 5.1.@.805FAQ 4.3.@.806FAQ 4.2.@.807FAQ 4.1.@.808FAQ 3.3.@.809FAQ 3.2.@.810FAQ 3.1.@.811FAQ 2.2.@.812FAQ 2.1.@.813FAQ 1.3.@.814FAQ 1.2.@.815FAQ 1.1.@.816Local effect on temperature (ºC) COOLINGWARMING

FAQ 10.2.dFAQ 10.2.mFAQ 10.1.yFAQ 10.1.afFAQ 9.3.bcFAQ 9.3.bmFAQ 9.2.brFAQ 9.2.caFAQ 9.1.ciFAQ 9.1.cpFAQ 8.3.cuFAQ 8.3.daFAQ 8.2.elFAQ 8.2.euFAQ 8.1.fnFAQ 8.1.fyFAQ 7.3.gcFAQ 7.3.glFAQ 7.2.gzFAQ 7.2.hhFAQ 7.1.hyFAQ 7.1.ihFAQ 6.2.@.265FAQ 6.2.@.274FAQ 6.1.@.295FAQ 6.1.@.304FAQ 5.4.@.307FAQ 5.4.@.328FAQ 5.3.@.331FAQ 5.3.@.383FAQ 5.2.@.386FAQ 5.2.@.404FAQ 5.1.@.407FAQ 5.1.@.440FAQ 4.3.@.450FAQ 4.3.@.459FAQ 4.2.@.507FAQ 4.2.@.515FAQ 4.1.@.539FAQ 4.1.@.546FAQ 3.3.@.558FAQ 3.3.@.566FAQ 3.2.@.587FAQ 3.2.@.588FAQ 3.2.@.595FAQ 3.1.@.600FAQ 3.1.@.608FAQ 2.2.@.632FAQ 2.2.@.641FAQ 2.1.@.651FAQ 2.1.@.660FAQ 1.3.@.692FAQ 1.3.@.700FAQ 1.2.@.708FAQ 1.2.@.718FAQ 1.1.@.772FAQ 1.1.@.781FAQ 12.3.@.784FAQ 12.2.@.785FAQ 12.1.@.786FAQ 11.3.@.787FAQ 11.2.@.788FAQ 11.1.@.789FAQ 10.2.@.790FAQ 10.1.@.791FAQ 9.3.@.792FAQ 9.2.@.793FAQ 9.1.@.794FAQ 8.3.@.795FAQ 8.2.@.796FAQ 8.1.@.797FAQ 7.3.@.798FAQ 7.2.@.799FAQ 7.1.@.800FAQ 6.2.@.801FAQ 6.1.@.802FAQ 5.4.@.803FAQ 5.3.@.804FAQ 5.2.@.805FAQ 5.1.@.806FAQ 4.3.@.807FAQ 4.2.@.808FAQ 4.1.@.809FAQ 3.3.@.810FAQ 3.2.@.811FAQ 3.1.@.812FAQ 2.2.@.813FAQ 2.1.@.814FAQ 1.3.@.815FAQ 1.2.@.816FAQ 1.1.@.817Vegetation

FAQ 10.2.eFAQ 10.2.nFAQ 10.1.zFAQ 10.1.agFAQ 9.3.bdFAQ 9.3.bnFAQ 9.2.bsFAQ 9.2.cbFAQ 9.1.cjFAQ 9.1.cqFAQ 8.3.cvFAQ 8.3.dbFAQ 8.2.emFAQ 8.2.evFAQ 8.1.foFAQ 8.1.fzFAQ 7.3.gdFAQ 7.3.gmFAQ 7.2.haFAQ 7.2.hiFAQ 7.1.hzFAQ 7.1.iiFAQ 6.2.@.266FAQ 6.2.@.275FAQ 6.1.@.296FAQ 6.1.@.305FAQ 5.4.@.308FAQ 5.4.@.329FAQ 5.3.@.332FAQ 5.3.@.384FAQ 5.2.@.387FAQ 5.2.@.405FAQ 5.1.@.408FAQ 5.1.@.441FAQ 4.3.@.451FAQ 4.3.@.460FAQ 4.2.@.508FAQ 4.2.@.516FAQ 4.1.@.540FAQ 4.1.@.547FAQ 3.3.@.559FAQ 3.3.@.567FAQ 3.2.@.588FAQ 3.2.@.589FAQ 3.2.@.596FAQ 3.1.@.601FAQ 3.1.@.609FAQ 2.2.@.633FAQ 2.2.@.642FAQ 2.1.@.652FAQ 2.1.@.661FAQ 1.3.@.693FAQ 1.3.@.701FAQ 1.2.@.709FAQ 1.2.@.719FAQ 1.1.@.773FAQ 1.1.@.782FAQ 12.3.@.785FAQ 12.2.@.786FAQ 12.1.@.787FAQ 11.3.@.788FAQ 11.2.@.789FAQ 11.1.@.790FAQ 10.2.@.791FAQ 10.1.@.792FAQ 9.3.@.793FAQ 9.2.@.794FAQ 9.1.@.795FAQ 8.3.@.796FAQ 8.2.@.797FAQ 8.1.@.798FAQ 7.3.@.799FAQ 7.2.@.800FAQ 7.1.@.801FAQ 6.2.@.802FAQ 6.1.@.803FAQ 5.4.@.804FAQ 5.3.@.805FAQ 5.2.@.806FAQ 5.1.@.807FAQ 4.3.@.808FAQ 4.2.@.809FAQ 4.1.@.810FAQ 3.3.@.811FAQ 3.2.@.812FAQ 3.1.@.813FAQ 2.2.@.814FAQ 2.1.@.815FAQ 1.3.@.816FAQ 1.2.@.817FAQ 1.1.@.818Water

FAQ 10.2.fFAQ 10.2.oFAQ 10.1.aaFAQ 10.1.ahFAQ 9.3.beFAQ 9.3.boFAQ 9.2.btFAQ 9.2.ccFAQ 9.1.ckFAQ 9.1.crFAQ 8.3.cwFAQ 8.3.dcFAQ 8.2.enFAQ 8.2.ewFAQ 8.1.fpFAQ 8.1.gaFAQ 7.3.geFAQ 7.3.gnFAQ 7.2.hbFAQ 7.2.hjFAQ 7.1.iaFAQ 7.1.ijFAQ 6.2.@.267FAQ 6.2.@.276FAQ 6.1.@.297FAQ 6.1.@.306FAQ 5.4.@.309FAQ 5.4.@.330FAQ 5.3.@.333FAQ 5.3.@.385FAQ 5.2.@.388FAQ 5.2.@.406FAQ 5.1.@.409FAQ 5.1.@.442FAQ 4.3.@.452FAQ 4.3.@.461FAQ 4.2.@.509FAQ 4.2.@.517FAQ 4.1.@.541FAQ 4.1.@.548FAQ 3.3.@.560FAQ 3.3.@.568FAQ 3.2.@.589FAQ 3.2.@.590FAQ 3.2.@.597FAQ 3.1.@.602FAQ 3.1.@.610FAQ 2.2.@.634FAQ 2.2.@.643FAQ 2.1.@.653FAQ 2.1.@.662FAQ 1.3.@.694FAQ 1.3.@.702FAQ 1.2.@.710FAQ 1.2.@.720FAQ 1.1.@.774FAQ 1.1.@.783FAQ 12.3.@.786FAQ 12.2.@.787FAQ 12.1.@.788FAQ 11.3.@.789FAQ 11.2.@.790FAQ 11.1.@.791FAQ 10.2.@.792FAQ 10.1.@.793FAQ 9.3.@.794FAQ 9.2.@.795FAQ 9.1.@.796FAQ 8.3.@.797FAQ 8.2.@.798FAQ 8.1.@.799FAQ 7.3.@.800FAQ 7.2.@.801FAQ 7.1.@.802FAQ 6.2.@.803FAQ 6.1.@.804FAQ 5.4.@.805FAQ 5.3.@.806FAQ 5.2.@.807FAQ 5.1.@.808FAQ 4.3.@.809FAQ 4.2.@.810FAQ 4.1.@.811FAQ 3.3.@.812FAQ 3.2.@.813FAQ 3.1.@.814FAQ 2.2.@.815FAQ 2.1.@.816FAQ 1.3.@.817FAQ 1.2.@.818FAQ 1.1.@.819Heat-retaining properties

FAQ 10.2.gFAQ 10.2.pFAQ 10.1.abFAQ 10.1.aiFAQ 9.3.bfFAQ 9.3.bpFAQ 9.2.buFAQ 9.2.cdFAQ 9.1.clFAQ 9.1.csFAQ 8.3.cxFAQ 8.3.ddFAQ 8.2.eoFAQ 8.2.exFAQ 8.1.fqFAQ 8.1.gbFAQ 7.3.gfFAQ 7.3.goFAQ 7.2.hcFAQ 7.2.hkFAQ 7.1.ibFAQ 7.1.ikFAQ 6.2.@.268FAQ 6.2.@.277FAQ 6.1.@.298FAQ 6.1.@.307FAQ 5.4.@.310FAQ 5.4.@.331FAQ 5.3.@.334FAQ 5.3.@.386FAQ 5.2.@.389FAQ 5.2.@.407FAQ 5.1.@.410FAQ 5.1.@.443FAQ 4.3.@.453FAQ 4.3.@.462FAQ 4.2.@.510FAQ 4.2.@.518FAQ 4.1.@.542FAQ 4.1.@.549FAQ 3.3.@.561FAQ 3.3.@.569FAQ 3.2.@.590FAQ 3.2.@.591FAQ 3.2.@.598FAQ 3.1.@.603FAQ 3.1.@.611FAQ 2.2.@.635FAQ 2.2.@.644FAQ 2.1.@.654FAQ 2.1.@.663FAQ 1.3.@.695FAQ 1.3.@.703FAQ 1.2.@.711FAQ 1.2.@.721FAQ 1.1.@.775FAQ 1.1.@.784FAQ 12.3.@.787FAQ 12.2.@.788FAQ 12.1.@.789FAQ 11.3.@.790FAQ 11.2.@.791FAQ 11.1.@.792FAQ 10.2.@.793FAQ 10.1.@.794FAQ 9.3.@.795FAQ 9.2.@.796FAQ 9.1.@.797FAQ 8.3.@.798FAQ 8.2.@.799FAQ 8.1.@.800FAQ 7.3.@.801FAQ 7.2.@.802FAQ 7.1.@.803FAQ 6.2.@.804FAQ 6.1.@.805FAQ 5.4.@.806FAQ 5.3.@.807FAQ 5.2.@.808FAQ 5.1.@.809FAQ 4.3.@.810FAQ 4.2.@.811FAQ 4.1.@.812FAQ 3.3.@.813FAQ 3.2.@.814FAQ 3.1.@.815FAQ 2.2.@.816FAQ 2.1.@.817FAQ 1.3.@.818FAQ 1.2.@.819FAQ 1.1.@.820Heat from human activities

FAQ 10.2.hFAQ 10.2.qFAQ 10.1.acFAQ 10.1.ajFAQ 9.3.bgFAQ 9.3.bqFAQ 9.2.bvFAQ 9.2.ceFAQ 9.1.cmFAQ 9.1.ctFAQ 8.3.cyFAQ 8.3.deFAQ 8.2.epFAQ 8.2.eyFAQ 8.1.frFAQ 8.1.gcFAQ 7.3.ggFAQ 7.3.gpFAQ 7.2.hdFAQ 7.2.hlFAQ 7.1.icFAQ 7.1.ilFAQ 6.2.@.269FAQ 6.2.@.278FAQ 6.1.@.299FAQ 6.1.@.308FAQ 5.4.@.311FAQ 5.4.@.332FAQ 5.3.@.335FAQ 5.3.@.387FAQ 5.2.@.390FAQ 5.2.@.408FAQ 5.1.@.411FAQ 5.1.@.444FAQ 4.3.@.454FAQ 4.3.@.463FAQ 4.2.@.511FAQ 4.2.@.519FAQ 4.1.@.543FAQ 4.1.@.550FAQ 3.3.@.562FAQ 3.3.@.570FAQ 3.2.@.591FAQ 3.2.@.592FAQ 3.2.@.599FAQ 3.1.@.604FAQ 3.1.@.612FAQ 2.2.@.636FAQ 2.2.@.645FAQ 2.1.@.655FAQ 2.1.@.664FAQ 1.3.@.696FAQ 1.3.@.704FAQ 1.2.@.712FAQ 1.2.@.722FAQ 1.1.@.776FAQ 1.1.@.785FAQ 12.3.@.788FAQ 12.2.@.789FAQ 12.1.@.790FAQ 11.3.@.791FAQ 11.2.@.792FAQ 11.1.@.793FAQ 10.2.@.794FAQ 10.1.@.795FAQ 9.3.@.796FAQ 9.2.@.797FAQ 9.1.@.798FAQ 8.3.@.799FAQ 8.2.@.800FAQ 8.1.@.801FAQ 7.3.@.802FAQ 7.2.@.803FAQ 7.1.@.804FAQ 6.2.@.805FAQ 6.1.@.806FAQ 5.4.@.807FAQ 5.3.@.808FAQ 5.2.@.809FAQ 5.1.@.810FAQ 4.3.@.811FAQ 4.2.@.812FAQ 4.1.@.813FAQ 3.3.@.814FAQ 3.2.@.815FAQ 3.1.@.816FAQ 2.2.@.817FAQ 2.1.@.818FAQ 1.3.@.819FAQ 1.2.@.820FAQ 1.1.@.821City geometry

FAQ 10.2.iFAQ 10.2.rFAQ 10.1.adFAQ 10.1.akFAQ 9.3.bhFAQ 9.3.brFAQ 9.2.bwFAQ 9.2.cfFAQ 9.1.cnFAQ 9.1.cuFAQ 8.3.czFAQ 8.3.dfFAQ 8.2.eqFAQ 8.2.ezFAQ 8.1.fsFAQ 8.1.gdFAQ 7.3.ghFAQ 7.3.gqFAQ 7.2.heFAQ 7.2.hmFAQ 7.1.idFAQ 7.1.imFAQ 6.2.@.270FAQ 6.2.@.279FAQ 6.1.@.300FAQ 6.1.@.309FAQ 5.4.@.312FAQ 5.4.@.333FAQ 5.3.@.336FAQ 5.3.@.388FAQ 5.2.@.391FAQ 5.2.@.409FAQ 5.1.@.412FAQ 5.1.@.445FAQ 4.3.@.455FAQ 4.3.@.464FAQ 4.2.@.512FAQ 4.2.@.520FAQ 4.1.@.544FAQ 4.1.@.551FAQ 3.3.@.563FAQ 3.3.@.571FAQ 3.2.@.592FAQ 3.2.@.593FAQ 3.2.@.600FAQ 3.1.@.605FAQ 3.1.@.613FAQ 2.2.@.637FAQ 2.2.@.646FAQ 2.1.@.656FAQ 2.1.@.665FAQ 1.3.@.697FAQ 1.3.@.705FAQ 1.2.@.713FAQ 1.2.@.723FAQ 1.1.@.777FAQ 1.1.@.786FAQ 12.3.@.789FAQ 12.2.@.790FAQ 12.1.@.791FAQ 11.3.@.792FAQ 11.2.@.793FAQ 11.1.@.794FAQ 10.2.@.795FAQ 10.1.@.796FAQ 9.3.@.797FAQ 9.2.@.798FAQ 9.1.@.799FAQ 8.3.@.800FAQ 8.2.@.801FAQ 8.1.@.802FAQ 7.3.@.803FAQ 7.2.@.804FAQ 7.1.@.805FAQ 6.2.@.806FAQ 6.1.@.807FAQ 5.4.@.808FAQ 5.3.@.809FAQ 5.2.@.810FAQ 5.1.@.811FAQ 4.3.@.812FAQ 4.2.@.813FAQ 4.1.@.814FAQ 3.3.@.815FAQ 3.2.@.816FAQ 3.1.@.817FAQ 2.2.@.818FAQ 2.1.@.819FAQ 1.3.@.820FAQ 1.2.@.821FAQ 1.1.@.822-3-2-1+1+20

FAQ 10.2.jFAQ 10.2.sFAQ 10.1.aeFAQ 10.1.alFAQ 9.3.biFAQ 9.3.bsFAQ 9.2.bxFAQ 9.2.cgFAQ 9.1.coFAQ 9.1.cvFAQ 8.3.daFAQ 8.3.dgFAQ 8.2.erFAQ 8.2.faFAQ 8.1.ftFAQ 8.1.geFAQ 7.3.giFAQ 7.3.grFAQ 7.2.hfFAQ 7.2.hnFAQ 7.1.ieFAQ 7.1.inFAQ 6.2.@.271FAQ 6.2.@.280FAQ 6.1.@.301FAQ 6.1.@.310FAQ 5.4.@.313FAQ 5.4.@.334FAQ 5.3.@.337FAQ 5.3.@.389FAQ 5.2.@.392FAQ 5.2.@.410FAQ 5.1.@.413FAQ 5.1.@.446FAQ 4.3.@.456FAQ 4.3.@.465FAQ 4.2.@.513FAQ 4.2.@.521FAQ 4.1.@.545FAQ 4.1.@.552FAQ 3.3.@.564FAQ 3.3.@.572FAQ 3.2.@.593FAQ 3.2.@.594FAQ 3.2.@.601FAQ 3.1.@.606FAQ 3.1.@.614FAQ 2.2.@.638FAQ 2.2.@.647FAQ 2.1.@.657FAQ 2.1.@.666FAQ 1.3.@.698FAQ 1.3.@.706FAQ 1.2.@.714FAQ 1.2.@.724FAQ 1.1.@.778FAQ 1.1.@.787FAQ 12.3.@.790FAQ 12.2.@.791FAQ 12.1.@.792FAQ 11.3.@.793FAQ 11.2.@.794FAQ 11.1.@.795FAQ 10.2.@.796FAQ 10.1.@.797FAQ 9.3.@.798FAQ 9.2.@.799FAQ 9.1.@.800FAQ 8.3.@.801FAQ 8.2.@.802FAQ 8.1.@.803FAQ 7.3.@.804FAQ 7.2.@.805FAQ 7.1.@.806FAQ 6.2.@.807FAQ 6.1.@.808FAQ 5.4.@.809FAQ 5.3.@.810FAQ 5.2.@.811FAQ 5.1.@.812FAQ 4.3.@.813FAQ 4.2.@.814FAQ 4.1.@.815FAQ 3.3.@.816FAQ 3.2.@.817FAQ 3.1.@.818FAQ 2.2.@.819FAQ 2.1.@.820FAQ 1.3.@.821FAQ 1.2.@.822FAQ 1.1.@.823-3-2-1+1+20

FAQ 10.2.kFAQ 10.2.tFAQ 10.1.afFAQ 10.1.amFAQ 9.3.bjFAQ 9.3.btFAQ 9.2.byFAQ 9.2.chFAQ 9.1.cpFAQ 9.1.cwFAQ 8.3.dbFAQ 8.3.dhFAQ 8.2.esFAQ 8.2.fbFAQ 8.1.fuFAQ 8.1.gfFAQ 7.3.gjFAQ 7.3.gsFAQ 7.2.hgFAQ 7.2.hoFAQ 7.1.ifFAQ 7.1.ioFAQ 6.2.@.272FAQ 6.2.@.281FAQ 6.1.@.302FAQ 6.1.@.311FAQ 5.4.@.314FAQ 5.4.@.335FAQ 5.3.@.338FAQ 5.3.@.390FAQ 5.2.@.393FAQ 5.2.@.411FAQ 5.1.@.414FAQ 5.1.@.447FAQ 4.3.@.457FAQ 4.3.@.466FAQ 4.2.@.514FAQ 4.2.@.522FAQ 4.1.@.546FAQ 4.1.@.553FAQ 3.3.@.565FAQ 3.3.@.573FAQ 3.2.@.594FAQ 3.2.@.595FAQ 3.2.@.602FAQ 3.1.@.607FAQ 3.1.@.615FAQ 2.2.@.639FAQ 2.2.@.648FAQ 2.1.@.658FAQ 2.1.@.667FAQ 1.3.@.699FAQ 1.3.@.707FAQ 1.2.@.715FAQ 1.2.@.725FAQ 1.1.@.779FAQ 1.1.@.788FAQ 12.3.@.791FAQ 12.2.@.792FAQ 12.1.@.793FAQ 11.3.@.794FAQ 11.2.@.795FAQ 11.1.@.796FAQ 10.2.@.797FAQ 10.1.@.798FAQ 9.3.@.799FAQ 9.2.@.800FAQ 9.1.@.801FAQ 8.3.@.802FAQ 8.2.@.803FAQ 8.1.@.804FAQ 7.3.@.805FAQ 7.2.@.806FAQ 7.1.@.807FAQ 6.2.@.808FAQ 6.1.@.809FAQ 5.4.@.810FAQ 5.3.@.811FAQ 5.2.@.812FAQ 5.1.@.813FAQ 4.3.@.814FAQ 4.2.@.815FAQ 4.1.@.816FAQ 3.3.@.817FAQ 3.2.@.818FAQ 3.1.@.819FAQ 2.2.@.820FAQ 2.1.@.821FAQ 1.3.@.822FAQ 1.2.@.823FAQ 1.1.@.824Parks, forests, gardens

FAQ 10.2.lFAQ 10.2.uFAQ 10.1.agFAQ 10.1.anFAQ 9.3.bkFAQ 9.3.buFAQ 9.2.bzFAQ 9.2.ciFAQ 9.1.cqFAQ 9.1.cxFAQ 8.3.dcFAQ 8.3.diFAQ 8.2.etFAQ 8.2.fcFAQ 8.1.fvFAQ 8.1.ggFAQ 7.3.gkFAQ 7.3.gtFAQ 7.2.hhFAQ 7.2.hpFAQ 7.1.igFAQ 7.1.ipFAQ 6.2.@.273FAQ 6.2.@.282FAQ 6.1.@.303FAQ 6.1.@.312FAQ 5.4.@.315FAQ 5.4.@.336FAQ 5.3.@.339FAQ 5.3.@.391FAQ 5.2.@.394FAQ 5.2.@.412FAQ 5.1.@.415FAQ 5.1.@.448FAQ 4.3.@.458FAQ 4.3.@.467FAQ 4.2.@.515FAQ 4.2.@.523FAQ 4.1.@.547FAQ 4.1.@.554FAQ 3.3.@.566FAQ 3.3.@.574FAQ 3.2.@.595FAQ 3.2.@.596FAQ 3.2.@.603FAQ 3.1.@.608FAQ 3.1.@.616FAQ 2.2.@.640FAQ 2.2.@.649FAQ 2.1.@.659FAQ 2.1.@.668FAQ 1.3.@.700FAQ 1.3.@.708FAQ 1.2.@.716FAQ 1.2.@.726FAQ 1.1.@.780FAQ 1.1.@.789FAQ 12.3.@.792FAQ 12.2.@.793FAQ 12.1.@.794FAQ 11.3.@.795FAQ 11.2.@.796FAQ 11.1.@.797FAQ 10.2.@.798FAQ 10.1.@.799FAQ 9.3.@.800FAQ 9.2.@.801FAQ 9.1.@.802FAQ 8.3.@.803FAQ 8.2.@.804FAQ 8.1.@.805FAQ 7.3.@.806FAQ 7.2.@.807FAQ 7.1.@.808FAQ 6.2.@.809FAQ 6.1.@.810FAQ 5.4.@.811FAQ 5.3.@.812FAQ 5.2.@.813FAQ 5.1.@.814FAQ 4.3.@.815FAQ 4.2.@.816FAQ 4.1.@.817FAQ 3.3.@.818FAQ 3.2.@.819FAQ 3.1.@.820FAQ 2.2.@.821FAQ 2.1.@.822FAQ 1.3.@.823FAQ 1.2.@.824FAQ 1.1.@.825Sea, river, lakes, irrigation

FAQ 10.2.mFAQ 10.2.vFAQ 10.1.ahFAQ 10.1.aoFAQ 9.3.blFAQ 9.3.bvFAQ 9.2.caFAQ 9.2.cjFAQ 9.1.crFAQ 9.1.cyFAQ 8.3.ddFAQ 8.3.djFAQ 8.2.euFAQ 8.2.fdFAQ 8.1.fwFAQ 8.1.ghFAQ 7.3.glFAQ 7.3.guFAQ 7.2.hiFAQ 7.2.hqFAQ 7.1.ihFAQ 7.1.iqFAQ 6.2.@.274FAQ 6.2.@.283FAQ 6.1.@.304FAQ 6.1.@.313FAQ 5.4.@.316FAQ 5.4.@.337FAQ 5.3.@.340FAQ 5.3.@.392FAQ 5.2.@.395FAQ 5.2.@.413FAQ 5.1.@.416FAQ 5.1.@.449FAQ 4.3.@.459FAQ 4.3.@.468FAQ 4.2.@.516FAQ 4.2.@.524FAQ 4.1.@.548FAQ 4.1.@.555FAQ 3.3.@.567FAQ 3.3.@.575FAQ 3.2.@.596FAQ 3.2.@.597FAQ 3.2.@.604FAQ 3.1.@.609FAQ 3.1.@.617FAQ 2.2.@.641FAQ 2.2.@.650FAQ 2.1.@.660FAQ 2.1.@.669FAQ 1.3.@.701FAQ 1.3.@.709FAQ 1.2.@.717FAQ 1.2.@.727FAQ 1.1.@.781FAQ 1.1.@.790FAQ 12.3.@.793FAQ 12.2.@.794FAQ 12.1.@.795FAQ 11.3.@.796FAQ 11.2.@.797FAQ 11.1.@.798FAQ 10.2.@.799FAQ 10.1.@.800FAQ 9.3.@.801FAQ 9.2.@.802FAQ 9.1.@.803FAQ 8.3.@.804FAQ 8.2.@.805FAQ 8.1.@.806FAQ 7.3.@.807FAQ 7.2.@.808FAQ 7.1.@.809FAQ 6.2.@.810FAQ 6.1.@.811FAQ 5.4.@.812FAQ 5.3.@.813FAQ 5.2.@.814FAQ 5.1.@.815FAQ 4.3.@.816FAQ 4.2.@.817FAQ 4.1.@.818FAQ 3.3.@.819FAQ 3.2.@.820FAQ 3.1.@.821FAQ 2.2.@.822FAQ 2.1.@.823FAQ 1.3.@.824FAQ 1.2.@.825FAQ 1.1.@.826Buildings and road materials

FAQ 10.2.nFAQ 10.2.wFAQ 10.1.aiFAQ 10.1.apFAQ 9.3.bmFAQ 9.3.bwFAQ 9.2.cbFAQ 9.2.ckFAQ 9.1.csFAQ 9.1.czFAQ 8.3.deFAQ 8.3.dkFAQ 8.2.evFAQ 8.2.feFAQ 8.1.fxFAQ 8.1.giFAQ 7.3.gmFAQ 7.3.gvFAQ 7.2.hjFAQ 7.2.hrFAQ 7.1.iiFAQ 7.1.irFAQ 6.2.@.275FAQ 6.2.@.284FAQ 6.1.@.305FAQ 6.1.@.314FAQ 5.4.@.317FAQ 5.4.@.338FAQ 5.3.@.341FAQ 5.3.@.393FAQ 5.2.@.396FAQ 5.2.@.414FAQ 5.1.@.417FAQ 5.1.@.450FAQ 4.3.@.460FAQ 4.3.@.469FAQ 4.2.@.517FAQ 4.2.@.525FAQ 4.1.@.549FAQ 4.1.@.556FAQ 3.3.@.568FAQ 3.3.@.576FAQ 3.2.@.597FAQ 3.2.@.598FAQ 3.2.@.605FAQ 3.1.@.610FAQ 3.1.@.618FAQ 2.2.@.642FAQ 2.2.@.651FAQ 2.1.@.661FAQ 2.1.@.670FAQ 1.3.@.702FAQ 1.3.@.710FAQ 1.2.@.718FAQ 1.2.@.728FAQ 1.1.@.782FAQ 1.1.@.791FAQ 12.3.@.794FAQ 12.2.@.795FAQ 12.1.@.796FAQ 11.3.@.797FAQ 11.2.@.798FAQ 11.1.@.799FAQ 10.2.@.800FAQ 10.1.@.801FAQ 9.3.@.802FAQ 9.2.@.803FAQ 9.1.@.804FAQ 8.3.@.805FAQ 8.2.@.806FAQ 8.1.@.807FAQ 7.3.@.808FAQ 7.2.@.809FAQ 7.1.@.810FAQ 6.2.@.811FAQ 6.1.@.812FAQ 5.4.@.813FAQ 5.3.@.814FAQ 5.2.@.815FAQ 5.1.@.816FAQ 4.3.@.817FAQ 4.2.@.818FAQ 4.1.@.819FAQ 3.3.@.820FAQ 3.2.@.821FAQ 3.1.@.822FAQ 2.2.@.823FAQ 2.1.@.824FAQ 1.3.@.825FAQ 1.2.@.826FAQ 1.1.@.827Domestic/ industrial heating

FAQ 10.2.oFAQ 10.2.xFAQ 10.1.ajFAQ 10.1.aqFAQ 9.3.bnFAQ 9.3.bxFAQ 9.2.ccFAQ 9.2.clFAQ 9.1.ctFAQ 9.1.daFAQ 8.3.dfFAQ 8.3.dlFAQ 8.2.ewFAQ 8.2.ffFAQ 8.1.fyFAQ 8.1.gjFAQ 7.3.gnFAQ 7.3.gwFAQ 7.2.hkFAQ 7.2.hsFAQ 7.1.ijFAQ 7.1.isFAQ 6.2.@.276FAQ 6.2.@.285FAQ 6.1.@.306FAQ 6.1.@.315FAQ 5.4.@.318FAQ 5.4.@.339FAQ 5.3.@.342FAQ 5.3.@.394FAQ 5.2.@.397FAQ 5.2.@.415FAQ 5.1.@.418FAQ 5.1.@.451FAQ 4.3.@.461FAQ 4.3.@.470FAQ 4.2.@.518FAQ 4.2.@.526FAQ 4.1.@.550FAQ 4.1.@.557FAQ 3.3.@.569FAQ 3.3.@.577FAQ 3.2.@.598FAQ 3.2.@.599FAQ 3.2.@.606FAQ 3.1.@.611FAQ 3.1.@.619FAQ 2.2.@.643FAQ 2.2.@.652FAQ 2.1.@.662FAQ 2.1.@.671FAQ 1.3.@.703FAQ 1.3.@.711FAQ 1.2.@.719FAQ 1.2.@.729FAQ 1.1.@.783FAQ 1.1.@.792FAQ 12.3.@.795FAQ 12.2.@.796FAQ 12.1.@.797FAQ 11.3.@.798FAQ 11.2.@.799FAQ 11.1.@.800FAQ 10.2.@.801FAQ 10.1.@.802FAQ 9.3.@.803FAQ 9.2.@.804FAQ 9.1.@.805FAQ 8.3.@.806FAQ 8.2.@.807FAQ 8.1.@.808FAQ 7.3.@.809FAQ 7.2.@.810FAQ 7.1.@.811FAQ 6.2.@.812FAQ 6.1.@.813FAQ 5.4.@.814FAQ 5.3.@.815FAQ 5.2.@.816FAQ 5.1.@.817FAQ 4.3.@.818FAQ 4.2.@.819FAQ 4.1.@.820FAQ 3.3.@.821FAQ 3.2.@.822FAQ 3.1.@.823FAQ 2.2.@.824FAQ 2.1.@.825FAQ 1.3.@.826FAQ 1.2.@.827FAQ 1.1.@.828Building density, city layout, height and size

FAQ 10.2.pFAQ 10.2.yFAQ 10.1.akFAQ 10.1.arFAQ 9.3.boFAQ 9.3.byFAQ 9.2.cdFAQ 9.2.cmFAQ 9.1.cuFAQ 9.1.dbFAQ 8.3.dgFAQ 8.3.dmFAQ 8.2.exFAQ 8.2.fgFAQ 8.1.fzFAQ 8.1.gkFAQ 7.3.goFAQ 7.3.gxFAQ 7.2.hlFAQ 7.2.htFAQ 7.1.ikFAQ 7.1.itFAQ 6.2.@.277FAQ 6.2.@.286FAQ 6.1.@.307FAQ 6.1.@.316FAQ 5.4.@.319FAQ 5.4.@.340FAQ 5.3.@.343FAQ 5.3.@.395FAQ 5.2.@.398FAQ 5.2.@.416FAQ 5.1.@.419FAQ 5.1.@.452FAQ 4.3.@.462FAQ 4.3.@.471FAQ 4.2.@.519FAQ 4.2.@.527FAQ 4.1.@.551FAQ 4.1.@.558FAQ 3.3.@.570FAQ 3.3.@.578FAQ 3.2.@.599FAQ 3.2.@.600FAQ 3.2.@.607FAQ 3.1.@.612FAQ 3.1.@.620FAQ 2.2.@.644FAQ 2.2.@.653FAQ 2.1.@.663FAQ 2.1.@.672FAQ 1.3.@.704FAQ 1.3.@.712FAQ 1.2.@.720FAQ 1.2.@.730FAQ 1.1.@.784FAQ 1.1.@.793FAQ 12.3.@.796FAQ 12.2.@.797FAQ 12.1.@.798FAQ 11.3.@.799FAQ 11.2.@.800FAQ 11.1.@.801FAQ 10.2.@.802FAQ 10.1.@.803FAQ 9.3.@.804FAQ 9.2.@.805FAQ 9.1.@.806FAQ 8.3.@.807FAQ 8.2.@.808FAQ 8.1.@.809FAQ 7.3.@.810FAQ 7.2.@.811FAQ 7.1.@.812FAQ 6.2.@.813FAQ 6.1.@.814FAQ 5.4.@.815FAQ 5.3.@.816FAQ 5.2.@.817FAQ 5.1.@.818FAQ 4.3.@.819FAQ 4.2.@.820FAQ 4.1.@.821FAQ 3.3.@.822FAQ 3.2.@.823FAQ 3.1.@.824FAQ 2.2.@.825FAQ 2.1.@.826FAQ 1.3.@.827FAQ 1.2.@.828FAQ 1.1.@.829FAQ 10.2: Why are cities the hotspots of global warming?Cities are usually warmer than their surrounding areas due to factors that trap and release heat and a lack of natural cooling influences, such as water and vegetation.

FAQ 10.2.qFAQ 10.2.zFAQ 10.1.alFAQ 10.1.asFAQ 9.3.bpFAQ 9.3.bzFAQ 9.2.ceFAQ 9.2.cnFAQ 9.1.cvFAQ 9.1.dcFAQ 8.3.dhFAQ 8.3.dnFAQ 8.2.eyFAQ 8.2.fhFAQ 8.1.gaFAQ 8.1.glFAQ 7.3.gpFAQ 7.3.gyFAQ 7.2.hmFAQ 7.2.huFAQ 7.1.ilFAQ 7.1.iuFAQ 6.2.@.278FAQ 6.2.@.287FAQ 6.1.@.308FAQ 6.1.@.317FAQ 5.4.@.320FAQ 5.4.@.341FAQ 5.3.@.344FAQ 5.3.@.396FAQ 5.2.@.399FAQ 5.2.@.417FAQ 5.1.@.420FAQ 5.1.@.453FAQ 4.3.@.463FAQ 4.3.@.472FAQ 4.2.@.520FAQ 4.2.@.528FAQ 4.1.@.552FAQ 4.1.@.559FAQ 3.3.@.571FAQ 3.3.@.579FAQ 3.2.@.600FAQ 3.2.@.601FAQ 3.2.@.608FAQ 3.1.@.613FAQ 3.1.@.621FAQ 2.2.@.645FAQ 2.2.@.654FAQ 2.1.@.664FAQ 2.1.@.673FAQ 1.3.@.705FAQ 1.3.@.713FAQ 1.2.@.721FAQ 1.2.@.731FAQ 1.1.@.785FAQ 1.1.@.794FAQ 12.3.@.797FAQ 12.2.@.798FAQ 12.1.@.799FAQ 11.3.@.800FAQ 11.2.@.801FAQ 11.1.@.802FAQ 10.2.@.803FAQ 10.1.@.804FAQ 9.3.@.805FAQ 9.2.@.806FAQ 9.1.@.807FAQ 8.3.@.808FAQ 8.2.@.809FAQ 8.1.@.810FAQ 7.3.@.811FAQ 7.2.@.812FAQ 7.1.@.813FAQ 6.2.@.814FAQ 6.1.@.815FAQ 5.4.@.816FAQ 5.3.@.817FAQ 5.2.@.818FAQ 5.1.@.819FAQ 4.3.@.820FAQ 4.2.@.821FAQ 4.1.@.822FAQ 3.3.@.823FAQ 3.2.@.824FAQ 3.1.@.825FAQ 2.2.@.826FAQ 2.1.@.827FAQ 1.3.@.828FAQ 1.2.@.829FAQ 1.1.@.830Cities often lack vegetation and water

FAQ 10.2.rFAQ 10.2.aaFAQ 10.1.amFAQ 10.1.atFAQ 9.3.bqFAQ 9.3.caFAQ 9.2.cfFAQ 9.2.coFAQ 9.1.cwFAQ 9.1.ddFAQ 8.3.diFAQ 8.3.doFAQ 8.2.ezFAQ 8.2.fiFAQ 8.1.gbFAQ 8.1.gmFAQ 7.3.gqFAQ 7.3.gzFAQ 7.2.hnFAQ 7.2.hvFAQ 7.1.imFAQ 7.1.ivFAQ 6.2.@.279FAQ 6.2.@.288FAQ 6.1.@.309FAQ 6.1.@.318FAQ 5.4.@.321FAQ 5.4.@.342FAQ 5.3.@.345FAQ 5.3.@.397FAQ 5.2.@.400FAQ 5.2.@.418FAQ 5.1.@.421FAQ 5.1.@.454FAQ 4.3.@.464FAQ 4.3.@.473FAQ 4.2.@.521FAQ 4.2.@.529FAQ 4.1.@.553FAQ 4.1.@.560FAQ 3.3.@.572FAQ 3.3.@.580FAQ 3.2.@.601FAQ 3.2.@.602FAQ 3.2.@.609FAQ 3.1.@.614FAQ 3.1.@.622FAQ 2.2.@.646FAQ 2.2.@.655FAQ 2.1.@.665FAQ 2.1.@.674FAQ 1.3.@.706FAQ 1.3.@.714FAQ 1.2.@.722FAQ 1.2.@.732FAQ 1.1.@.786FAQ 1.1.@.795FAQ 12.3.@.798FAQ 12.2.@.799FAQ 12.1.@.800FAQ 11.3.@.801FAQ 11.2.@.802FAQ 11.1.@.803FAQ 10.2.@.804FAQ 10.1.@.805FAQ 9.3.@.806FAQ 9.2.@.807FAQ 9.1.@.808FAQ 8.3.@.809FAQ 8.2.@.810FAQ 8.1.@.811FAQ 7.3.@.812FAQ 7.2.@.813FAQ 7.1.@.814FAQ 6.2.@.815FAQ 6.1.@.816FAQ 5.4.@.817FAQ 5.3.@.818FAQ 5.2.@.819FAQ 5.1.@.820FAQ 4.3.@.821FAQ 4.2.@.822FAQ 4.1.@.823FAQ 3.3.@.824FAQ 3.2.@.825FAQ 3.1.@.826FAQ 2.2.@.827FAQ 2.1.@.828FAQ 1.3.@.829FAQ 1.2.@.830FAQ 1.1.@.831Variations across different climates

FAQ 10.2.sFAQ 10.2.abFAQ 10.1.anFAQ 10.1.auFAQ 9.3.brFAQ 9.3.cbFAQ 9.2.cgFAQ 9.2.cpFAQ 9.1.cxFAQ 9.1.deFAQ 8.3.djFAQ 8.3.dpFAQ 8.2.faFAQ 8.2.fjFAQ 8.1.gcFAQ 8.1.gnFAQ 7.3.grFAQ 7.3.haFAQ 7.2.hoFAQ 7.2.hwFAQ 7.1.inFAQ 7.1.@.256FAQ 6.2.@.280FAQ 6.2.@.289FAQ 6.1.@.310FAQ 6.1.@.319FAQ 5.4.@.322FAQ 5.4.@.343FAQ 5.3.@.346FAQ 5.3.@.398FAQ 5.2.@.401FAQ 5.2.@.419FAQ 5.1.@.422FAQ 5.1.@.455FAQ 4.3.@.465FAQ 4.3.@.474FAQ 4.2.@.522FAQ 4.2.@.530FAQ 4.1.@.554FAQ 4.1.@.561FAQ 3.3.@.573FAQ 3.3.@.581FAQ 3.2.@.602FAQ 3.2.@.603FAQ 3.2.@.610FAQ 3.1.@.615FAQ 3.1.@.623FAQ 2.2.@.647FAQ 2.2.@.656FAQ 2.1.@.666FAQ 2.1.@.675FAQ 1.3.@.707FAQ 1.3.@.715FAQ 1.2.@.723FAQ 1.2.@.733FAQ 1.1.@.787FAQ 1.1.@.796FAQ 12.3.@.799FAQ 12.2.@.800FAQ 12.1.@.801FAQ 11.3.@.802FAQ 11.2.@.803FAQ 11.1.@.804FAQ 10.2.@.805FAQ 10.1.@.806FAQ 9.3.@.807FAQ 9.2.@.808FAQ 9.1.@.809FAQ 8.3.@.810FAQ 8.2.@.811FAQ 8.1.@.812FAQ 7.3.@.813FAQ 7.2.@.814FAQ 7.1.@.815FAQ 6.2.@.816FAQ 6.1.@.817FAQ 5.4.@.818FAQ 5.3.@.819FAQ 5.2.@.820FAQ 5.1.@.821FAQ 4.3.@.822FAQ 4.2.@.823FAQ 4.1.@.824FAQ 3.3.@.825FAQ 3.2.@.826FAQ 3.1.@.827FAQ 2.2.@.828FAQ 2.1.@.829FAQ 1.3.@.830FAQ 1.2.@.831FAQ 1.1.@.832FAQ

FAQ 10.2.tFAQ 10.2.acFAQ 10.1.aoFAQ 10.1.avFAQ 9.3.bsFAQ 9.3.ccFAQ 9.2.chFAQ 9.2.cqFAQ 9.1.cyFAQ 9.1.dfFAQ 8.3.dkFAQ 8.3.dqFAQ 8.2.fbFAQ 8.2.fkFAQ 8.1.gdFAQ 8.1.goFAQ 7.3.gsFAQ 7.3.hbFAQ 7.2.hpFAQ 7.2.hxFAQ 7.1.ioFAQ 7.1.@.257FAQ 6.2.@.281FAQ 6.2.@.290FAQ 6.1.@.311FAQ 6.1.@.320FAQ 5.4.@.323FAQ 5.4.@.344FAQ 5.3.@.347FAQ 5.3.@.399FAQ 5.2.@.402FAQ 5.2.@.420FAQ 5.1.@.423FAQ 5.1.@.456FAQ 4.3.@.466FAQ 4.3.@.475FAQ 4.2.@.523FAQ 4.2.@.531FAQ 4.1.@.555FAQ 4.1.@.562FAQ 3.3.@.574FAQ 3.3.@.582FAQ 3.2.@.603FAQ 3.2.@.604FAQ 3.2.@.611FAQ 3.1.@.616FAQ 3.1.@.624FAQ 2.2.@.648FAQ 2.2.@.657FAQ 2.1.@.667FAQ 2.1.@.676FAQ 1.3.@.708FAQ 1.3.@.716FAQ 1.2.@.724FAQ 1.2.@.734FAQ 1.1.@.788FAQ 1.1.@.797FAQ 12.3.@.800FAQ 12.2.@.801FAQ 12.1.@.802FAQ 11.3.@.803FAQ 11.2.@.804FAQ 11.1.@.805FAQ 10.2.@.806FAQ 10.1.@.807FAQ 9.3.@.808FAQ 9.2.@.809FAQ 9.1.@.810FAQ 8.3.@.811FAQ 8.2.@.812FAQ 8.1.@.813FAQ 7.3.@.814FAQ 7.2.@.815FAQ 7.1.@.816FAQ 6.2.@.817FAQ 6.1.@.818FAQ 5.4.@.819FAQ 5.3.@.820FAQ 5.2.@.821FAQ 5.1.@.822FAQ 4.3.@.823FAQ 4.2.@.824FAQ 4.1.@.825FAQ 3.3.@.826FAQ 3.2.@.827FAQ 3.1.@.828FAQ 2.2.@.829FAQ 2.1.@.830FAQ 1.3.@.831FAQ 1.2.@.832FAQ 1.1.@.833Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 10.2.uFAQ 10.2.adFAQ 10.1.apFAQ 10.1.awFAQ 9.3.btFAQ 9.3.cdFAQ 9.2.ciFAQ 9.2.crFAQ 9.1.czFAQ 9.1.dgFAQ 8.3.dlFAQ 8.3.drFAQ 8.2.fcFAQ 8.2.flFAQ 8.1.geFAQ 8.1.gpFAQ 7.3.gtFAQ 7.3.hcFAQ 7.2.hqFAQ 7.2.hyFAQ 7.1.ipFAQ 7.1.@.258FAQ 6.2.@.282FAQ 6.2.@.291FAQ 6.1.@.312FAQ 6.1.@.321FAQ 5.4.@.324FAQ 5.4.@.345FAQ 5.3.@.348FAQ 5.3.@.400FAQ 5.2.@.403FAQ 5.2.@.421FAQ 5.1.@.424FAQ 5.1.@.457FAQ 4.3.@.467FAQ 4.3.@.476FAQ 4.2.@.524FAQ 4.2.@.532FAQ 4.1.@.556FAQ 4.1.@.563FAQ 3.3.@.575FAQ 3.3.@.583FAQ 3.2.@.604FAQ 3.2.@.605FAQ 3.2.@.612FAQ 3.1.@.617FAQ 3.1.@.625FAQ 2.2.@.649FAQ 2.2.@.658FAQ 2.1.@.668FAQ 2.1.@.677FAQ 1.3.@.709FAQ 1.3.@.717FAQ 1.2.@.725FAQ 1.2.@.735FAQ 1.1.@.789FAQ 1.1.@.798FAQ 12.3.@.801FAQ 12.2.@.802FAQ 12.1.@.803FAQ 11.3.@.804FAQ 11.2.@.805FAQ 11.1.@.806FAQ 10.2.@.807FAQ 10.1.@.808FAQ 9.3.@.809FAQ 9.2.@.810FAQ 9.1.@.811FAQ 8.3.@.812FAQ 8.2.@.813FAQ 8.1.@.814FAQ 7.3.@.815FAQ 7.2.@.816FAQ 7.1.@.817FAQ 6.2.@.818FAQ 6.1.@.819FAQ 5.4.@.820FAQ 5.3.@.821FAQ 5.2.@.822FAQ 5.1.@.823FAQ 4.3.@.824FAQ 4.2.@.825FAQ 4.1.@.826FAQ 3.3.@.827FAQ 3.2.@.828FAQ 3.1.@.829FAQ 2.2.@.830FAQ 2.1.@.831FAQ 1.3.@.832FAQ 1.2.@.833FAQ 1.1.@.834FAQ 11.1 | How Do Changes In Climate Extremes Compare With Changes In Climate Averages?

FAQ 11.1.aFAQ 10.2.vFAQ 10.2.aeFAQ 10.1.aqFAQ 10.1.axFAQ 9.3.buFAQ 9.3.ceFAQ 9.2.cjFAQ 9.2.csFAQ 9.1.daFAQ 9.1.dhFAQ 8.3.dmFAQ 8.3.dsFAQ 8.2.fdFAQ 8.2.fmFAQ 8.1.gfFAQ 8.1.gqFAQ 7.3.guFAQ 7.3.hdFAQ 7.2.hrFAQ 7.2.hzFAQ 7.1.iqFAQ 7.1.@.259FAQ 6.2.@.283FAQ 6.2.@.292FAQ 6.1.@.313FAQ 6.1.@.322FAQ 5.4.@.325FAQ 5.4.@.346FAQ 5.3.@.349FAQ 5.3.@.401FAQ 5.2.@.404FAQ 5.2.@.422FAQ 5.1.@.425FAQ 5.1.@.458FAQ 4.3.@.468FAQ 4.3.@.477FAQ 4.2.@.525FAQ 4.2.@.533FAQ 4.1.@.557FAQ 4.1.@.564FAQ 3.3.@.576FAQ 3.3.@.584FAQ 3.2.@.605FAQ 3.2.@.606FAQ 3.2.@.613FAQ 3.1.@.618FAQ 3.1.@.626FAQ 2.2.@.650FAQ 2.2.@.659FAQ 2.1.@.669FAQ 2.1.@.678FAQ 1.3.@.710FAQ 1.3.@.718FAQ 1.2.@.726FAQ 1.2.@.736FAQ 1.1.@.790FAQ 1.1.@.799FAQ 12.3.@.802FAQ 12.2.@.803FAQ 12.1.@.804FAQ 11.3.@.805FAQ 11.2.@.806FAQ 11.1.@.807FAQ 10.2.@.808FAQ 10.1.@.809FAQ 9.3.@.810FAQ 9.2.@.811FAQ 9.1.@.812FAQ 8.3.@.813FAQ 8.2.@.814FAQ 8.1.@.815FAQ 7.3.@.816FAQ 7.2.@.817FAQ 7.1.@.818FAQ 6.2.@.819FAQ 6.1.@.820FAQ 5.4.@.821FAQ 5.3.@.822FAQ 5.2.@.823FAQ 5.1.@.824FAQ 4.3.@.825FAQ 4.2.@.826FAQ 4.1.@.827FAQ 3.3.@.828FAQ 3.2.@.829FAQ 3.1.@.830FAQ 2.2.@.831FAQ 2.1.@.832FAQ 1.3.@.833FAQ 1.2.@.834FAQ 1.1.@.835Human-caused climate change alters the frequency and intensity of climate variables (e.g., surface temperature) and phenomena (e.g., tropical cyclones) in a variety of ways. We now know that the ways in which average and extreme conditions have changed (and will continue to change) depend on the variable and the phenomenon being considered. Changes in local surface temperature extremes closely follow the corresponding changes in local average surface temperatures. On the contrary, changes in precipitation extremes (heavy precipitation) generally do not follow those in average precipitation, and can even move in the opposite direction (e.g., with average precipitation decreasing but extreme precipitation increasing).

FAQ 11.1.bFAQ 10.2.wFAQ 10.2.afFAQ 10.1.arFAQ 10.1.ayFAQ 9.3.bvFAQ 9.3.cfFAQ 9.2.ckFAQ 9.2.ctFAQ 9.1.dbFAQ 9.1.diFAQ 8.3.dnFAQ 8.3.dtFAQ 8.2.feFAQ 8.2.fnFAQ 8.1.ggFAQ 8.1.grFAQ 7.3.gvFAQ 7.3.heFAQ 7.2.hsFAQ 7.2.iaFAQ 7.1.irFAQ 7.1.@.260FAQ 6.2.@.284FAQ 6.2.@.293FAQ 6.1.@.314FAQ 6.1.@.323FAQ 5.4.@.326FAQ 5.4.@.347FAQ 5.3.@.350FAQ 5.3.@.402FAQ 5.2.@.405FAQ 5.2.@.423FAQ 5.1.@.426FAQ 5.1.@.459FAQ 4.3.@.469FAQ 4.3.@.478FAQ 4.2.@.526FAQ 4.2.@.534FAQ 4.1.@.558FAQ 4.1.@.565FAQ 3.3.@.577FAQ 3.3.@.585FAQ 3.2.@.606FAQ 3.2.@.607FAQ 3.2.@.614FAQ 3.1.@.619FAQ 3.1.@.627FAQ 2.2.@.651FAQ 2.2.@.660FAQ 2.1.@.670FAQ 2.1.@.679FAQ 1.3.@.711FAQ 1.3.@.719FAQ 1.2.@.727FAQ 1.2.@.737FAQ 1.1.@.791FAQ 1.1.@.800FAQ 12.3.@.803FAQ 12.2.@.804FAQ 12.1.@.805FAQ 11.3.@.806FAQ 11.2.@.807FAQ 11.1.@.808FAQ 10.2.@.809FAQ 10.1.@.810FAQ 9.3.@.811FAQ 9.2.@.812FAQ 9.1.@.813FAQ 8.3.@.814FAQ 8.2.@.815FAQ 8.1.@.816FAQ 7.3.@.817FAQ 7.2.@.818FAQ 7.1.@.819FAQ 6.2.@.820FAQ 6.1.@.821FAQ 5.4.@.822FAQ 5.3.@.823FAQ 5.2.@.824FAQ 5.1.@.825FAQ 4.3.@.826FAQ 4.2.@.827FAQ 4.1.@.828FAQ 3.3.@.829FAQ 3.2.@.830FAQ 3.1.@.831FAQ 2.2.@.832FAQ 2.1.@.833FAQ 1.3.@.834FAQ 1.2.@.835FAQ 1.1.@.836Climate change will manifest very differently depending on which region, season and variable we are interested in. For example, over some parts of the Arctic, temperatures will warm at rates about three to four times higher during winter compared to summer months. And in summer, most of northern Europe will experience larger temperatures increases than most places in south-east South America and Australasia, with differences that can be larger than 1°C, depending on the level of global warming. In general, differences across regions and seasons arise because the underlying physical processes differ drastically across regions and seasons.

FAQ 11.1.cFAQ 10.2.xFAQ 10.2.agFAQ 10.1.asFAQ 10.1.azFAQ 9.3.bwFAQ 9.3.cgFAQ 9.2.clFAQ 9.2.cuFAQ 9.1.dcFAQ 9.1.djFAQ 8.3.doFAQ 8.3.duFAQ 8.2.ffFAQ 8.2.foFAQ 8.1.ghFAQ 8.1.gsFAQ 7.3.gwFAQ 7.3.hfFAQ 7.2.htFAQ 7.2.ibFAQ 7.1.isFAQ 7.1.@.261FAQ 6.2.@.285FAQ 6.2.@.294FAQ 6.1.@.315FAQ 6.1.@.324FAQ 5.4.@.327FAQ 5.4.@.348FAQ 5.3.@.351FAQ 5.3.@.403FAQ 5.2.@.406FAQ 5.2.@.424FAQ 5.1.@.427FAQ 5.1.@.460FAQ 4.3.@.470FAQ 4.3.@.479FAQ 4.2.@.527FAQ 4.2.@.535FAQ 4.1.@.559FAQ 4.1.@.566FAQ 3.3.@.578FAQ 3.3.@.586FAQ 3.2.@.607FAQ 3.2.@.608FAQ 3.2.@.615FAQ 3.1.@.620FAQ 3.1.@.628FAQ 2.2.@.652FAQ 2.2.@.661FAQ 2.1.@.671FAQ 2.1.@.680FAQ 1.3.@.712FAQ 1.3.@.720FAQ 1.2.@.728FAQ 1.2.@.738FAQ 1.1.@.792FAQ 1.1.@.801FAQ 12.3.@.804FAQ 12.2.@.805FAQ 12.1.@.806FAQ 11.3.@.807FAQ 11.2.@.808FAQ 11.1.@.809FAQ 10.2.@.810FAQ 10.1.@.811FAQ 9.3.@.812FAQ 9.2.@.813FAQ 9.1.@.814FAQ 8.3.@.815FAQ 8.2.@.816FAQ 8.1.@.817FAQ 7.3.@.818FAQ 7.2.@.819FAQ 7.1.@.820FAQ 6.2.@.821FAQ 6.1.@.822FAQ 5.4.@.823FAQ 5.3.@.824FAQ 5.2.@.825FAQ 5.1.@.826FAQ 4.3.@.827FAQ 4.2.@.828FAQ 4.1.@.829FAQ 3.3.@.830FAQ 3.2.@.831FAQ 3.1.@.832FAQ 2.2.@.833FAQ 2.1.@.834FAQ 1.3.@.835FAQ 1.2.@.836FAQ 1.1.@.837Climate change will also manifest differently for different weather regimes and can lead to contrasting changes in average and extreme conditions. Observations of the recent past and climate model projections show that, in most places, changes in daily temperatures are dominated by a general warming where the climatological average and extreme values are shifted towards higher temperatures, making warm extremes more frequent and cold extremes less frequent. The top panels in FAQ 11.1, Figure 1 show projected changes in surface temperature for long-term average conditions (left) and for extreme hot days (right) during the warm season (summer in mid- to high latitudes). Projected increases in long-term average temperature differ substantially between different places, varying from less than 3°C in some places in central South Asia and southern South America to over 7°C in some places in North America, North Africa and the Middle East. Changes in extreme hot days follow changes in average conditions quite closely, although, in some places, the warming rates for extremes can be intensified (e.g., southern Europe and the Amazon basin) or weakened (e.g., northern Asia and Greenland) compared to average values.

FAQ 11.1.dFAQ 10.2.yFAQ 10.2.ahFAQ 10.1.atFAQ 10.1.baFAQ 9.3.bxFAQ 9.3.chFAQ 9.2.cmFAQ 9.2.cvFAQ 9.1.ddFAQ 9.1.dkFAQ 8.3.dpFAQ 8.3.dvFAQ 8.2.fgFAQ 8.2.fpFAQ 8.1.giFAQ 8.1.gtFAQ 7.3.gxFAQ 7.3.hgFAQ 7.2.huFAQ 7.2.icFAQ 7.1.itFAQ 7.1.@.262FAQ 6.2.@.286FAQ 6.2.@.295FAQ 6.1.@.316FAQ 6.1.@.325FAQ 5.4.@.328FAQ 5.4.@.349FAQ 5.3.@.352FAQ 5.3.@.404FAQ 5.2.@.407FAQ 5.2.@.425FAQ 5.1.@.428FAQ 5.1.@.461FAQ 4.3.@.471FAQ 4.3.@.480FAQ 4.2.@.528FAQ 4.2.@.536FAQ 4.1.@.560FAQ 4.1.@.567FAQ 3.3.@.579FAQ 3.3.@.587FAQ 3.2.@.608FAQ 3.2.@.609FAQ 3.2.@.616FAQ 3.1.@.621FAQ 3.1.@.629FAQ 2.2.@.653FAQ 2.2.@.662FAQ 2.1.@.672FAQ 2.1.@.681FAQ 1.3.@.713FAQ 1.3.@.721FAQ 1.2.@.729FAQ 1.2.@.739FAQ 1.1.@.793FAQ 1.1.@.802FAQ 12.3.@.805FAQ 12.2.@.806FAQ 12.1.@.807FAQ 11.3.@.808FAQ 11.2.@.809FAQ 11.1.@.810FAQ 10.2.@.811FAQ 10.1.@.812FAQ 9.3.@.813FAQ 9.2.@.814FAQ 9.1.@.815FAQ 8.3.@.816FAQ 8.2.@.817FAQ 8.1.@.818FAQ 7.3.@.819FAQ 7.2.@.820FAQ 7.1.@.821FAQ 6.2.@.822FAQ 6.1.@.823FAQ 5.4.@.824FAQ 5.3.@.825FAQ 5.2.@.826FAQ 5.1.@.827FAQ 4.3.@.828FAQ 4.2.@.829FAQ 4.1.@.830FAQ 3.3.@.831FAQ 3.2.@.832FAQ 3.1.@.833FAQ 2.2.@.834FAQ 2.1.@.835FAQ 1.3.@.836FAQ 1.2.@.837FAQ 1.1.@.838Recent observations and global and regional climate model projections point to changes in precipitation extremes (including both rainfall and snowfall extremes) differing drastically from those in average precipitation. The bottom panels in FAQ 11.1, Figure 1 show projected changes in the long-term average precipitation (left) and in heavy precipitation (right). Averaged precipitation changes show striking regional differences, with substantial drying in places such as southern Europe and northern South America and wetting in places such as the Middle East and southern South America. Changes in extreme precipitation are much more uniform, with systematic increases over nearly all land regions. The physical reasons behind the different responses of averaged and extreme precipitation are now well understood. The intensification of extreme precipitation is driven by the increase in atmospheric water vapour (about 7% per 1°C of warming near the surface), although this is modulated by various dynamical changes. In contrast, changes in average precipitation are driven not only by moisture increases but also by slower processes that constrain future changes over the globe to only 2–3% per 1°C of warming near the surface.

FAQ 11.1.eFAQ 10.2.zFAQ 10.2.aiFAQ 10.1.auFAQ 10.1.bbFAQ 9.3.byFAQ 9.3.ciFAQ 9.2.cnFAQ 9.2.cwFAQ 9.1.deFAQ 9.1.dlFAQ 8.3.dqFAQ 8.3.dwFAQ 8.2.fhFAQ 8.2.fqFAQ 8.1.gjFAQ 8.1.guFAQ 7.3.gyFAQ 7.3.hhFAQ 7.2.hvFAQ 7.2.idFAQ 7.1.iuFAQ 7.1.@.263FAQ 6.2.@.287FAQ 6.2.@.296FAQ 6.1.@.317FAQ 6.1.@.326FAQ 5.4.@.329FAQ 5.4.@.350FAQ 5.3.@.353FAQ 5.3.@.405FAQ 5.2.@.408FAQ 5.2.@.426FAQ 5.1.@.429FAQ 5.1.@.462FAQ 4.3.@.472FAQ 4.3.@.481FAQ 4.2.@.529FAQ 4.2.@.537FAQ 4.1.@.561FAQ 4.1.@.568FAQ 3.3.@.580FAQ 3.3.@.588FAQ 3.2.@.609FAQ 3.2.@.610FAQ 3.2.@.617FAQ 3.1.@.622FAQ 3.1.@.630FAQ 2.2.@.654FAQ 2.2.@.663FAQ 2.1.@.673FAQ 2.1.@.682FAQ 1.3.@.714FAQ 1.3.@.722FAQ 1.2.@.730FAQ 1.2.@.740FAQ 1.1.@.794FAQ 1.1.@.803FAQ 12.3.@.806FAQ 12.2.@.807FAQ 12.1.@.808FAQ 11.3.@.809FAQ 11.2.@.810FAQ 11.1.@.811FAQ 10.2.@.812FAQ 10.1.@.813FAQ 9.3.@.814FAQ 9.2.@.815FAQ 9.1.@.816FAQ 8.3.@.817FAQ 8.2.@.818FAQ 8.1.@.819FAQ 7.3.@.820FAQ 7.2.@.821FAQ 7.1.@.822FAQ 6.2.@.823FAQ 6.1.@.824FAQ 5.4.@.825FAQ 5.3.@.826FAQ 5.2.@.827FAQ 5.1.@.828FAQ 4.3.@.829FAQ 4.2.@.830FAQ 4.1.@.831FAQ 3.3.@.832FAQ 3.2.@.833FAQ 3.1.@.834FAQ 2.2.@.835FAQ 2.1.@.836FAQ 1.3.@.837FAQ 1.2.@.838FAQ 1.1.@.839In summary, the specific relationship between changes in average and extreme conditions strongly depends on the variable or phenomenon being considered. At the local scale, average and extreme surface temperature changes are strongly related, while average and extreme precipitation changes are often weakly related. For both variables, the changes in average and extreme conditions vary strongly across different places due to the effect of local and regional processes.

FAQ 11.1.fFAQ 10.2.aaFAQ 10.2.ajFAQ 10.1.avFAQ 10.1.bcFAQ 9.3.bzFAQ 9.3.cjFAQ 9.2.coFAQ 9.2.cxFAQ 9.1.dfFAQ 9.1.dmFAQ 8.3.drFAQ 8.3.dxFAQ 8.2.fiFAQ 8.2.frFAQ 8.1.gkFAQ 8.1.gvFAQ 7.3.gzFAQ 7.3.hiFAQ 7.2.hwFAQ 7.2.ieFAQ 7.1.ivFAQ 7.1.@.264FAQ 6.2.@.288FAQ 6.2.@.297FAQ 6.1.@.318FAQ 6.1.@.327FAQ 5.4.@.330FAQ 5.4.@.351FAQ 5.3.@.354FAQ 5.3.@.406FAQ 5.2.@.409FAQ 5.2.@.427FAQ 5.1.@.430FAQ 5.1.@.463FAQ 4.3.@.473FAQ 4.3.@.482FAQ 4.2.@.530FAQ 4.2.@.538FAQ 4.1.@.562FAQ 4.1.@.569FAQ 3.3.@.581FAQ 3.3.@.589FAQ 3.2.@.610FAQ 3.2.@.611FAQ 3.2.@.618FAQ 3.1.@.623FAQ 3.1.@.631FAQ 2.2.@.655FAQ 2.2.@.664FAQ 2.1.@.674FAQ 2.1.@.683FAQ 1.3.@.715FAQ 1.3.@.723FAQ 1.2.@.731FAQ 1.2.@.741FAQ 1.1.@.795FAQ 1.1.@.804FAQ 12.3.@.807FAQ 12.2.@.808FAQ 12.1.@.809FAQ 11.3.@.810FAQ 11.2.@.811FAQ 11.1.@.812FAQ 10.2.@.813FAQ 10.1.@.814FAQ 9.3.@.815FAQ 9.2.@.816FAQ 9.1.@.817FAQ 8.3.@.818FAQ 8.2.@.819FAQ 8.1.@.820FAQ 7.3.@.821FAQ 7.2.@.822FAQ 7.1.@.823FAQ 6.2.@.824FAQ 6.1.@.825FAQ 5.4.@.826FAQ 5.3.@.827FAQ 5.2.@.828FAQ 5.1.@.829FAQ 4.3.@.830FAQ 4.2.@.831FAQ 4.1.@.832FAQ 3.3.@.833FAQ 3.2.@.834FAQ 3.1.@.835FAQ 2.2.@.836FAQ 2.1.@.837FAQ 1.3.@.838FAQ 1.2.@.839FAQ 1.1.@.840FAQ

FAQ 11.1.gFAQ 10.2.abFAQ 10.2.akFAQ 10.1.awFAQ 10.1.bdFAQ 9.3.caFAQ 9.3.ckFAQ 9.2.cpFAQ 9.2.cyFAQ 9.1.dgFAQ 9.1.dnFAQ 8.3.dsFAQ 8.3.dyFAQ 8.2.fjFAQ 8.2.fsFAQ 8.1.glFAQ 8.1.gwFAQ 7.3.haFAQ 7.3.hjFAQ 7.2.hxFAQ 7.2.ifFAQ 7.1.@.256FAQ 7.1.@.265FAQ 6.2.@.289FAQ 6.2.@.298FAQ 6.1.@.319FAQ 6.1.@.328FAQ 5.4.@.331FAQ 5.4.@.352FAQ 5.3.@.355FAQ 5.3.@.407FAQ 5.2.@.410FAQ 5.2.@.428FAQ 5.1.@.431FAQ 5.1.@.464FAQ 4.3.@.474FAQ 4.3.@.483FAQ 4.2.@.531FAQ 4.2.@.539FAQ 4.1.@.563FAQ 4.1.@.570FAQ 3.3.@.582FAQ 3.3.@.590FAQ 3.2.@.611FAQ 3.2.@.612FAQ 3.2.@.619FAQ 3.1.@.624FAQ 3.1.@.632FAQ 2.2.@.656FAQ 2.2.@.665FAQ 2.1.@.675FAQ 2.1.@.684FAQ 1.3.@.716FAQ 1.3.@.724FAQ 1.2.@.732FAQ 1.2.@.742FAQ 1.1.@.796FAQ 1.1.@.805FAQ 12.3.@.808FAQ 12.2.@.809FAQ 12.1.@.810FAQ 11.3.@.811FAQ 11.2.@.812FAQ 11.1.@.813FAQ 10.2.@.814FAQ 10.1.@.815FAQ 9.3.@.816FAQ 9.2.@.817FAQ 9.1.@.818FAQ 8.3.@.819FAQ 8.2.@.820FAQ 8.1.@.821FAQ 7.3.@.822FAQ 7.2.@.823FAQ 7.1.@.824FAQ 6.2.@.825FAQ 6.1.@.826FAQ 5.4.@.827FAQ 5.3.@.828FAQ 5.2.@.829FAQ 5.1.@.830FAQ 4.3.@.831FAQ 4.2.@.832FAQ 4.1.@.833FAQ 3.3.@.834FAQ 3.2.@.835FAQ 3.1.@.836FAQ 2.2.@.837FAQ 2.1.@.838FAQ 1.3.@.839FAQ 1.2.@.840FAQ 1.1.@.841FAQ 11.1 (continued)

FAQ 11.1.aFAQ 11.1.hFAQ 10.2.acFAQ 10.2.alFAQ 10.1.axFAQ 10.1.beFAQ 9.3.cbFAQ 9.3.clFAQ 9.2.cqFAQ 9.2.czFAQ 9.1.dhFAQ 9.1.doFAQ 8.3.dtFAQ 8.3.dzFAQ 8.2.fkFAQ 8.2.ftFAQ 8.1.gmFAQ 8.1.gxFAQ 7.3.hbFAQ 7.3.hkFAQ 7.2.hyFAQ 7.2.igFAQ 7.1.@.257FAQ 7.1.@.266FAQ 6.2.@.290FAQ 6.2.@.299FAQ 6.1.@.320FAQ 6.1.@.329FAQ 5.4.@.332FAQ 5.4.@.353FAQ 5.3.@.356FAQ 5.3.@.408FAQ 5.2.@.411FAQ 5.2.@.429FAQ 5.1.@.432FAQ 5.1.@.465FAQ 4.3.@.475FAQ 4.3.@.484FAQ 4.2.@.532FAQ 4.2.@.540FAQ 4.1.@.564FAQ 4.1.@.571FAQ 3.3.@.583FAQ 3.3.@.591FAQ 3.2.@.612FAQ 3.2.@.613FAQ 3.2.@.620FAQ 3.1.@.625FAQ 3.1.@.633FAQ 2.2.@.657FAQ 2.2.@.666FAQ 2.1.@.676FAQ 2.1.@.685FAQ 1.3.@.717FAQ 1.3.@.725FAQ 1.2.@.733FAQ 1.2.@.743FAQ 1.1.@.797FAQ 1.1.@.806FAQ 12.3.@.809FAQ 12.2.@.810FAQ 12.1.@.811FAQ 11.3.@.812FAQ 11.2.@.813FAQ 11.1.@.814FAQ 10.2.@.815FAQ 10.1.@.816FAQ 9.3.@.817FAQ 9.2.@.818FAQ 9.1.@.819FAQ 8.3.@.820FAQ 8.2.@.821FAQ 8.1.@.822FAQ 7.3.@.823FAQ 7.2.@.824FAQ 7.1.@.825FAQ 6.2.@.826FAQ 6.1.@.827FAQ 5.4.@.828FAQ 5.3.@.829FAQ 5.2.@.830FAQ 5.1.@.831FAQ 4.3.@.832FAQ 4.2.@.833FAQ 4.1.@.834FAQ 3.3.@.835FAQ 3.2.@.836FAQ 3.1.@.837FAQ 2.2.@.838FAQ 2.1.@.839FAQ 1.3.@.840FAQ 1.2.@.841FAQ 1.1.@.842FAQ 11.1: How will changes in climate extremes compare with changes in climate averages?

FAQ 11.1.bFAQ 11.1.iFAQ 10.2.adFAQ 10.2.amFAQ 10.1.ayFAQ 10.1.bfFAQ 9.3.ccFAQ 9.3.cmFAQ 9.2.crFAQ 9.2.daFAQ 9.1.diFAQ 9.1.dpFAQ 8.3.duFAQ 8.3.eaFAQ 8.2.flFAQ 8.2.fuFAQ 8.1.gnFAQ 8.1.gyFAQ 7.3.hcFAQ 7.3.hlFAQ 7.2.hzFAQ 7.2.ihFAQ 7.1.@.258FAQ 7.1.@.267FAQ 6.2.@.291FAQ 6.2.@.300FAQ 6.1.@.321FAQ 6.1.@.330FAQ 5.4.@.333FAQ 5.4.@.354FAQ 5.3.@.357FAQ 5.3.@.409FAQ 5.2.@.412FAQ 5.2.@.430FAQ 5.1.@.433FAQ 5.1.@.466FAQ 4.3.@.476FAQ 4.3.@.485FAQ 4.2.@.533FAQ 4.2.@.541FAQ 4.1.@.565FAQ 4.1.@.572FAQ 3.3.@.584FAQ 3.3.@.592FAQ 3.2.@.613FAQ 3.2.@.614FAQ 3.2.@.621FAQ 3.1.@.626FAQ 3.1.@.634FAQ 2.2.@.658FAQ 2.2.@.667FAQ 2.1.@.677FAQ 2.1.@.686FAQ 1.3.@.718FAQ 1.3.@.726FAQ 1.2.@.734FAQ 1.2.@.744FAQ 1.1.@.798FAQ 1.1.@.807FAQ 12.3.@.810FAQ 12.2.@.811FAQ 12.1.@.812FAQ 11.3.@.813FAQ 11.2.@.814FAQ 11.1.@.815FAQ 10.2.@.816FAQ 10.1.@.817FAQ 9.3.@.818FAQ 9.2.@.819FAQ 9.1.@.820FAQ 8.3.@.821FAQ 8.2.@.822FAQ 8.1.@.823FAQ 7.3.@.824FAQ 7.2.@.825FAQ 7.1.@.826FAQ 6.2.@.827FAQ 6.1.@.828FAQ 5.4.@.829FAQ 5.3.@.830FAQ 5.2.@.831FAQ 5.1.@.832FAQ 4.3.@.833FAQ 4.2.@.834FAQ 4.1.@.835FAQ 3.3.@.836FAQ 3.2.@.837FAQ 3.1.@.838FAQ 2.2.@.839FAQ 2.1.@.840FAQ 1.3.@.841FAQ 1.2.@.842FAQ 1.1.@.843Climate extremeClimate average

FAQ 11.1.cFAQ 11.1.jFAQ 10.2.aeFAQ 10.2.anFAQ 10.1.azFAQ 10.1.bgFAQ 9.3.cdFAQ 9.3.cnFAQ 9.2.csFAQ 9.2.dbFAQ 9.1.djFAQ 9.1.dqFAQ 8.3.dvFAQ 8.3.ebFAQ 8.2.fmFAQ 8.2.fvFAQ 8.1.goFAQ 8.1.gzFAQ 7.3.hdFAQ 7.3.hmFAQ 7.2.iaFAQ 7.2.iiFAQ 7.1.@.259FAQ 7.1.@.268FAQ 6.2.@.292FAQ 6.2.@.301FAQ 6.1.@.322FAQ 6.1.@.331FAQ 5.4.@.334FAQ 5.4.@.355FAQ 5.3.@.358FAQ 5.3.@.410FAQ 5.2.@.413FAQ 5.2.@.431FAQ 5.1.@.434FAQ 5.1.@.467FAQ 4.3.@.477FAQ 4.3.@.486FAQ 4.2.@.534FAQ 4.2.@.542FAQ 4.1.@.566FAQ 4.1.@.573FAQ 3.3.@.585FAQ 3.3.@.593FAQ 3.2.@.614FAQ 3.2.@.615FAQ 3.2.@.622FAQ 3.1.@.627FAQ 3.1.@.635FAQ 2.2.@.659FAQ 2.2.@.668FAQ 2.1.@.678FAQ 2.1.@.687FAQ 1.3.@.719FAQ 1.3.@.727FAQ 1.2.@.735FAQ 1.2.@.745FAQ 1.1.@.799FAQ 1.1.@.808FAQ 12.3.@.811FAQ 12.2.@.812FAQ 12.1.@.813FAQ 11.3.@.814FAQ 11.2.@.815FAQ 11.1.@.816FAQ 10.2.@.817FAQ 10.1.@.818FAQ 9.3.@.819FAQ 9.2.@.820FAQ 9.1.@.821FAQ 8.3.@.822FAQ 8.2.@.823FAQ 8.1.@.824FAQ 7.3.@.825FAQ 7.2.@.826FAQ 7.1.@.827FAQ 6.2.@.828FAQ 6.1.@.829FAQ 5.4.@.830FAQ 5.3.@.831FAQ 5.2.@.832FAQ 5.1.@.833FAQ 4.3.@.834FAQ 4.2.@.835FAQ 4.1.@.836FAQ 3.3.@.837FAQ 3.2.@.838FAQ 3.1.@.839FAQ 2.2.@.840FAQ 2.1.@.841FAQ 1.3.@.842FAQ 1.2.@.843FAQ 1.1.@.844Climate extremeClimate average

FAQ 11.1.dFAQ 11.1.kFAQ 10.2.afFAQ 10.2.aoFAQ 10.1.baFAQ 10.1.bhFAQ 9.3.ceFAQ 9.3.coFAQ 9.2.ctFAQ 9.2.dcFAQ 9.1.dkFAQ 9.1.drFAQ 8.3.dwFAQ 8.3.ecFAQ 8.2.fnFAQ 8.2.fwFAQ 8.1.gpFAQ 8.1.haFAQ 7.3.heFAQ 7.3.hnFAQ 7.2.ibFAQ 7.2.ijFAQ 7.1.@.260FAQ 7.1.@.269FAQ 6.2.@.293FAQ 6.2.@.302FAQ 6.1.@.323FAQ 6.1.@.332FAQ 5.4.@.335FAQ 5.4.@.356FAQ 5.3.@.359FAQ 5.3.@.411FAQ 5.2.@.414FAQ 5.2.@.432FAQ 5.1.@.435FAQ 5.1.@.468FAQ 4.3.@.478FAQ 4.3.@.487FAQ 4.2.@.535FAQ 4.2.@.543FAQ 4.1.@.567FAQ 4.1.@.574FAQ 3.3.@.586FAQ 3.3.@.594FAQ 3.2.@.615FAQ 3.2.@.616FAQ 3.2.@.623FAQ 3.1.@.628FAQ 3.1.@.636FAQ 2.2.@.660FAQ 2.2.@.669FAQ 2.1.@.679FAQ 2.1.@.688FAQ 1.3.@.720FAQ 1.3.@.728FAQ 1.2.@.736FAQ 1.2.@.746FAQ 1.1.@.800FAQ 1.1.@.809FAQ 12.3.@.812FAQ 12.2.@.813FAQ 12.1.@.814FAQ 11.3.@.815FAQ 11.2.@.816FAQ 11.1.@.817FAQ 10.2.@.818FAQ 10.1.@.819FAQ 9.3.@.820FAQ 9.2.@.821FAQ 9.1.@.822FAQ 8.3.@.823FAQ 8.2.@.824FAQ 8.1.@.825FAQ 7.3.@.826FAQ 7.2.@.827FAQ 7.1.@.828FAQ 6.2.@.829FAQ 6.1.@.830FAQ 5.4.@.831FAQ 5.3.@.832FAQ 5.2.@.833FAQ 5.1.@.834FAQ 4.3.@.835FAQ 4.2.@.836FAQ 4.1.@.837FAQ 3.3.@.838FAQ 3.2.@.839FAQ 3.1.@.840FAQ 2.2.@.841FAQ 2.1.@.842FAQ 1.3.@.843FAQ 1.2.@.844FAQ 1.1.@.845The direction and magnitude of future changes in climate extremes and averages depend on the variable considered.

FAQ 11.1.eFAQ 11.1.lFAQ 10.2.agFAQ 10.2.apFAQ 10.1.bbFAQ 10.1.biFAQ 9.3.cfFAQ 9.3.cpFAQ 9.2.cuFAQ 9.2.ddFAQ 9.1.dlFAQ 9.1.dsFAQ 8.3.dxFAQ 8.3.edFAQ 8.2.foFAQ 8.2.fxFAQ 8.1.gqFAQ 8.1.hbFAQ 7.3.hfFAQ 7.3.hoFAQ 7.2.icFAQ 7.2.ikFAQ 7.1.@.261FAQ 7.1.@.270FAQ 6.2.@.294FAQ 6.2.@.303FAQ 6.1.@.324FAQ 6.1.@.333FAQ 5.4.@.336FAQ 5.4.@.357FAQ 5.3.@.360FAQ 5.3.@.412FAQ 5.2.@.415FAQ 5.2.@.433FAQ 5.1.@.436FAQ 5.1.@.469FAQ 4.3.@.479FAQ 4.3.@.488FAQ 4.2.@.536FAQ 4.2.@.544FAQ 4.1.@.568FAQ 4.1.@.575FAQ 3.3.@.587FAQ 3.3.@.595FAQ 3.2.@.616FAQ 3.2.@.617FAQ 3.2.@.624FAQ 3.1.@.629FAQ 3.1.@.637FAQ 2.2.@.661FAQ 2.2.@.670FAQ 2.1.@.680FAQ 2.1.@.689FAQ 1.3.@.721FAQ 1.3.@.729FAQ 1.2.@.737FAQ 1.2.@.747FAQ 1.1.@.801FAQ 1.1.@.810FAQ 12.3.@.813FAQ 12.2.@.814FAQ 12.1.@.815FAQ 11.3.@.816FAQ 11.2.@.817FAQ 11.1.@.818FAQ 10.2.@.819FAQ 10.1.@.820FAQ 9.3.@.821FAQ 9.2.@.822FAQ 9.1.@.823FAQ 8.3.@.824FAQ 8.2.@.825FAQ 8.1.@.826FAQ 7.3.@.827FAQ 7.2.@.828FAQ 7.1.@.829FAQ 6.2.@.830FAQ 6.1.@.831FAQ 5.4.@.832FAQ 5.3.@.833FAQ 5.2.@.834FAQ 5.1.@.835FAQ 4.3.@.836FAQ 4.2.@.837FAQ 4.1.@.838FAQ 3.3.@.839FAQ 3.2.@.840FAQ 3.1.@.841FAQ 2.2.@.842FAQ 2.1.@.843FAQ 1.3.@.844FAQ 1.2.@.845FAQ 1.1.@.846-

FAQ 11.1.fFAQ 11.1.mFAQ 10.2.ahFAQ 10.2.aqFAQ 10.1.bcFAQ 10.1.bjFAQ 9.3.cgFAQ 9.3.cqFAQ 9.2.cvFAQ 9.2.deFAQ 9.1.dmFAQ 9.1.dtFAQ 8.3.dyFAQ 8.3.eeFAQ 8.2.fpFAQ 8.2.fyFAQ 8.1.grFAQ 8.1.hcFAQ 7.3.hgFAQ 7.3.hpFAQ 7.2.idFAQ 7.2.ilFAQ 7.1.@.262FAQ 7.1.@.271FAQ 6.2.@.295FAQ 6.2.@.304FAQ 6.1.@.325FAQ 6.1.@.334FAQ 5.4.@.337FAQ 5.4.@.358FAQ 5.3.@.361FAQ 5.3.@.413FAQ 5.2.@.416FAQ 5.2.@.434FAQ 5.1.@.437FAQ 5.1.@.470FAQ 4.3.@.480FAQ 4.3.@.489FAQ 4.2.@.537FAQ 4.2.@.545FAQ 4.1.@.569FAQ 4.1.@.576FAQ 3.3.@.588FAQ 3.3.@.596FAQ 3.2.@.617FAQ 3.2.@.618FAQ 3.2.@.625FAQ 3.1.@.630FAQ 3.1.@.638FAQ 2.2.@.662FAQ 2.2.@.671FAQ 2.1.@.681FAQ 2.1.@.690FAQ 1.3.@.722FAQ 1.3.@.730FAQ 1.2.@.738FAQ 1.2.@.748FAQ 1.1.@.802FAQ 1.1.@.811FAQ 12.3.@.814FAQ 12.2.@.815FAQ 12.1.@.816FAQ 11.3.@.817FAQ 11.2.@.818FAQ 11.1.@.819FAQ 10.2.@.820FAQ 10.1.@.821FAQ 9.3.@.822FAQ 9.2.@.823FAQ 9.1.@.824FAQ 8.3.@.825FAQ 8.2.@.826FAQ 8.1.@.827FAQ 7.3.@.828FAQ 7.2.@.829FAQ 7.1.@.830FAQ 6.2.@.831FAQ 6.1.@.832FAQ 5.4.@.833FAQ 5.3.@.834FAQ 5.2.@.835FAQ 5.1.@.836FAQ 4.3.@.837FAQ 4.2.@.838FAQ 4.1.@.839FAQ 3.3.@.840FAQ 3.2.@.841FAQ 3.1.@.842FAQ 2.2.@.843FAQ 2.1.@.844FAQ 1.3.@.845FAQ 1.2.@.846FAQ 1.1.@.847Warmer

FAQ 11.1.gFAQ 11.1.nFAQ 10.2.aiFAQ 10.2.arFAQ 10.1.bdFAQ 10.1.bkFAQ 9.3.chFAQ 9.3.crFAQ 9.2.cwFAQ 9.2.dfFAQ 9.1.dnFAQ 9.1.duFAQ 8.3.dzFAQ 8.3.efFAQ 8.2.fqFAQ 8.2.fzFAQ 8.1.gsFAQ 8.1.hdFAQ 7.3.hhFAQ 7.3.hqFAQ 7.2.ieFAQ 7.2.imFAQ 7.1.@.263FAQ 7.1.@.272FAQ 6.2.@.296FAQ 6.2.@.305FAQ 6.1.@.326FAQ 6.1.@.335FAQ 5.4.@.338FAQ 5.4.@.359FAQ 5.3.@.362FAQ 5.3.@.414FAQ 5.2.@.417FAQ 5.2.@.435FAQ 5.1.@.438FAQ 5.1.@.471FAQ 4.3.@.481FAQ 4.3.@.490FAQ 4.2.@.538FAQ 4.2.@.546FAQ 4.1.@.570FAQ 4.1.@.577FAQ 3.3.@.589FAQ 3.3.@.597FAQ 3.2.@.618FAQ 3.2.@.619FAQ 3.2.@.626FAQ 3.1.@.631FAQ 3.1.@.639FAQ 2.2.@.663FAQ 2.2.@.672FAQ 2.1.@.682FAQ 2.1.@.691FAQ 1.3.@.723FAQ 1.3.@.731FAQ 1.2.@.739FAQ 1.2.@.749FAQ 1.1.@.803FAQ 1.1.@.812FAQ 12.3.@.815FAQ 12.2.@.816FAQ 12.1.@.817FAQ 11.3.@.818FAQ 11.2.@.819FAQ 11.1.@.820FAQ 10.2.@.821FAQ 10.1.@.822FAQ 9.3.@.823FAQ 9.2.@.824FAQ 9.1.@.825FAQ 8.3.@.826FAQ 8.2.@.827FAQ 8.1.@.828FAQ 7.3.@.829FAQ 7.2.@.830FAQ 7.1.@.831FAQ 6.2.@.832FAQ 6.1.@.833FAQ 5.4.@.834FAQ 5.3.@.835FAQ 5.2.@.836FAQ 5.1.@.837FAQ 4.3.@.838FAQ 4.2.@.839FAQ 4.1.@.840FAQ 3.3.@.841FAQ 3.2.@.842FAQ 3.1.@.843FAQ 2.2.@.844FAQ 2.1.@.845FAQ 1.3.@.846FAQ 1.2.@.847FAQ 1.1.@.848WetterDrier

FAQ 11.1.hFAQ 11.1.oFAQ 10.2.ajFAQ 10.2.asFAQ 10.1.beFAQ 10.1.blFAQ 9.3.ciFAQ 9.3.csFAQ 9.2.cxFAQ 9.2.dgFAQ 9.1.doFAQ 9.1.dvFAQ 8.3.eaFAQ 8.3.egFAQ 8.2.frFAQ 8.2.gaFAQ 8.1.gtFAQ 8.1.heFAQ 7.3.hiFAQ 7.3.hrFAQ 7.2.ifFAQ 7.2.inFAQ 7.1.@.264FAQ 7.1.@.273FAQ 6.2.@.297FAQ 6.2.@.306FAQ 6.1.@.327FAQ 6.1.@.336FAQ 5.4.@.339FAQ 5.4.@.360FAQ 5.3.@.363FAQ 5.3.@.415FAQ 5.2.@.418FAQ 5.2.@.436FAQ 5.1.@.439FAQ 5.1.@.472FAQ 4.3.@.482FAQ 4.3.@.491FAQ 4.2.@.539FAQ 4.2.@.547FAQ 4.1.@.571FAQ 4.1.@.578FAQ 3.3.@.590FAQ 3.3.@.598FAQ 3.2.@.619FAQ 3.2.@.620FAQ 3.2.@.627FAQ 3.1.@.632FAQ 3.1.@.640FAQ 2.2.@.664FAQ 2.2.@.673FAQ 2.1.@.683FAQ 2.1.@.692FAQ 1.3.@.724FAQ 1.3.@.732FAQ 1.2.@.740FAQ 1.2.@.750FAQ 1.1.@.804FAQ 1.1.@.813FAQ 12.3.@.816FAQ 12.2.@.817FAQ 12.1.@.818FAQ 11.3.@.819FAQ 11.2.@.820FAQ 11.1.@.821FAQ 10.2.@.822FAQ 10.1.@.823FAQ 9.3.@.824FAQ 9.2.@.825FAQ 9.1.@.826FAQ 8.3.@.827FAQ 8.2.@.828FAQ 8.1.@.829FAQ 7.3.@.830FAQ 7.2.@.831FAQ 7.1.@.832FAQ 6.2.@.833FAQ 6.1.@.834FAQ 5.4.@.835FAQ 5.3.@.836FAQ 5.2.@.837FAQ 5.1.@.838FAQ 4.3.@.839FAQ 4.2.@.840FAQ 4.1.@.841FAQ 3.3.@.842FAQ 3.2.@.843FAQ 3.1.@.844FAQ 2.2.@.845FAQ 2.1.@.846FAQ 1.3.@.847FAQ 1.2.@.848FAQ 1.1.@.849Future changes in temperatureaverages and extremes will be similar

FAQ 11.1.iFAQ 11.1.pFAQ 10.2.akFAQ 10.2.atFAQ 10.1.bfFAQ 10.1.bmFAQ 9.3.cjFAQ 9.3.ctFAQ 9.2.cyFAQ 9.2.dhFAQ 9.1.dpFAQ 9.1.dwFAQ 8.3.ebFAQ 8.3.ehFAQ 8.2.fsFAQ 8.2.gbFAQ 8.1.guFAQ 8.1.hfFAQ 7.3.hjFAQ 7.3.hsFAQ 7.2.igFAQ 7.2.ioFAQ 7.1.@.265FAQ 7.1.@.274FAQ 6.2.@.298FAQ 6.2.@.307FAQ 6.1.@.328FAQ 6.1.@.337FAQ 5.4.@.340FAQ 5.4.@.361FAQ 5.3.@.364FAQ 5.3.@.416FAQ 5.2.@.419FAQ 5.2.@.437FAQ 5.1.@.440FAQ 5.1.@.473FAQ 4.3.@.483FAQ 4.3.@.492FAQ 4.2.@.540FAQ 4.2.@.548FAQ 4.1.@.572FAQ 4.1.@.579FAQ 3.3.@.591FAQ 3.3.@.599FAQ 3.2.@.620FAQ 3.2.@.621FAQ 3.2.@.628FAQ 3.1.@.633FAQ 3.1.@.641FAQ 2.2.@.665FAQ 2.2.@.674FAQ 2.1.@.684FAQ 2.1.@.693FAQ 1.3.@.725FAQ 1.3.@.733FAQ 1.2.@.741FAQ 1.2.@.751FAQ 1.1.@.805FAQ 1.1.@.814FAQ 12.3.@.817FAQ 12.2.@.818FAQ 12.1.@.819FAQ 11.3.@.820FAQ 11.2.@.821FAQ 11.1.@.822FAQ 10.2.@.823FAQ 10.1.@.824FAQ 9.3.@.825FAQ 9.2.@.826FAQ 9.1.@.827FAQ 8.3.@.828FAQ 8.2.@.829FAQ 8.1.@.830FAQ 7.3.@.831FAQ 7.2.@.832FAQ 7.1.@.833FAQ 6.2.@.834FAQ 6.1.@.835FAQ 5.4.@.836FAQ 5.3.@.837FAQ 5.2.@.838FAQ 5.1.@.839FAQ 4.3.@.840FAQ 4.2.@.841FAQ 4.1.@.842FAQ 3.3.@.843FAQ 3.2.@.844FAQ 3.1.@.845FAQ 2.2.@.846FAQ 2.1.@.847FAQ 1.3.@.848FAQ 1.2.@.849FAQ 1.1.@.850Future changes in precipitationaverages and extremes can bevery different

FAQ 11.1.jFAQ 11.1.qFAQ 10.2.alFAQ 10.2.auFAQ 10.1.bgFAQ 10.1.bnFAQ 9.3.ckFAQ 9.3.cuFAQ 9.2.czFAQ 9.2.diFAQ 9.1.dqFAQ 9.1.dxFAQ 8.3.ecFAQ 8.3.eiFAQ 8.2.ftFAQ 8.2.gcFAQ 8.1.gvFAQ 8.1.hgFAQ 7.3.hkFAQ 7.3.htFAQ 7.2.ihFAQ 7.2.ipFAQ 7.1.@.266FAQ 7.1.@.275FAQ 6.2.@.299FAQ 6.2.@.308FAQ 6.1.@.329FAQ 6.1.@.338FAQ 5.4.@.341FAQ 5.4.@.362FAQ 5.3.@.365FAQ 5.3.@.417FAQ 5.2.@.420FAQ 5.2.@.438FAQ 5.1.@.441FAQ 5.1.@.474FAQ 4.3.@.484FAQ 4.3.@.493FAQ 4.2.@.541FAQ 4.2.@.549FAQ 4.1.@.573FAQ 4.1.@.580FAQ 3.3.@.592FAQ 3.3.@.600FAQ 3.2.@.621FAQ 3.2.@.622FAQ 3.2.@.629FAQ 3.1.@.634FAQ 3.1.@.642FAQ 2.2.@.666FAQ 2.2.@.675FAQ 2.1.@.685FAQ 2.1.@.694FAQ 1.3.@.726FAQ 1.3.@.734FAQ 1.2.@.742FAQ 1.2.@.752FAQ 1.1.@.806FAQ 1.1.@.815FAQ 12.3.@.818FAQ 12.2.@.819FAQ 12.1.@.820FAQ 11.3.@.821FAQ 11.2.@.822FAQ 11.1.@.823FAQ 10.2.@.824FAQ 10.1.@.825FAQ 9.3.@.826FAQ 9.2.@.827FAQ 9.1.@.828FAQ 8.3.@.829FAQ 8.2.@.830FAQ 8.1.@.831FAQ 7.3.@.832FAQ 7.2.@.833FAQ 7.1.@.834FAQ 6.2.@.835FAQ 6.1.@.836FAQ 5.4.@.837FAQ 5.3.@.838FAQ 5.2.@.839FAQ 5.1.@.840FAQ 4.3.@.841FAQ 4.2.@.842FAQ 4.1.@.843FAQ 3.3.@.844FAQ 3.2.@.845FAQ 3.1.@.846FAQ 2.2.@.847FAQ 2.1.@.848FAQ 1.3.@.849FAQ 1.2.@.850FAQ 1.1.@.8510864°C°C2

FAQ 11.1.kFAQ 11.1.rFAQ 10.2.amFAQ 10.2.avFAQ 10.1.bhFAQ 10.1.boFAQ 9.3.clFAQ 9.3.cvFAQ 9.2.daFAQ 9.2.djFAQ 9.1.drFAQ 9.1.dyFAQ 8.3.edFAQ 8.3.ejFAQ 8.2.fuFAQ 8.2.gdFAQ 8.1.gwFAQ 8.1.hhFAQ 7.3.hlFAQ 7.3.huFAQ 7.2.iiFAQ 7.2.iqFAQ 7.1.@.267FAQ 7.1.@.276FAQ 6.2.@.300FAQ 6.2.@.309FAQ 6.1.@.330FAQ 6.1.@.339FAQ 5.4.@.342FAQ 5.4.@.363FAQ 5.3.@.366FAQ 5.3.@.418FAQ 5.2.@.421FAQ 5.2.@.439FAQ 5.1.@.442FAQ 5.1.@.475FAQ 4.3.@.485FAQ 4.3.@.494FAQ 4.2.@.542FAQ 4.2.@.550FAQ 4.1.@.574FAQ 4.1.@.581FAQ 3.3.@.593FAQ 3.3.@.601FAQ 3.2.@.622FAQ 3.2.@.623FAQ 3.2.@.630FAQ 3.1.@.635FAQ 3.1.@.643FAQ 2.2.@.667FAQ 2.2.@.676FAQ 2.1.@.686FAQ 2.1.@.695FAQ 1.3.@.727FAQ 1.3.@.735FAQ 1.2.@.743FAQ 1.2.@.753FAQ 1.1.@.807FAQ 1.1.@.816FAQ 12.3.@.819FAQ 12.2.@.820FAQ 12.1.@.821FAQ 11.3.@.822FAQ 11.2.@.823FAQ 11.1.@.824FAQ 10.2.@.825FAQ 10.1.@.826FAQ 9.3.@.827FAQ 9.2.@.828FAQ 9.1.@.829FAQ 8.3.@.830FAQ 8.2.@.831FAQ 8.1.@.832FAQ 7.3.@.833FAQ 7.2.@.834FAQ 7.1.@.835FAQ 6.2.@.836FAQ 6.1.@.837FAQ 5.4.@.838FAQ 5.3.@.839FAQ 5.2.@.840FAQ 5.1.@.841FAQ 4.3.@.842FAQ 4.2.@.843FAQ 4.1.@.844FAQ 3.3.@.845FAQ 3.2.@.846FAQ 3.1.@.847FAQ 2.2.@.848FAQ 2.1.@.849FAQ 1.3.@.850FAQ 1.2.@.851FAQ 1.1.@.852-40%40%0%-2020

FAQ 11.1.lFAQ 11.1.sFAQ 10.2.anFAQ 10.2.awFAQ 10.1.biFAQ 10.1.bpFAQ 9.3.cmFAQ 9.3.cwFAQ 9.2.dbFAQ 9.2.dkFAQ 9.1.dsFAQ 9.1.dzFAQ 8.3.eeFAQ 8.3.ekFAQ 8.2.fvFAQ 8.2.geFAQ 8.1.gxFAQ 8.1.hiFAQ 7.3.hmFAQ 7.3.hvFAQ 7.2.ijFAQ 7.2.irFAQ 7.1.@.268FAQ 7.1.@.277FAQ 6.2.@.301FAQ 6.2.@.310FAQ 6.1.@.331FAQ 6.1.@.340FAQ 5.4.@.343FAQ 5.4.@.364FAQ 5.3.@.367FAQ 5.3.@.419FAQ 5.2.@.422FAQ 5.2.@.440FAQ 5.1.@.443FAQ 5.1.@.476FAQ 4.3.@.486FAQ 4.3.@.495FAQ 4.2.@.543FAQ 4.2.@.551FAQ 4.1.@.575FAQ 4.1.@.582FAQ 3.3.@.594FAQ 3.3.@.602FAQ 3.2.@.623FAQ 3.2.@.624FAQ 3.2.@.631FAQ 3.1.@.636FAQ 3.1.@.644FAQ 2.2.@.668FAQ 2.2.@.677FAQ 2.1.@.687FAQ 2.1.@.696FAQ 1.3.@.728FAQ 1.3.@.736FAQ 1.2.@.744FAQ 1.2.@.754FAQ 1.1.@.808FAQ 1.1.@.817FAQ 12.3.@.820FAQ 12.2.@.821FAQ 12.1.@.822FAQ 11.3.@.823FAQ 11.2.@.824FAQ 11.1.@.825FAQ 10.2.@.826FAQ 10.1.@.827FAQ 9.3.@.828FAQ 9.2.@.829FAQ 9.1.@.830FAQ 8.3.@.831FAQ 8.2.@.832FAQ 8.1.@.833FAQ 7.3.@.834FAQ 7.2.@.835FAQ 7.1.@.836FAQ 6.2.@.837FAQ 6.1.@.838FAQ 5.4.@.839FAQ 5.3.@.840FAQ 5.2.@.841FAQ 5.1.@.842FAQ 4.3.@.843FAQ 4.2.@.844FAQ 4.1.@.845FAQ 3.3.@.846FAQ 3.2.@.847FAQ 3.1.@.848FAQ 2.2.@.849FAQ 2.1.@.850FAQ 1.3.@.851FAQ 1.2.@.852FAQ 1.1.@.853FAQ 11.1, Figure 1 | Global maps of future changes in surface temperature (top panels) and precipitation (bottom panels) for long-term average (left) and extreme conditions (right). All changes were estimated using the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) ensemble median for a scenario with a global warming of 4°C relative to 1850–1900 temperatures. Average surface temperatures refer to the warmest three-month season (summer in mid- to high latitudes) and extreme temperatures refer to the hottest day in a year. Precipitation changes, which can include both rainfall and snowfall changes, are normalized by 1850–1900 values and shown as a percentage; extreme precipitation refers to the largest daily precipitation in a year.

FAQ 11.1.mFAQ 11.1.tFAQ 10.2.aoFAQ 10.2.axFAQ 10.1.bjFAQ 10.1.bqFAQ 9.3.cnFAQ 9.3.cxFAQ 9.2.dcFAQ 9.2.dlFAQ 9.1.dtFAQ 9.1.eaFAQ 8.3.efFAQ 8.3.elFAQ 8.2.fwFAQ 8.2.gfFAQ 8.1.gyFAQ 8.1.hjFAQ 7.3.hnFAQ 7.3.hwFAQ 7.2.ikFAQ 7.2.isFAQ 7.1.@.269FAQ 7.1.@.278FAQ 6.2.@.302FAQ 6.2.@.311FAQ 6.1.@.332FAQ 6.1.@.341FAQ 5.4.@.344FAQ 5.4.@.365FAQ 5.3.@.368FAQ 5.3.@.420FAQ 5.2.@.423FAQ 5.2.@.441FAQ 5.1.@.444FAQ 5.1.@.477FAQ 4.3.@.487FAQ 4.3.@.496FAQ 4.2.@.544FAQ 4.2.@.552FAQ 4.1.@.576FAQ 4.1.@.583FAQ 3.3.@.595FAQ 3.3.@.603FAQ 3.2.@.624FAQ 3.2.@.625FAQ 3.2.@.632FAQ 3.1.@.637FAQ 3.1.@.645FAQ 2.2.@.669FAQ 2.2.@.678FAQ 2.1.@.688FAQ 2.1.@.697FAQ 1.3.@.729FAQ 1.3.@.737FAQ 1.2.@.745FAQ 1.2.@.755FAQ 1.1.@.809FAQ 1.1.@.818FAQ 12.3.@.821FAQ 12.2.@.822FAQ 12.1.@.823FAQ 11.3.@.824FAQ 11.2.@.825FAQ 11.1.@.826FAQ 10.2.@.827FAQ 10.1.@.828FAQ 9.3.@.829FAQ 9.2.@.830FAQ 9.1.@.831FAQ 8.3.@.832FAQ 8.2.@.833FAQ 8.1.@.834FAQ 7.3.@.835FAQ 7.2.@.836FAQ 7.1.@.837FAQ 6.2.@.838FAQ 6.1.@.839FAQ 5.4.@.840FAQ 5.3.@.841FAQ 5.2.@.842FAQ 5.1.@.843FAQ 4.3.@.844FAQ 4.2.@.845FAQ 4.1.@.846FAQ 3.3.@.847FAQ 3.2.@.848FAQ 3.1.@.849FAQ 2.2.@.850FAQ 2.1.@.851FAQ 1.3.@.852FAQ 1.2.@.853FAQ 1.1.@.854FAQ

FAQ 11.1.nFAQ 11.1.uFAQ 10.2.apFAQ 10.2.ayFAQ 10.1.bkFAQ 10.1.brFAQ 9.3.coFAQ 9.3.cyFAQ 9.2.ddFAQ 9.2.dmFAQ 9.1.duFAQ 9.1.ebFAQ 8.3.egFAQ 8.3.emFAQ 8.2.fxFAQ 8.2.ggFAQ 8.1.gzFAQ 8.1.hkFAQ 7.3.hoFAQ 7.3.hxFAQ 7.2.ilFAQ 7.2.itFAQ 7.1.@.270FAQ 7.1.@.279FAQ 6.2.@.303FAQ 6.2.@.312FAQ 6.1.@.333FAQ 6.1.@.342FAQ 5.4.@.345FAQ 5.4.@.366FAQ 5.3.@.369FAQ 5.3.@.421FAQ 5.2.@.424FAQ 5.2.@.442FAQ 5.1.@.445FAQ 5.1.@.478FAQ 4.3.@.488FAQ 4.3.@.497FAQ 4.2.@.545FAQ 4.2.@.553FAQ 4.1.@.577FAQ 4.1.@.584FAQ 3.3.@.596FAQ 3.3.@.604FAQ 3.2.@.625FAQ 3.2.@.626FAQ 3.2.@.633FAQ 3.1.@.638FAQ 3.1.@.646FAQ 2.2.@.670FAQ 2.2.@.679FAQ 2.1.@.689FAQ 2.1.@.698FAQ 1.3.@.730FAQ 1.3.@.738FAQ 1.2.@.746FAQ 1.2.@.756FAQ 1.1.@.810FAQ 1.1.@.819FAQ 12.3.@.822FAQ 12.2.@.823FAQ 12.1.@.824FAQ 11.3.@.825FAQ 11.2.@.826FAQ 11.1.@.827FAQ 10.2.@.828FAQ 10.1.@.829FAQ 9.3.@.830FAQ 9.2.@.831FAQ 9.1.@.832FAQ 8.3.@.833FAQ 8.2.@.834FAQ 8.1.@.835FAQ 7.3.@.836FAQ 7.2.@.837FAQ 7.1.@.838FAQ 6.2.@.839FAQ 6.1.@.840FAQ 5.4.@.841FAQ 5.3.@.842FAQ 5.2.@.843FAQ 5.1.@.844FAQ 4.3.@.845FAQ 4.2.@.846FAQ 4.1.@.847FAQ 3.3.@.848FAQ 3.2.@.849FAQ 3.1.@.850FAQ 2.2.@.851FAQ 2.1.@.852FAQ 1.3.@.853FAQ 1.2.@.854FAQ 1.1.@.855Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 11.1.oFAQ 11.1.vFAQ 10.2.aqFAQ 10.2.azFAQ 10.1.blFAQ 10.1.bsFAQ 9.3.cpFAQ 9.3.czFAQ 9.2.deFAQ 9.2.dnFAQ 9.1.dvFAQ 9.1.ecFAQ 8.3.ehFAQ 8.3.enFAQ 8.2.fyFAQ 8.2.ghFAQ 8.1.haFAQ 8.1.hlFAQ 7.3.hpFAQ 7.3.hyFAQ 7.2.imFAQ 7.2.iuFAQ 7.1.@.271FAQ 7.1.@.280FAQ 6.2.@.304FAQ 6.2.@.313FAQ 6.1.@.334FAQ 6.1.@.343FAQ 5.4.@.346FAQ 5.4.@.367FAQ 5.3.@.370FAQ 5.3.@.422FAQ 5.2.@.425FAQ 5.2.@.443FAQ 5.1.@.446FAQ 5.1.@.479FAQ 4.3.@.489FAQ 4.3.@.498FAQ 4.2.@.546FAQ 4.2.@.554FAQ 4.1.@.578FAQ 4.1.@.585FAQ 3.3.@.597FAQ 3.3.@.605FAQ 3.2.@.626FAQ 3.2.@.627FAQ 3.2.@.634FAQ 3.1.@.639FAQ 3.1.@.647FAQ 2.2.@.671FAQ 2.2.@.680FAQ 2.1.@.690FAQ 2.1.@.699FAQ 1.3.@.731FAQ 1.3.@.739FAQ 1.2.@.747FAQ 1.2.@.757FAQ 1.1.@.811FAQ 1.1.@.820FAQ 12.3.@.823FAQ 12.2.@.824FAQ 12.1.@.825FAQ 11.3.@.826FAQ 11.2.@.827FAQ 11.1.@.828FAQ 10.2.@.829FAQ 10.1.@.830FAQ 9.3.@.831FAQ 9.2.@.832FAQ 9.1.@.833FAQ 8.3.@.834FAQ 8.2.@.835FAQ 8.1.@.836FAQ 7.3.@.837FAQ 7.2.@.838FAQ 7.1.@.839FAQ 6.2.@.840FAQ 6.1.@.841FAQ 5.4.@.842FAQ 5.3.@.843FAQ 5.2.@.844FAQ 5.1.@.845FAQ 4.3.@.846FAQ 4.2.@.847FAQ 4.1.@.848FAQ 3.3.@.849FAQ 3.2.@.850FAQ 3.1.@.851FAQ 2.2.@.852FAQ 2.1.@.853FAQ 1.3.@.854FAQ 1.2.@.855FAQ 1.1.@.856FAQ 11.2 | Will Unprecedented Extremes Occur As a Result Of Human-Induced Climate Change?

FAQ 11.2.aFAQ 11.1.pFAQ 11.1.wFAQ 10.2.arFAQ 10.2.baFAQ 10.1.bmFAQ 10.1.btFAQ 9.3.cqFAQ 9.3.daFAQ 9.2.dfFAQ 9.2.doFAQ 9.1.dwFAQ 9.1.edFAQ 8.3.eiFAQ 8.3.eoFAQ 8.2.fzFAQ 8.2.giFAQ 8.1.hbFAQ 8.1.hmFAQ 7.3.hqFAQ 7.3.hzFAQ 7.2.inFAQ 7.2.ivFAQ 7.1.@.272FAQ 7.1.@.281FAQ 6.2.@.305FAQ 6.2.@.314FAQ 6.1.@.335FAQ 6.1.@.344FAQ 5.4.@.347FAQ 5.4.@.368FAQ 5.3.@.371FAQ 5.3.@.423FAQ 5.2.@.426FAQ 5.2.@.444FAQ 5.1.@.447FAQ 5.1.@.480FAQ 4.3.@.490FAQ 4.3.@.499FAQ 4.2.@.547FAQ 4.2.@.555FAQ 4.1.@.579FAQ 4.1.@.586FAQ 3.3.@.598FAQ 3.3.@.606FAQ 3.2.@.627FAQ 3.2.@.628FAQ 3.2.@.635FAQ 3.1.@.640FAQ 3.1.@.648FAQ 2.2.@.672FAQ 2.2.@.681FAQ 2.1.@.691FAQ 2.1.@.700FAQ 1.3.@.732FAQ 1.3.@.740FAQ 1.2.@.748FAQ 1.2.@.758FAQ 1.1.@.812FAQ 1.1.@.821FAQ 12.3.@.824FAQ 12.2.@.825FAQ 12.1.@.826FAQ 11.3.@.827FAQ 11.2.@.828FAQ 11.1.@.829FAQ 10.2.@.830FAQ 10.1.@.831FAQ 9.3.@.832FAQ 9.2.@.833FAQ 9.1.@.834FAQ 8.3.@.835FAQ 8.2.@.836FAQ 8.1.@.837FAQ 7.3.@.838FAQ 7.2.@.839FAQ 7.1.@.840FAQ 6.2.@.841FAQ 6.1.@.842FAQ 5.4.@.843FAQ 5.3.@.844FAQ 5.2.@.845FAQ 5.1.@.846FAQ 4.3.@.847FAQ 4.2.@.848FAQ 4.1.@.849FAQ 3.3.@.850FAQ 3.2.@.851FAQ 3.1.@.852FAQ 2.2.@.853FAQ 2.1.@.854FAQ 1.3.@.855FAQ 1.2.@.856FAQ 1.1.@.857Climate change has already increased the magnitude and frequency of extreme hot events and decreased the magnitude and frequency of extreme cold events, and, in some regions, intensified extreme precipitation events. As the climate moves away from its past and current states, we will experience extreme events that are unprecedented, either in magnitude, frequency, timing or location. The frequency of these unprecedented extreme events will rise with increasing global warming. Additionally, the combined occurrence of multiple unprecedented extremes may result in large and unprecedented impacts.

FAQ 11.2.bFAQ 11.1.qFAQ 11.1.xFAQ 10.2.asFAQ 10.2.bbFAQ 10.1.bnFAQ 10.1.buFAQ 9.3.crFAQ 9.3.dbFAQ 9.2.dgFAQ 9.2.dpFAQ 9.1.dxFAQ 9.1.eeFAQ 8.3.ejFAQ 8.3.epFAQ 8.2.gaFAQ 8.2.gjFAQ 8.1.hcFAQ 8.1.hnFAQ 7.3.hrFAQ 7.3.iaFAQ 7.2.ioFAQ 7.2.@.256FAQ 7.1.@.273FAQ 7.1.@.282FAQ 6.2.@.306FAQ 6.2.@.315FAQ 6.1.@.336FAQ 6.1.@.345FAQ 5.4.@.348FAQ 5.4.@.369FAQ 5.3.@.372FAQ 5.3.@.424FAQ 5.2.@.427FAQ 5.2.@.445FAQ 5.1.@.448FAQ 5.1.@.481FAQ 4.3.@.491FAQ 4.3.@.500FAQ 4.2.@.548FAQ 4.2.@.556FAQ 4.1.@.580FAQ 4.1.@.587FAQ 3.3.@.599FAQ 3.3.@.607FAQ 3.2.@.628FAQ 3.2.@.629FAQ 3.2.@.636FAQ 3.1.@.641FAQ 3.1.@.649FAQ 2.2.@.673FAQ 2.2.@.682FAQ 2.1.@.692FAQ 2.1.@.701FAQ 1.3.@.733FAQ 1.3.@.741FAQ 1.2.@.749FAQ 1.2.@.759FAQ 1.1.@.813FAQ 1.1.@.822FAQ 12.3.@.825FAQ 12.2.@.826FAQ 12.1.@.827FAQ 11.3.@.828FAQ 11.2.@.829FAQ 11.1.@.830FAQ 10.2.@.831FAQ 10.1.@.832FAQ 9.3.@.833FAQ 9.2.@.834FAQ 9.1.@.835FAQ 8.3.@.836FAQ 8.2.@.837FAQ 8.1.@.838FAQ 7.3.@.839FAQ 7.2.@.840FAQ 7.1.@.841FAQ 6.2.@.842FAQ 6.1.@.843FAQ 5.4.@.844FAQ 5.3.@.845FAQ 5.2.@.846FAQ 5.1.@.847FAQ 4.3.@.848FAQ 4.2.@.849FAQ 4.1.@.850FAQ 3.3.@.851FAQ 3.2.@.852FAQ 3.1.@.853FAQ 2.2.@.854FAQ 2.1.@.855FAQ 1.3.@.856FAQ 1.2.@.857FAQ 1.1.@.858Human-induced climate change has already affected many aspects of the climate system. In addition to the increase in global surface temperature, many types of weather and climate extremes have changed. In most regions, the frequency and intensity of hot extremes have increased and those of cold extremes have decreased. The frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events have increased at the global scale and over a majority of land regions. Although extreme events such as land and marine heatwaves, heavy precipitation, drought, tropical cyclones, and associated wildfires and coastal flooding have occurred in the past and will continue to occur in the future, they often come with different magnitudes or frequencies in a warmer world. For example, future heatwaves will last longer and have higher temperatures, and future extreme precipitation events will be more intense in several regions. Certain extremes, such as extreme cold, will be less intense and less frequent with increasing warming.

FAQ 11.2.cFAQ 11.1.rFAQ 11.1.yFAQ 10.2.atFAQ 10.2.bcFAQ 10.1.boFAQ 10.1.bvFAQ 9.3.csFAQ 9.3.dcFAQ 9.2.dhFAQ 9.2.dqFAQ 9.1.dyFAQ 9.1.efFAQ 8.3.ekFAQ 8.3.eqFAQ 8.2.gbFAQ 8.2.gkFAQ 8.1.hdFAQ 8.1.hoFAQ 7.3.hsFAQ 7.3.ibFAQ 7.2.ipFAQ 7.2.@.257FAQ 7.1.@.274FAQ 7.1.@.283FAQ 6.2.@.307FAQ 6.2.@.316FAQ 6.1.@.337FAQ 6.1.@.346FAQ 5.4.@.349FAQ 5.4.@.370FAQ 5.3.@.373FAQ 5.3.@.425FAQ 5.2.@.428FAQ 5.2.@.446FAQ 5.1.@.449FAQ 5.1.@.482FAQ 4.3.@.492FAQ 4.3.@.501FAQ 4.2.@.549FAQ 4.2.@.557FAQ 4.1.@.581FAQ 4.1.@.588FAQ 3.3.@.600FAQ 3.3.@.608FAQ 3.2.@.629FAQ 3.2.@.630FAQ 3.2.@.637FAQ 3.1.@.642FAQ 3.1.@.650FAQ 2.2.@.674FAQ 2.2.@.683FAQ 2.1.@.693FAQ 2.1.@.702FAQ 1.3.@.734FAQ 1.3.@.742FAQ 1.2.@.750FAQ 1.2.@.760FAQ 1.1.@.814FAQ 1.1.@.823FAQ 12.3.@.826FAQ 12.2.@.827FAQ 12.1.@.828FAQ 11.3.@.829FAQ 11.2.@.830FAQ 11.1.@.831FAQ 10.2.@.832FAQ 10.1.@.833FAQ 9.3.@.834FAQ 9.2.@.835FAQ 9.1.@.836FAQ 8.3.@.837FAQ 8.2.@.838FAQ 8.1.@.839FAQ 7.3.@.840FAQ 7.2.@.841FAQ 7.1.@.842FAQ 6.2.@.843FAQ 6.1.@.844FAQ 5.4.@.845FAQ 5.3.@.846FAQ 5.2.@.847FAQ 5.1.@.848FAQ 4.3.@.849FAQ 4.2.@.850FAQ 4.1.@.851FAQ 3.3.@.852FAQ 3.2.@.853FAQ 3.1.@.854FAQ 2.2.@.855FAQ 2.1.@.856FAQ 1.3.@.857FAQ 1.2.@.858FAQ 1.1.@.859Unprecedented extremes – that is, events not experienced in the past – will occur in the future in five different ways (FAQ 11.2, Figure 1). First, events that are considered to be extreme in the current climate will occur in the future with unprecedented magnitudes. Second, future extreme events will also occur with unprecedented frequency. Third, certain types of extremes may occur in regions that have not previously encountered those types of events. For example, as the sea level rises, coastal flooding may occur in new locations, and wildfires are already occurring in areas, such as parts of the Arctic, where the probability of such events was previously low. Fourth, extreme events may also be unprecedented in their timing. For example, extremely hot temperatures may occur either earlier or later in the year than they have in the past.

FAQ 11.2.dFAQ 11.1.sFAQ 11.1.zFAQ 10.2.auFAQ 10.2.bdFAQ 10.1.bpFAQ 10.1.bwFAQ 9.3.ctFAQ 9.3.ddFAQ 9.2.diFAQ 9.2.drFAQ 9.1.dzFAQ 9.1.egFAQ 8.3.elFAQ 8.3.erFAQ 8.2.gcFAQ 8.2.glFAQ 8.1.heFAQ 8.1.hpFAQ 7.3.htFAQ 7.3.icFAQ 7.2.iqFAQ 7.2.@.258FAQ 7.1.@.275FAQ 7.1.@.284FAQ 6.2.@.308FAQ 6.2.@.317FAQ 6.1.@.338FAQ 6.1.@.347FAQ 5.4.@.350FAQ 5.4.@.371FAQ 5.3.@.374FAQ 5.3.@.426FAQ 5.2.@.429FAQ 5.2.@.447FAQ 5.1.@.450FAQ 5.1.@.483FAQ 4.3.@.493FAQ 4.3.@.502FAQ 4.2.@.550FAQ 4.2.@.558FAQ 4.1.@.582FAQ 4.1.@.589FAQ 3.3.@.601FAQ 3.3.@.609FAQ 3.2.@.630FAQ 3.2.@.631FAQ 3.2.@.638FAQ 3.1.@.643FAQ 3.1.@.651FAQ 2.2.@.675FAQ 2.2.@.684FAQ 2.1.@.694FAQ 2.1.@.703FAQ 1.3.@.735FAQ 1.3.@.743FAQ 1.2.@.751FAQ 1.2.@.761FAQ 1.1.@.815FAQ 1.1.@.824FAQ 12.3.@.827FAQ 12.2.@.828FAQ 12.1.@.829FAQ 11.3.@.830FAQ 11.2.@.831FAQ 11.1.@.832FAQ 10.2.@.833FAQ 10.1.@.834FAQ 9.3.@.835FAQ 9.2.@.836FAQ 9.1.@.837FAQ 8.3.@.838FAQ 8.2.@.839FAQ 8.1.@.840FAQ 7.3.@.841FAQ 7.2.@.842FAQ 7.1.@.843FAQ 6.2.@.844FAQ 6.1.@.845FAQ 5.4.@.846FAQ 5.3.@.847FAQ 5.2.@.848FAQ 5.1.@.849FAQ 4.3.@.850FAQ 4.2.@.851FAQ 4.1.@.852FAQ 3.3.@.853FAQ 3.2.@.854FAQ 3.1.@.855FAQ 2.2.@.856FAQ 2.1.@.857FAQ 1.3.@.858FAQ 1.2.@.859FAQ 1.1.@.860Finally, compound events – where multiple extreme events of either different or similar types occur simultaneously and/or in succession – may be more probable or severe in the future. These compound events can often impact ecosystems and societies more strongly than when such events occur in isolation. For example, a drought along with extreme heat will increase the risk of wildfires and agriculture damages or losses. As individual extreme events become more severe as a result of climate change, the combined occurrence of these events will create unprecedented compound events. This could exacerbate the intensity and associated impacts of these extreme events.

FAQ 11.2.eFAQ 11.1.tFAQ 11.1.aaFAQ 10.2.avFAQ 10.2.beFAQ 10.1.bqFAQ 10.1.bxFAQ 9.3.cuFAQ 9.3.deFAQ 9.2.djFAQ 9.2.dsFAQ 9.1.eaFAQ 9.1.ehFAQ 8.3.emFAQ 8.3.esFAQ 8.2.gdFAQ 8.2.gmFAQ 8.1.hfFAQ 8.1.hqFAQ 7.3.huFAQ 7.3.idFAQ 7.2.irFAQ 7.2.@.259FAQ 7.1.@.276FAQ 7.1.@.285FAQ 6.2.@.309FAQ 6.2.@.318FAQ 6.1.@.339FAQ 6.1.@.348FAQ 5.4.@.351FAQ 5.4.@.372FAQ 5.3.@.375FAQ 5.3.@.427FAQ 5.2.@.430FAQ 5.2.@.448FAQ 5.1.@.451FAQ 5.1.@.484FAQ 4.3.@.494FAQ 4.3.@.503FAQ 4.2.@.551FAQ 4.2.@.559FAQ 4.1.@.583FAQ 4.1.@.590FAQ 3.3.@.602FAQ 3.3.@.610FAQ 3.2.@.631FAQ 3.2.@.632FAQ 3.2.@.639FAQ 3.1.@.644FAQ 3.1.@.652FAQ 2.2.@.676FAQ 2.2.@.685FAQ 2.1.@.695FAQ 2.1.@.704FAQ 1.3.@.736FAQ 1.3.@.744FAQ 1.2.@.752FAQ 1.2.@.762FAQ 1.1.@.816FAQ 1.1.@.825FAQ 12.3.@.828FAQ 12.2.@.829FAQ 12.1.@.830FAQ 11.3.@.831FAQ 11.2.@.832FAQ 11.1.@.833FAQ 10.2.@.834FAQ 10.1.@.835FAQ 9.3.@.836FAQ 9.2.@.837FAQ 9.1.@.838FAQ 8.3.@.839FAQ 8.2.@.840FAQ 8.1.@.841FAQ 7.3.@.842FAQ 7.2.@.843FAQ 7.1.@.844FAQ 6.2.@.845FAQ 6.1.@.846FAQ 5.4.@.847FAQ 5.3.@.848FAQ 5.2.@.849FAQ 5.1.@.850FAQ 4.3.@.851FAQ 4.2.@.852FAQ 4.1.@.853FAQ 3.3.@.854FAQ 3.2.@.855FAQ 3.1.@.856FAQ 2.2.@.857FAQ 2.1.@.858FAQ 1.3.@.859FAQ 1.2.@.860FAQ 1.1.@.861Unprecedented extremes have already occurred in recent years, relative to the 20th century climate. Some recent extreme hot events would have had very little chance of occurring without human influence on the climate (see FAQ 11.3). In the future, unprecedented extremes will occur as the climate continues to warm. Those extremes will happen with larger magnitudes and at higher frequencies than previously experienced. Extreme events may also appear in new locations, at new times of the year, or as unprecedented compound events. Moreover, unprecedented events will become more frequent with higher levels of warming, for example at 3°C of global warming compared to 2°C of

FAQ 11.2.fFAQ 11.1.uFAQ 11.1.abFAQ 10.2.awFAQ 10.2.bfFAQ 10.1.brFAQ 10.1.byFAQ 9.3.cvFAQ 9.3.dfFAQ 9.2.dkFAQ 9.2.dtFAQ 9.1.ebFAQ 9.1.eiFAQ 8.3.enFAQ 8.3.etFAQ 8.2.geFAQ 8.2.gnFAQ 8.1.hgFAQ 8.1.hrFAQ 7.3.hvFAQ 7.3.ieFAQ 7.2.isFAQ 7.2.@.260FAQ 7.1.@.277FAQ 7.1.@.286FAQ 6.2.@.310FAQ 6.2.@.319FAQ 6.1.@.340FAQ 6.1.@.349FAQ 5.4.@.352FAQ 5.4.@.373FAQ 5.3.@.376FAQ 5.3.@.428FAQ 5.2.@.431FAQ 5.2.@.449FAQ 5.1.@.452FAQ 5.1.@.485FAQ 4.3.@.495FAQ 4.3.@.504FAQ 4.2.@.552FAQ 4.2.@.560FAQ 4.1.@.584FAQ 4.1.@.591FAQ 3.3.@.603FAQ 3.3.@.611FAQ 3.2.@.632FAQ 3.2.@.633FAQ 3.2.@.640FAQ 3.1.@.645FAQ 3.1.@.653FAQ 2.2.@.677FAQ 2.2.@.686FAQ 2.1.@.696FAQ 2.1.@.705FAQ 1.3.@.737FAQ 1.3.@.745FAQ 1.2.@.753FAQ 1.2.@.763FAQ 1.1.@.817FAQ 1.1.@.826FAQ 12.3.@.829FAQ 12.2.@.830FAQ 12.1.@.831FAQ 11.3.@.832FAQ 11.2.@.833FAQ 11.1.@.834FAQ 10.2.@.835FAQ 10.1.@.836FAQ 9.3.@.837FAQ 9.2.@.838FAQ 9.1.@.839FAQ 8.3.@.840FAQ 8.2.@.841FAQ 8.1.@.842FAQ 7.3.@.843FAQ 7.2.@.844FAQ 7.1.@.845FAQ 6.2.@.846FAQ 6.1.@.847FAQ 5.4.@.848FAQ 5.3.@.849FAQ 5.2.@.850FAQ 5.1.@.851FAQ 4.3.@.852FAQ 4.2.@.853FAQ 4.1.@.854FAQ 3.3.@.855FAQ 3.2.@.856FAQ 3.1.@.857FAQ 2.2.@.858FAQ 2.1.@.859FAQ 1.3.@.860FAQ 1.2.@.861FAQ 1.1.@.862FAQ 11.2: Will climate change cause unprecedented extremes?

FAQ 11.2.gFAQ 11.1.vFAQ 11.1.acFAQ 10.2.axFAQ 10.2.bgFAQ 10.1.bsFAQ 10.1.bzFAQ 9.3.cwFAQ 9.3.dgFAQ 9.2.dlFAQ 9.2.duFAQ 9.1.ecFAQ 9.1.ejFAQ 8.3.eoFAQ 8.3.euFAQ 8.2.gfFAQ 8.2.goFAQ 8.1.hhFAQ 8.1.hsFAQ 7.3.hwFAQ 7.3.ifFAQ 7.2.itFAQ 7.2.@.261FAQ 7.1.@.278FAQ 7.1.@.287FAQ 6.2.@.311FAQ 6.2.@.320FAQ 6.1.@.341FAQ 6.1.@.350FAQ 5.4.@.353FAQ 5.4.@.374FAQ 5.3.@.377FAQ 5.3.@.429FAQ 5.2.@.432FAQ 5.2.@.450FAQ 5.1.@.453FAQ 5.1.@.486FAQ 4.3.@.496FAQ 4.3.@.505FAQ 4.2.@.553FAQ 4.2.@.561FAQ 4.1.@.585FAQ 4.1.@.592FAQ 3.3.@.604FAQ 3.3.@.612FAQ 3.2.@.633FAQ 3.2.@.634FAQ 3.2.@.641FAQ 3.1.@.646FAQ 3.1.@.654FAQ 2.2.@.678FAQ 2.2.@.687FAQ 2.1.@.697FAQ 2.1.@.706FAQ 1.3.@.738FAQ 1.3.@.746FAQ 1.2.@.754FAQ 1.2.@.764FAQ 1.1.@.818FAQ 1.1.@.827FAQ 12.3.@.830FAQ 12.2.@.831FAQ 12.1.@.832FAQ 11.3.@.833FAQ 11.2.@.834FAQ 11.1.@.835FAQ 10.2.@.836FAQ 10.1.@.837FAQ 9.3.@.838FAQ 9.2.@.839FAQ 9.1.@.840FAQ 8.3.@.841FAQ 8.2.@.842FAQ 8.1.@.843FAQ 7.3.@.844FAQ 7.2.@.845FAQ 7.1.@.846FAQ 6.2.@.847FAQ 6.1.@.848FAQ 5.4.@.849FAQ 5.3.@.850FAQ 5.2.@.851FAQ 5.1.@.852FAQ 4.3.@.853FAQ 4.2.@.854FAQ 4.1.@.855FAQ 3.3.@.856FAQ 3.2.@.857FAQ 3.1.@.858FAQ 2.2.@.859FAQ 2.1.@.860FAQ 1.3.@.861FAQ 1.2.@.862FAQ 1.1.@.863Yes, in a changing climate, extreme events may be unprecedented when they occur with...

FAQ 11.2.hFAQ 11.1.wFAQ 11.1.adFAQ 10.2.ayFAQ 10.2.bhFAQ 10.1.btFAQ 10.1.caFAQ 9.3.cxFAQ 9.3.dhFAQ 9.2.dmFAQ 9.2.dvFAQ 9.1.edFAQ 9.1.ekFAQ 8.3.epFAQ 8.3.evFAQ 8.2.ggFAQ 8.2.gpFAQ 8.1.hiFAQ 8.1.htFAQ 7.3.hxFAQ 7.3.igFAQ 7.2.iuFAQ 7.2.@.262FAQ 7.1.@.279FAQ 7.1.@.288FAQ 6.2.@.312FAQ 6.2.@.321FAQ 6.1.@.342FAQ 6.1.@.351FAQ 5.4.@.354FAQ 5.4.@.375FAQ 5.3.@.378FAQ 5.3.@.430FAQ 5.2.@.433FAQ 5.2.@.451FAQ 5.1.@.454FAQ 5.1.@.487FAQ 4.3.@.497FAQ 4.3.@.506FAQ 4.2.@.554FAQ 4.2.@.562FAQ 4.1.@.586FAQ 4.1.@.593FAQ 3.3.@.605FAQ 3.3.@.613FAQ 3.2.@.634FAQ 3.2.@.635FAQ 3.2.@.642FAQ 3.1.@.647FAQ 3.1.@.655FAQ 2.2.@.679FAQ 2.2.@.688FAQ 2.1.@.698FAQ 2.1.@.707FAQ 1.3.@.739FAQ 1.3.@.747FAQ 1.2.@.755FAQ 1.2.@.765FAQ 1.1.@.819FAQ 1.1.@.828FAQ 12.3.@.831FAQ 12.2.@.832FAQ 12.1.@.833FAQ 11.3.@.834FAQ 11.2.@.835FAQ 11.1.@.836FAQ 10.2.@.837FAQ 10.1.@.838FAQ 9.3.@.839FAQ 9.2.@.840FAQ 9.1.@.841FAQ 8.3.@.842FAQ 8.2.@.843FAQ 8.1.@.844FAQ 7.3.@.845FAQ 7.2.@.846FAQ 7.1.@.847FAQ 6.2.@.848FAQ 6.1.@.849FAQ 5.4.@.850FAQ 5.3.@.851FAQ 5.2.@.852FAQ 5.1.@.853FAQ 4.3.@.854FAQ 4.2.@.855FAQ 4.1.@.856FAQ 3.3.@.857FAQ 3.2.@.858FAQ 3.1.@.859FAQ 2.2.@.860FAQ 2.1.@.861FAQ 1.3.@.862FAQ 1.2.@.863FAQ 1.1.@.864Larger magnitude

FAQ 11.2.iFAQ 11.1.xFAQ 11.1.aeFAQ 10.2.azFAQ 10.2.biFAQ 10.1.buFAQ 10.1.cbFAQ 9.3.cyFAQ 9.3.diFAQ 9.2.dnFAQ 9.2.dwFAQ 9.1.eeFAQ 9.1.elFAQ 8.3.eqFAQ 8.3.ewFAQ 8.2.ghFAQ 8.2.gqFAQ 8.1.hjFAQ 8.1.huFAQ 7.3.hyFAQ 7.3.ihFAQ 7.2.ivFAQ 7.2.@.263FAQ 7.1.@.280FAQ 7.1.@.289FAQ 6.2.@.313FAQ 6.2.@.322FAQ 6.1.@.343FAQ 6.1.@.352FAQ 5.4.@.355FAQ 5.4.@.376FAQ 5.3.@.379FAQ 5.3.@.431FAQ 5.2.@.434FAQ 5.2.@.452FAQ 5.1.@.455FAQ 5.1.@.488FAQ 4.3.@.498FAQ 4.3.@.507FAQ 4.2.@.555FAQ 4.2.@.563FAQ 4.1.@.587FAQ 4.1.@.594FAQ 3.3.@.606FAQ 3.3.@.614FAQ 3.2.@.635FAQ 3.2.@.636FAQ 3.2.@.643FAQ 3.1.@.648FAQ 3.1.@.656FAQ 2.2.@.680FAQ 2.2.@.689FAQ 2.1.@.699FAQ 2.1.@.708FAQ 1.3.@.740FAQ 1.3.@.748FAQ 1.2.@.756FAQ 1.2.@.766FAQ 1.1.@.820FAQ 1.1.@.829FAQ 12.3.@.832FAQ 12.2.@.833FAQ 12.1.@.834FAQ 11.3.@.835FAQ 11.2.@.836FAQ 11.1.@.837FAQ 10.2.@.838FAQ 10.1.@.839FAQ 9.3.@.840FAQ 9.2.@.841FAQ 9.1.@.842FAQ 8.3.@.843FAQ 8.2.@.844FAQ 8.1.@.845FAQ 7.3.@.846FAQ 7.2.@.847FAQ 7.1.@.848FAQ 6.2.@.849FAQ 6.1.@.850FAQ 5.4.@.851FAQ 5.3.@.852FAQ 5.2.@.853FAQ 5.1.@.854FAQ 4.3.@.855FAQ 4.2.@.856FAQ 4.1.@.857FAQ 3.3.@.858FAQ 3.2.@.859FAQ 3.1.@.860FAQ 2.2.@.861FAQ 2.1.@.862FAQ 1.3.@.863FAQ 1.2.@.864FAQ 1.1.@.865Increased frequency

FAQ 11.2.jFAQ 11.1.yFAQ 11.1.afFAQ 10.2.baFAQ 10.2.bjFAQ 10.1.bvFAQ 10.1.ccFAQ 9.3.czFAQ 9.3.djFAQ 9.2.doFAQ 9.2.dxFAQ 9.1.efFAQ 9.1.emFAQ 8.3.erFAQ 8.3.exFAQ 8.2.giFAQ 8.2.grFAQ 8.1.hkFAQ 8.1.hvFAQ 7.3.hzFAQ 7.3.iiFAQ 7.2.@.256FAQ 7.2.@.264FAQ 7.1.@.281FAQ 7.1.@.290FAQ 6.2.@.314FAQ 6.2.@.323FAQ 6.1.@.344FAQ 6.1.@.353FAQ 5.4.@.356FAQ 5.4.@.377FAQ 5.3.@.380FAQ 5.3.@.432FAQ 5.2.@.435FAQ 5.2.@.453FAQ 5.1.@.456FAQ 5.1.@.489FAQ 4.3.@.499FAQ 4.3.@.508FAQ 4.2.@.556FAQ 4.2.@.564FAQ 4.1.@.588FAQ 4.1.@.595FAQ 3.3.@.607FAQ 3.3.@.615FAQ 3.2.@.636FAQ 3.2.@.637FAQ 3.2.@.644FAQ 3.1.@.649FAQ 3.1.@.657FAQ 2.2.@.681FAQ 2.2.@.690FAQ 2.1.@.700FAQ 2.1.@.709FAQ 1.3.@.741FAQ 1.3.@.749FAQ 1.2.@.757FAQ 1.2.@.767FAQ 1.1.@.821FAQ 1.1.@.830FAQ 12.3.@.833FAQ 12.2.@.834FAQ 12.1.@.835FAQ 11.3.@.836FAQ 11.2.@.837FAQ 11.1.@.838FAQ 10.2.@.839FAQ 10.1.@.840FAQ 9.3.@.841FAQ 9.2.@.842FAQ 9.1.@.843FAQ 8.3.@.844FAQ 8.2.@.845FAQ 8.1.@.846FAQ 7.3.@.847FAQ 7.2.@.848FAQ 7.1.@.849FAQ 6.2.@.850FAQ 6.1.@.851FAQ 5.4.@.852FAQ 5.3.@.853FAQ 5.2.@.854FAQ 5.1.@.855FAQ 4.3.@.856FAQ 4.2.@.857FAQ 4.1.@.858FAQ 3.3.@.859FAQ 3.2.@.860FAQ 3.1.@.861FAQ 2.2.@.862FAQ 2.1.@.863FAQ 1.3.@.864FAQ 1.2.@.865FAQ 1.1.@.866New locations

FAQ 11.2.kFAQ 11.1.zFAQ 11.1.agFAQ 10.2.bbFAQ 10.2.bkFAQ 10.1.bwFAQ 10.1.cdFAQ 9.3.daFAQ 9.3.dkFAQ 9.2.dpFAQ 9.2.dyFAQ 9.1.egFAQ 9.1.enFAQ 8.3.esFAQ 8.3.eyFAQ 8.2.gjFAQ 8.2.gsFAQ 8.1.hlFAQ 8.1.hwFAQ 7.3.iaFAQ 7.3.ijFAQ 7.2.@.257FAQ 7.2.@.265FAQ 7.1.@.282FAQ 7.1.@.291FAQ 6.2.@.315FAQ 6.2.@.324FAQ 6.1.@.345FAQ 6.1.@.354FAQ 5.4.@.357FAQ 5.4.@.378FAQ 5.3.@.381FAQ 5.3.@.433FAQ 5.2.@.436FAQ 5.2.@.454FAQ 5.1.@.457FAQ 5.1.@.490FAQ 4.3.@.500FAQ 4.3.@.509FAQ 4.2.@.557FAQ 4.2.@.565FAQ 4.1.@.589FAQ 4.1.@.596FAQ 3.3.@.608FAQ 3.3.@.616FAQ 3.2.@.637FAQ 3.2.@.638FAQ 3.2.@.645FAQ 3.1.@.650FAQ 3.1.@.658FAQ 2.2.@.682FAQ 2.2.@.691FAQ 2.1.@.701FAQ 2.1.@.710FAQ 1.3.@.742FAQ 1.3.@.750FAQ 1.2.@.758FAQ 1.2.@.768FAQ 1.1.@.822FAQ 1.1.@.831FAQ 12.3.@.834FAQ 12.2.@.835FAQ 12.1.@.836FAQ 11.3.@.837FAQ 11.2.@.838FAQ 11.1.@.839FAQ 10.2.@.840FAQ 10.1.@.841FAQ 9.3.@.842FAQ 9.2.@.843FAQ 9.1.@.844FAQ 8.3.@.845FAQ 8.2.@.846FAQ 8.1.@.847FAQ 7.3.@.848FAQ 7.2.@.849FAQ 7.1.@.850FAQ 6.2.@.851FAQ 6.1.@.852FAQ 5.4.@.853FAQ 5.3.@.854FAQ 5.2.@.855FAQ 5.1.@.856FAQ 4.3.@.857FAQ 4.2.@.858FAQ 4.1.@.859FAQ 3.3.@.860FAQ 3.2.@.861FAQ 3.1.@.862FAQ 2.2.@.863FAQ 2.1.@.864FAQ 1.3.@.865FAQ 1.2.@.866FAQ 1.1.@.867Different timing

FAQ 11.2.lFAQ 11.1.aaFAQ 11.1.ahFAQ 10.2.bcFAQ 10.2.blFAQ 10.1.bxFAQ 10.1.ceFAQ 9.3.dbFAQ 9.3.dlFAQ 9.2.dqFAQ 9.2.dzFAQ 9.1.ehFAQ 9.1.eoFAQ 8.3.etFAQ 8.3.ezFAQ 8.2.gkFAQ 8.2.gtFAQ 8.1.hmFAQ 8.1.hxFAQ 7.3.ibFAQ 7.3.ikFAQ 7.2.@.258FAQ 7.2.@.266FAQ 7.1.@.283FAQ 7.1.@.292FAQ 6.2.@.316FAQ 6.2.@.325FAQ 6.1.@.346FAQ 6.1.@.355FAQ 5.4.@.358FAQ 5.4.@.379FAQ 5.3.@.382FAQ 5.3.@.434FAQ 5.2.@.437FAQ 5.2.@.455FAQ 5.1.@.458FAQ 5.1.@.491FAQ 4.3.@.501FAQ 4.3.@.510FAQ 4.2.@.558FAQ 4.2.@.566FAQ 4.1.@.590FAQ 4.1.@.597FAQ 3.3.@.609FAQ 3.3.@.617FAQ 3.2.@.638FAQ 3.2.@.639FAQ 3.2.@.646FAQ 3.1.@.651FAQ 3.1.@.659FAQ 2.2.@.683FAQ 2.2.@.692FAQ 2.1.@.702FAQ 2.1.@.711FAQ 1.3.@.743FAQ 1.3.@.751FAQ 1.2.@.759FAQ 1.2.@.769FAQ 1.1.@.823FAQ 1.1.@.832FAQ 12.3.@.835FAQ 12.2.@.836FAQ 12.1.@.837FAQ 11.3.@.838FAQ 11.2.@.839FAQ 11.1.@.840FAQ 10.2.@.841FAQ 10.1.@.842FAQ 9.3.@.843FAQ 9.2.@.844FAQ 9.1.@.845FAQ 8.3.@.846FAQ 8.2.@.847FAQ 8.1.@.848FAQ 7.3.@.849FAQ 7.2.@.850FAQ 7.1.@.851FAQ 6.2.@.852FAQ 6.1.@.853FAQ 5.4.@.854FAQ 5.3.@.855FAQ 5.2.@.856FAQ 5.1.@.857FAQ 4.3.@.858FAQ 4.2.@.859FAQ 4.1.@.860FAQ 3.3.@.861FAQ 3.2.@.862FAQ 3.1.@.863FAQ 2.2.@.864FAQ 2.1.@.865FAQ 1.3.@.866FAQ 1.2.@.867FAQ 1.1.@.868New combinations (compound)

FAQ 11.2.mFAQ 11.1.abFAQ 11.1.aiFAQ 10.2.bdFAQ 10.2.bmFAQ 10.1.byFAQ 10.1.cfFAQ 9.3.dcFAQ 9.3.dmFAQ 9.2.drFAQ 9.2.eaFAQ 9.1.eiFAQ 9.1.epFAQ 8.3.euFAQ 8.3.faFAQ 8.2.glFAQ 8.2.guFAQ 8.1.hnFAQ 8.1.hyFAQ 7.3.icFAQ 7.3.ilFAQ 7.2.@.259FAQ 7.2.@.267FAQ 7.1.@.284FAQ 7.1.@.293FAQ 6.2.@.317FAQ 6.2.@.326FAQ 6.1.@.347FAQ 6.1.@.356FAQ 5.4.@.359FAQ 5.4.@.380FAQ 5.3.@.383FAQ 5.3.@.435FAQ 5.2.@.438FAQ 5.2.@.456FAQ 5.1.@.459FAQ 5.1.@.492FAQ 4.3.@.502FAQ 4.3.@.511FAQ 4.2.@.559FAQ 4.2.@.567FAQ 4.1.@.591FAQ 4.1.@.598FAQ 3.3.@.610FAQ 3.3.@.618FAQ 3.2.@.639FAQ 3.2.@.640FAQ 3.2.@.647FAQ 3.1.@.652FAQ 3.1.@.660FAQ 2.2.@.684FAQ 2.2.@.693FAQ 2.1.@.703FAQ 2.1.@.712FAQ 1.3.@.744FAQ 1.3.@.752FAQ 1.2.@.760FAQ 1.2.@.770FAQ 1.1.@.824FAQ 1.1.@.833FAQ 12.3.@.836FAQ 12.2.@.837FAQ 12.1.@.838FAQ 11.3.@.839FAQ 11.2.@.840FAQ 11.1.@.841FAQ 10.2.@.842FAQ 10.1.@.843FAQ 9.3.@.844FAQ 9.2.@.845FAQ 9.1.@.846FAQ 8.3.@.847FAQ 8.2.@.848FAQ 8.1.@.849FAQ 7.3.@.850FAQ 7.2.@.851FAQ 7.1.@.852FAQ 6.2.@.853FAQ 6.1.@.854FAQ 5.4.@.855FAQ 5.3.@.856FAQ 5.2.@.857FAQ 5.1.@.858FAQ 4.3.@.859FAQ 4.2.@.860FAQ 4.1.@.861FAQ 3.3.@.862FAQ 3.2.@.863FAQ 3.1.@.864FAQ 2.2.@.865FAQ 2.1.@.866FAQ 1.3.@.867FAQ 1.2.@.868FAQ 1.1.@.869FAQ 11.2, Figure 1 | New types of unprecedented extremes that

FAQ 11.2.nFAQ 11.1.acFAQ 11.1.ajFAQ 10.2.beFAQ 10.2.bnFAQ 10.1.bzFAQ 10.1.cgFAQ 9.3.ddFAQ 9.3.dnFAQ 9.2.dsFAQ 9.2.ebFAQ 9.1.ejFAQ 9.1.eqFAQ 8.3.evFAQ 8.3.fbFAQ 8.2.gmFAQ 8.2.gvFAQ 8.1.hoFAQ 8.1.hzFAQ 7.3.idFAQ 7.3.imFAQ 7.2.@.260FAQ 7.2.@.268FAQ 7.1.@.285FAQ 7.1.@.294FAQ 6.2.@.318FAQ 6.2.@.327FAQ 6.1.@.348FAQ 6.1.@.357FAQ 5.4.@.360FAQ 5.4.@.381FAQ 5.3.@.384FAQ 5.3.@.436FAQ 5.2.@.439FAQ 5.2.@.457FAQ 5.1.@.460FAQ 5.1.@.493FAQ 4.3.@.503FAQ 4.3.@.512FAQ 4.2.@.560FAQ 4.2.@.568FAQ 4.1.@.592FAQ 4.1.@.599FAQ 3.3.@.611FAQ 3.3.@.619FAQ 3.2.@.640FAQ 3.2.@.641FAQ 3.2.@.648FAQ 3.1.@.653FAQ 3.1.@.661FAQ 2.2.@.685FAQ 2.2.@.694FAQ 2.1.@.704FAQ 2.1.@.713FAQ 1.3.@.745FAQ 1.3.@.753FAQ 1.2.@.761FAQ 1.2.@.771FAQ 1.1.@.825FAQ 1.1.@.834FAQ 12.3.@.837FAQ 12.2.@.838FAQ 12.1.@.839FAQ 11.3.@.840FAQ 11.2.@.841FAQ 11.1.@.842FAQ 10.2.@.843FAQ 10.1.@.844FAQ 9.3.@.845FAQ 9.2.@.846FAQ 9.1.@.847FAQ 8.3.@.848FAQ 8.2.@.849FAQ 8.1.@.850FAQ 7.3.@.851FAQ 7.2.@.852FAQ 7.1.@.853FAQ 6.2.@.854FAQ 6.1.@.855FAQ 5.4.@.856FAQ 5.3.@.857FAQ 5.2.@.858FAQ 5.1.@.859FAQ 4.3.@.860FAQ 4.2.@.861FAQ 4.1.@.862FAQ 3.3.@.863FAQ 3.2.@.864FAQ 3.1.@.865FAQ 2.2.@.866FAQ 2.1.@.867FAQ 1.3.@.868FAQ 1.2.@.869FAQ 1.1.@.870FAQ

FAQ 11.2.oFAQ 11.1.adFAQ 11.1.akFAQ 10.2.bfFAQ 10.2.boFAQ 10.1.caFAQ 10.1.chFAQ 9.3.deFAQ 9.3.doFAQ 9.2.dtFAQ 9.2.ecFAQ 9.1.ekFAQ 9.1.erFAQ 8.3.ewFAQ 8.3.fcFAQ 8.2.gnFAQ 8.2.gwFAQ 8.1.hpFAQ 8.1.iaFAQ 7.3.ieFAQ 7.3.inFAQ 7.2.@.261FAQ 7.2.@.269FAQ 7.1.@.286FAQ 7.1.@.295FAQ 6.2.@.319FAQ 6.2.@.328FAQ 6.1.@.349FAQ 6.1.@.358FAQ 5.4.@.361FAQ 5.4.@.382FAQ 5.3.@.385FAQ 5.3.@.437FAQ 5.2.@.440FAQ 5.2.@.458FAQ 5.1.@.461FAQ 5.1.@.494FAQ 4.3.@.504FAQ 4.3.@.513FAQ 4.2.@.561FAQ 4.2.@.569FAQ 4.1.@.593FAQ 4.1.@.600FAQ 3.3.@.612FAQ 3.3.@.620FAQ 3.2.@.641FAQ 3.2.@.642FAQ 3.2.@.649FAQ 3.1.@.654FAQ 3.1.@.662FAQ 2.2.@.686FAQ 2.2.@.695FAQ 2.1.@.705FAQ 2.1.@.714FAQ 1.3.@.746FAQ 1.3.@.754FAQ 1.2.@.762FAQ 1.2.@.772FAQ 1.1.@.826FAQ 1.1.@.835FAQ 12.3.@.838FAQ 12.2.@.839FAQ 12.1.@.840FAQ 11.3.@.841FAQ 11.2.@.842FAQ 11.1.@.843FAQ 10.2.@.844FAQ 10.1.@.845FAQ 9.3.@.846FAQ 9.2.@.847FAQ 9.1.@.848FAQ 8.3.@.849FAQ 8.2.@.850FAQ 8.1.@.851FAQ 7.3.@.852FAQ 7.2.@.853FAQ 7.1.@.854FAQ 6.2.@.855FAQ 6.1.@.856FAQ 5.4.@.857FAQ 5.3.@.858FAQ 5.2.@.859FAQ 5.1.@.860FAQ 4.3.@.861FAQ 4.2.@.862FAQ 4.1.@.863FAQ 3.3.@.864FAQ 3.2.@.865FAQ 3.1.@.866FAQ 2.2.@.867FAQ 2.1.@.868FAQ 1.3.@.869FAQ 1.2.@.870FAQ 1.1.@.871Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 11.2.pFAQ 11.1.aeFAQ 11.1.alFAQ 10.2.bgFAQ 10.2.bpFAQ 10.1.cbFAQ 10.1.ciFAQ 9.3.dfFAQ 9.3.dpFAQ 9.2.duFAQ 9.2.edFAQ 9.1.elFAQ 9.1.esFAQ 8.3.exFAQ 8.3.fdFAQ 8.2.goFAQ 8.2.gxFAQ 8.1.hqFAQ 8.1.ibFAQ 7.3.ifFAQ 7.3.ioFAQ 7.2.@.262FAQ 7.2.@.270FAQ 7.1.@.287FAQ 7.1.@.296FAQ 6.2.@.320FAQ 6.2.@.329FAQ 6.1.@.350FAQ 6.1.@.359FAQ 5.4.@.362FAQ 5.4.@.383FAQ 5.3.@.386FAQ 5.3.@.438FAQ 5.2.@.441FAQ 5.2.@.459FAQ 5.1.@.462FAQ 5.1.@.495FAQ 4.3.@.505FAQ 4.3.@.514FAQ 4.2.@.562FAQ 4.2.@.570FAQ 4.1.@.594FAQ 4.1.@.601FAQ 3.3.@.613FAQ 3.3.@.621FAQ 3.2.@.642FAQ 3.2.@.643FAQ 3.2.@.650FAQ 3.1.@.655FAQ 3.1.@.663FAQ 2.2.@.687FAQ 2.2.@.696FAQ 2.1.@.706FAQ 2.1.@.715FAQ 1.3.@.747FAQ 1.3.@.755FAQ 1.2.@.763FAQ 1.2.@.773FAQ 1.1.@.827FAQ 1.1.@.836FAQ 12.3.@.839FAQ 12.2.@.840FAQ 12.1.@.841FAQ 11.3.@.842FAQ 11.2.@.843FAQ 11.1.@.844FAQ 10.2.@.845FAQ 10.1.@.846FAQ 9.3.@.847FAQ 9.2.@.848FAQ 9.1.@.849FAQ 8.3.@.850FAQ 8.2.@.851FAQ 8.1.@.852FAQ 7.3.@.853FAQ 7.2.@.854FAQ 7.1.@.855FAQ 6.2.@.856FAQ 6.1.@.857FAQ 5.4.@.858FAQ 5.3.@.859FAQ 5.2.@.860FAQ 5.1.@.861FAQ 4.3.@.862FAQ 4.2.@.863FAQ 4.1.@.864FAQ 3.3.@.865FAQ 3.2.@.866FAQ 3.1.@.867FAQ 2.2.@.868FAQ 2.1.@.869FAQ 1.3.@.870FAQ 1.2.@.871FAQ 1.1.@.872FAQ 11.3 | Did Climate Change Cause That Recent Extreme Event In My Country?

FAQ 11.3.aFAQ 11.2.qFAQ 11.1.afFAQ 11.1.amFAQ 10.2.bhFAQ 10.2.bqFAQ 10.1.ccFAQ 10.1.cjFAQ 9.3.dgFAQ 9.3.dqFAQ 9.2.dvFAQ 9.2.eeFAQ 9.1.emFAQ 9.1.etFAQ 8.3.eyFAQ 8.3.feFAQ 8.2.gpFAQ 8.2.gyFAQ 8.1.hrFAQ 8.1.icFAQ 7.3.igFAQ 7.3.ipFAQ 7.2.@.263FAQ 7.2.@.271FAQ 7.1.@.288FAQ 7.1.@.297FAQ 6.2.@.321FAQ 6.2.@.330FAQ 6.1.@.351FAQ 6.1.@.360FAQ 5.4.@.363FAQ 5.4.@.384FAQ 5.3.@.387FAQ 5.3.@.439FAQ 5.2.@.442FAQ 5.2.@.460FAQ 5.1.@.463FAQ 5.1.@.496FAQ 4.3.@.506FAQ 4.3.@.515FAQ 4.2.@.563FAQ 4.2.@.571FAQ 4.1.@.595FAQ 4.1.@.602FAQ 3.3.@.614FAQ 3.3.@.622FAQ 3.2.@.643FAQ 3.2.@.644FAQ 3.2.@.651FAQ 3.1.@.656FAQ 3.1.@.664FAQ 2.2.@.688FAQ 2.2.@.697FAQ 2.1.@.707FAQ 2.1.@.716FAQ 1.3.@.748FAQ 1.3.@.756FAQ 1.2.@.764FAQ 1.2.@.774FAQ 1.1.@.828FAQ 1.1.@.837FAQ 12.3.@.840FAQ 12.2.@.841FAQ 12.1.@.842FAQ 11.3.@.843FAQ 11.2.@.844FAQ 11.1.@.845FAQ 10.2.@.846FAQ 10.1.@.847FAQ 9.3.@.848FAQ 9.2.@.849FAQ 9.1.@.850FAQ 8.3.@.851FAQ 8.2.@.852FAQ 8.1.@.853FAQ 7.3.@.854FAQ 7.2.@.855FAQ 7.1.@.856FAQ 6.2.@.857FAQ 6.1.@.858FAQ 5.4.@.859FAQ 5.3.@.860FAQ 5.2.@.861FAQ 5.1.@.862FAQ 4.3.@.863FAQ 4.2.@.864FAQ 4.1.@.865FAQ 3.3.@.866FAQ 3.2.@.867FAQ 3.1.@.868FAQ 2.2.@.869FAQ 2.1.@.870FAQ 1.3.@.871FAQ 1.2.@.872FAQ 1.1.@.873While it is difficult to identify the exact causes of a particular extreme event, the relatively new science of event attribution is able to quantify the role of climate change in altering the probability and magnitude of some types of weather and climate extremes. There is strong evidence that characteristics of many individual extreme events have already changed because of human-driven changes to the climate system. Some types of highly impactful extreme weather events have occurred more often and have become more severe due to these human influences. As the climate continues to warm, the observed changes in the probability and/or magnitude of some extreme weather events will continue as the human influences on these events increase.

FAQ 11.3.bFAQ 11.2.rFAQ 11.1.agFAQ 11.1.anFAQ 10.2.biFAQ 10.2.brFAQ 10.1.cdFAQ 10.1.ckFAQ 9.3.dhFAQ 9.3.drFAQ 9.2.dwFAQ 9.2.efFAQ 9.1.enFAQ 9.1.euFAQ 8.3.ezFAQ 8.3.ffFAQ 8.2.gqFAQ 8.2.gzFAQ 8.1.hsFAQ 8.1.idFAQ 7.3.ihFAQ 7.3.iqFAQ 7.2.@.264FAQ 7.2.@.272FAQ 7.1.@.289FAQ 7.1.@.298FAQ 6.2.@.322FAQ 6.2.@.331FAQ 6.1.@.352FAQ 6.1.@.361FAQ 5.4.@.364FAQ 5.4.@.385FAQ 5.3.@.388FAQ 5.3.@.440FAQ 5.2.@.443FAQ 5.2.@.461FAQ 5.1.@.464FAQ 5.1.@.497FAQ 4.3.@.507FAQ 4.3.@.516FAQ 4.2.@.564FAQ 4.2.@.572FAQ 4.1.@.596FAQ 4.1.@.603FAQ 3.3.@.615FAQ 3.3.@.623FAQ 3.2.@.644FAQ 3.2.@.645FAQ 3.2.@.652FAQ 3.1.@.657FAQ 3.1.@.665FAQ 2.2.@.689FAQ 2.2.@.698FAQ 2.1.@.708FAQ 2.1.@.717FAQ 1.3.@.749FAQ 1.3.@.757FAQ 1.2.@.765FAQ 1.2.@.775FAQ 1.1.@.829FAQ 1.1.@.838FAQ 12.3.@.841FAQ 12.2.@.842FAQ 12.1.@.843FAQ 11.3.@.844FAQ 11.2.@.845FAQ 11.1.@.846FAQ 10.2.@.847FAQ 10.1.@.848FAQ 9.3.@.849FAQ 9.2.@.850FAQ 9.1.@.851FAQ 8.3.@.852FAQ 8.2.@.853FAQ 8.1.@.854FAQ 7.3.@.855FAQ 7.2.@.856FAQ 7.1.@.857FAQ 6.2.@.858FAQ 6.1.@.859FAQ 5.4.@.860FAQ 5.3.@.861FAQ 5.2.@.862FAQ 5.1.@.863FAQ 4.3.@.864FAQ 4.2.@.865FAQ 4.1.@.866FAQ 3.3.@.867FAQ 3.2.@.868FAQ 3.1.@.869FAQ 2.2.@.870FAQ 2.1.@.871FAQ 1.3.@.872FAQ 1.2.@.873FAQ 1.1.@.874It is common to question whether human-caused climate change caused a major weather- and climate-related disaster. When extreme weather and climate events do occur, both exposure and vulnerability play an important role in determining the magnitude and impacts of the resulting disaster. As such, it is difficult to attribute a specific disaster directly to climate change. However, the relatively new science of event attribution enables scientists to attribute aspects of specific extreme weather and climate events to certain causes. Scientists cannot answer directly whether a particular event was caused by climate change, as extremes do occur naturally, and any specific weather and climate event is the result of a complex mix of human and natural factors. Instead, scientists quantify the relative importance of human and natural influences on the magnitude and/or probability of specific extreme weather events. Such information is important for disaster risk reduction planning, because improved knowledge about changes in the probability and magnitude of relevant extreme events enables better quantification of disaster risks.

FAQ 11.3.cFAQ 11.2.sFAQ 11.1.ahFAQ 11.1.aoFAQ 10.2.bjFAQ 10.2.bsFAQ 10.1.ceFAQ 10.1.clFAQ 9.3.diFAQ 9.3.dsFAQ 9.2.dxFAQ 9.2.egFAQ 9.1.eoFAQ 9.1.evFAQ 8.3.faFAQ 8.3.fgFAQ 8.2.grFAQ 8.2.haFAQ 8.1.htFAQ 8.1.ieFAQ 7.3.iiFAQ 7.3.irFAQ 7.2.@.265FAQ 7.2.@.273FAQ 7.1.@.290FAQ 7.1.@.299FAQ 6.2.@.323FAQ 6.2.@.332FAQ 6.1.@.353FAQ 6.1.@.362FAQ 5.4.@.365FAQ 5.4.@.386FAQ 5.3.@.389FAQ 5.3.@.441FAQ 5.2.@.444FAQ 5.2.@.462FAQ 5.1.@.465FAQ 5.1.@.498FAQ 4.3.@.508FAQ 4.3.@.517FAQ 4.2.@.565FAQ 4.2.@.573FAQ 4.1.@.597FAQ 4.1.@.604FAQ 3.3.@.616FAQ 3.3.@.624FAQ 3.2.@.645FAQ 3.2.@.646FAQ 3.2.@.653FAQ 3.1.@.658FAQ 3.1.@.666FAQ 2.2.@.690FAQ 2.2.@.699FAQ 2.1.@.709FAQ 2.1.@.718FAQ 1.3.@.750FAQ 1.3.@.758FAQ 1.2.@.766FAQ 1.2.@.776FAQ 1.1.@.830FAQ 1.1.@.839FAQ 12.3.@.842FAQ 12.2.@.843FAQ 12.1.@.844FAQ 11.3.@.845FAQ 11.2.@.846FAQ 11.1.@.847FAQ 10.2.@.848FAQ 10.1.@.849FAQ 9.3.@.850FAQ 9.2.@.851FAQ 9.1.@.852FAQ 8.3.@.853FAQ 8.2.@.854FAQ 8.1.@.855FAQ 7.3.@.856FAQ 7.2.@.857FAQ 7.1.@.858FAQ 6.2.@.859FAQ 6.1.@.860FAQ 5.4.@.861FAQ 5.3.@.862FAQ 5.2.@.863FAQ 5.1.@.864FAQ 4.3.@.865FAQ 4.2.@.866FAQ 4.1.@.867FAQ 3.3.@.868FAQ 3.2.@.869FAQ 3.1.@.870FAQ 2.2.@.871FAQ 2.1.@.872FAQ 1.3.@.873FAQ 1.2.@.874FAQ 1.1.@.875On a case-by-case basis, scientists can now quantify the contribution of human influences to the magnitude and probability of many extreme events. This is done by estimating and comparing the probability or magnitude of the same type of event between the current climate – including the increases in greenhouse gas concentrations and other human influences – and an alternate world where the atmospheric greenhouse gases remained at pre-industrial levels. FAQ 11.3 Figure 1 illustrates this approach using differences in temperature and probability between the two scenarios as an example. Both the pre-industrial (blue) and current (red) climates experience hot extremes, but with different probabilities and magnitudes. Hot extremes of a given temperature have a higher probability of occurrence in the warmer current climate than in the cooler pre-industrial climate. Additionally, an extreme hot event of a particular probability will be warmer in the current climate than in the pre-industrial climate. Climate model simulations are often used to estimate the occurrence of a specific event in both climates. The change in the magnitude and/or probability of the extreme event in the current climate compared to the pre-industrial climate is attributed to the difference between the two scenarios, which is the human influence.

FAQ 11.3.dFAQ 11.2.tFAQ 11.1.aiFAQ 11.1.apFAQ 10.2.bkFAQ 10.2.btFAQ 10.1.cfFAQ 10.1.cmFAQ 9.3.djFAQ 9.3.dtFAQ 9.2.dyFAQ 9.2.ehFAQ 9.1.epFAQ 9.1.ewFAQ 8.3.fbFAQ 8.3.fhFAQ 8.2.gsFAQ 8.2.hbFAQ 8.1.huFAQ 8.1.ifFAQ 7.3.ijFAQ 7.3.isFAQ 7.2.@.266FAQ 7.2.@.274FAQ 7.1.@.291FAQ 7.1.@.300FAQ 6.2.@.324FAQ 6.2.@.333FAQ 6.1.@.354FAQ 6.1.@.363FAQ 5.4.@.366FAQ 5.4.@.387FAQ 5.3.@.390FAQ 5.3.@.442FAQ 5.2.@.445FAQ 5.2.@.463FAQ 5.1.@.466FAQ 5.1.@.499FAQ 4.3.@.509FAQ 4.3.@.518FAQ 4.2.@.566FAQ 4.2.@.574FAQ 4.1.@.598FAQ 4.1.@.605FAQ 3.3.@.617FAQ 3.3.@.625FAQ 3.2.@.646FAQ 3.2.@.647FAQ 3.2.@.654FAQ 3.1.@.659FAQ 3.1.@.667FAQ 2.2.@.691FAQ 2.2.@.700FAQ 2.1.@.710FAQ 2.1.@.719FAQ 1.3.@.751FAQ 1.3.@.759FAQ 1.2.@.767FAQ 1.2.@.777FAQ 1.1.@.831FAQ 1.1.@.840FAQ 12.3.@.843FAQ 12.2.@.844FAQ 12.1.@.845FAQ 11.3.@.846FAQ 11.2.@.847FAQ 11.1.@.848FAQ 10.2.@.849FAQ 10.1.@.850FAQ 9.3.@.851FAQ 9.2.@.852FAQ 9.1.@.853FAQ 8.3.@.854FAQ 8.2.@.855FAQ 8.1.@.856FAQ 7.3.@.857FAQ 7.2.@.858FAQ 7.1.@.859FAQ 6.2.@.860FAQ 6.1.@.861FAQ 5.4.@.862FAQ 5.3.@.863FAQ 5.2.@.864FAQ 5.1.@.865FAQ 4.3.@.866FAQ 4.2.@.867FAQ 4.1.@.868FAQ 3.3.@.869FAQ 3.2.@.870FAQ 3.1.@.871FAQ 2.2.@.872FAQ 2.1.@.873FAQ 1.3.@.874FAQ 1.2.@.875FAQ 1.1.@.876Attributable increases in probability and magnitude have been identified consistently for many hot extremes. Attributable increases have also been found for some extreme precipitation events, including hurricane rainfall events, but these results can vary among events. In some cases, large natural variations in the climate system prevent attributing changes in the probability or magnitude of a specific extreme to human influence. Additionally, attribution of certain classes of extreme weather (e.g., tornadoes) is beyond

FAQ 11.3.eFAQ 11.2.uFAQ 11.1.ajFAQ 11.1.aqFAQ 10.2.blFAQ 10.2.buFAQ 10.1.cgFAQ 10.1.cnFAQ 9.3.dkFAQ 9.3.duFAQ 9.2.dzFAQ 9.2.eiFAQ 9.1.eqFAQ 9.1.exFAQ 8.3.fcFAQ 8.3.fiFAQ 8.2.gtFAQ 8.2.hcFAQ 8.1.hvFAQ 8.1.igFAQ 7.3.ikFAQ 7.3.itFAQ 7.2.@.267FAQ 7.2.@.275FAQ 7.1.@.292FAQ 7.1.@.301FAQ 6.2.@.325FAQ 6.2.@.334FAQ 6.1.@.355FAQ 6.1.@.364FAQ 5.4.@.367FAQ 5.4.@.388FAQ 5.3.@.391FAQ 5.3.@.443FAQ 5.2.@.446FAQ 5.2.@.464FAQ 5.1.@.467FAQ 5.1.@.500FAQ 4.3.@.510FAQ 4.3.@.519FAQ 4.2.@.567FAQ 4.2.@.575FAQ 4.1.@.599FAQ 4.1.@.606FAQ 3.3.@.618FAQ 3.3.@.626FAQ 3.2.@.647FAQ 3.2.@.648FAQ 3.2.@.655FAQ 3.1.@.660FAQ 3.1.@.668FAQ 2.2.@.692FAQ 2.2.@.701FAQ 2.1.@.711FAQ 2.1.@.720FAQ 1.3.@.752FAQ 1.3.@.760FAQ 1.2.@.768FAQ 1.2.@.778FAQ 1.1.@.832FAQ 1.1.@.841FAQ 12.3.@.844FAQ 12.2.@.845FAQ 12.1.@.846FAQ 11.3.@.847FAQ 11.2.@.848FAQ 11.1.@.849FAQ 10.2.@.850FAQ 10.1.@.851FAQ 9.3.@.852FAQ 9.2.@.853FAQ 9.1.@.854FAQ 8.3.@.855FAQ 8.2.@.856FAQ 8.1.@.857FAQ 7.3.@.858FAQ 7.2.@.859FAQ 7.1.@.860FAQ 6.2.@.861FAQ 6.1.@.862FAQ 5.4.@.863FAQ 5.3.@.864FAQ 5.2.@.865FAQ 5.1.@.866FAQ 4.3.@.867FAQ 4.2.@.868FAQ 4.1.@.869FAQ 3.3.@.870FAQ 3.2.@.871FAQ 3.1.@.872FAQ 2.2.@.873FAQ 2.1.@.874FAQ 1.3.@.875FAQ 1.2.@.876FAQ 1.1.@.877FAQ 11.3: Climate change and extreme events

FAQ 11.3.fFAQ 11.2.vFAQ 11.1.akFAQ 11.1.arFAQ 10.2.bmFAQ 10.2.bvFAQ 10.1.chFAQ 10.1.coFAQ 9.3.dlFAQ 9.3.dvFAQ 9.2.eaFAQ 9.2.ejFAQ 9.1.erFAQ 9.1.eyFAQ 8.3.fdFAQ 8.3.fjFAQ 8.2.guFAQ 8.2.hdFAQ 8.1.hwFAQ 8.1.ihFAQ 7.3.ilFAQ 7.3.iuFAQ 7.2.@.268FAQ 7.2.@.276FAQ 7.1.@.293FAQ 7.1.@.302FAQ 6.2.@.326FAQ 6.2.@.335FAQ 6.1.@.356FAQ 6.1.@.365FAQ 5.4.@.368FAQ 5.4.@.389FAQ 5.3.@.392FAQ 5.3.@.444FAQ 5.2.@.447FAQ 5.2.@.465FAQ 5.1.@.468FAQ 5.1.@.501FAQ 4.3.@.511FAQ 4.3.@.520FAQ 4.2.@.568FAQ 4.2.@.576FAQ 4.1.@.600FAQ 4.1.@.607FAQ 3.3.@.619FAQ 3.3.@.627FAQ 3.2.@.648FAQ 3.2.@.649FAQ 3.2.@.656FAQ 3.1.@.661FAQ 3.1.@.669FAQ 2.2.@.693FAQ 2.2.@.702FAQ 2.1.@.712FAQ 2.1.@.721FAQ 1.3.@.753FAQ 1.3.@.761FAQ 1.2.@.769FAQ 1.2.@.779FAQ 1.1.@.833FAQ 1.1.@.842FAQ 12.3.@.845FAQ 12.2.@.846FAQ 12.1.@.847FAQ 11.3.@.848FAQ 11.2.@.849FAQ 11.1.@.850FAQ 10.2.@.851FAQ 10.1.@.852FAQ 9.3.@.853FAQ 9.2.@.854FAQ 9.1.@.855FAQ 8.3.@.856FAQ 8.2.@.857FAQ 8.1.@.858FAQ 7.3.@.859FAQ 7.2.@.860FAQ 7.1.@.861FAQ 6.2.@.862FAQ 6.1.@.863FAQ 5.4.@.864FAQ 5.3.@.865FAQ 5.2.@.866FAQ 5.1.@.867FAQ 4.3.@.868FAQ 4.2.@.869FAQ 4.1.@.870FAQ 3.3.@.871FAQ 3.2.@.872FAQ 3.1.@.873FAQ 2.2.@.874FAQ 2.1.@.875FAQ 1.3.@.876FAQ 1.2.@.877FAQ 1.1.@.878Extreme events have become more probable and more intense. Many of these changes can be attributed to human influence on the climate.

FAQ 11.3.gFAQ 11.2.wFAQ 11.1.alFAQ 11.1.asFAQ 10.2.bnFAQ 10.2.bwFAQ 10.1.ciFAQ 10.1.cpFAQ 9.3.dmFAQ 9.3.dwFAQ 9.2.ebFAQ 9.2.ekFAQ 9.1.esFAQ 9.1.ezFAQ 8.3.feFAQ 8.3.fkFAQ 8.2.gvFAQ 8.2.heFAQ 8.1.hxFAQ 8.1.iiFAQ 7.3.imFAQ 7.3.ivFAQ 7.2.@.269FAQ 7.2.@.277FAQ 7.1.@.294FAQ 7.1.@.303FAQ 6.2.@.327FAQ 6.2.@.336FAQ 6.1.@.357FAQ 6.1.@.366FAQ 5.4.@.369FAQ 5.4.@.390FAQ 5.3.@.393FAQ 5.3.@.445FAQ 5.2.@.448FAQ 5.2.@.466FAQ 5.1.@.469FAQ 5.1.@.502FAQ 4.3.@.512FAQ 4.3.@.521FAQ 4.2.@.569FAQ 4.2.@.577FAQ 4.1.@.601FAQ 4.1.@.608FAQ 3.3.@.620FAQ 3.3.@.628FAQ 3.2.@.649FAQ 3.2.@.650FAQ 3.2.@.657FAQ 3.1.@.662FAQ 3.1.@.670FAQ 2.2.@.694FAQ 2.2.@.703FAQ 2.1.@.713FAQ 2.1.@.722FAQ 1.3.@.754FAQ 1.3.@.762FAQ 1.2.@.770FAQ 1.2.@.780FAQ 1.1.@.834FAQ 1.1.@.843FAQ 12.3.@.846FAQ 12.2.@.847FAQ 12.1.@.848FAQ 11.3.@.849FAQ 11.2.@.850FAQ 11.1.@.851FAQ 10.2.@.852FAQ 10.1.@.853FAQ 9.3.@.854FAQ 9.2.@.855FAQ 9.1.@.856FAQ 8.3.@.857FAQ 8.2.@.858FAQ 8.1.@.859FAQ 7.3.@.860FAQ 7.2.@.861FAQ 7.1.@.862FAQ 6.2.@.863FAQ 6.1.@.864FAQ 5.4.@.865FAQ 5.3.@.866FAQ 5.2.@.867FAQ 5.1.@.868FAQ 4.3.@.869FAQ 4.2.@.870FAQ 4.1.@.871FAQ 3.3.@.872FAQ 3.2.@.873FAQ 3.1.@.874FAQ 2.2.@.875FAQ 2.1.@.876FAQ 1.3.@.877FAQ 1.2.@.878FAQ 1.1.@.879Same temperature but more probable

FAQ 11.3.hFAQ 11.2.xFAQ 11.1.amFAQ 11.1.atFAQ 10.2.boFAQ 10.2.bxFAQ 10.1.cjFAQ 10.1.cqFAQ 9.3.dnFAQ 9.3.dxFAQ 9.2.ecFAQ 9.2.elFAQ 9.1.etFAQ 9.1.faFAQ 8.3.ffFAQ 8.3.flFAQ 8.2.gwFAQ 8.2.hfFAQ 8.1.hyFAQ 8.1.ijFAQ 7.3.inFAQ 7.3.@.256FAQ 7.2.@.270FAQ 7.2.@.278FAQ 7.1.@.295FAQ 7.1.@.304FAQ 6.2.@.328FAQ 6.2.@.337FAQ 6.1.@.358FAQ 6.1.@.367FAQ 5.4.@.370FAQ 5.4.@.391FAQ 5.3.@.394FAQ 5.3.@.446FAQ 5.2.@.449FAQ 5.2.@.467FAQ 5.1.@.470FAQ 5.1.@.503FAQ 4.3.@.513FAQ 4.3.@.522FAQ 4.2.@.570FAQ 4.2.@.578FAQ 4.1.@.602FAQ 4.1.@.609FAQ 3.3.@.621FAQ 3.3.@.629FAQ 3.2.@.650FAQ 3.2.@.651FAQ 3.2.@.658FAQ 3.1.@.663FAQ 3.1.@.671FAQ 2.2.@.695FAQ 2.2.@.704FAQ 2.1.@.714FAQ 2.1.@.723FAQ 1.3.@.755FAQ 1.3.@.763FAQ 1.2.@.771FAQ 1.2.@.781FAQ 1.1.@.835FAQ 1.1.@.844FAQ 12.3.@.847FAQ 12.2.@.848FAQ 12.1.@.849FAQ 11.3.@.850FAQ 11.2.@.851FAQ 11.1.@.852FAQ 10.2.@.853FAQ 10.1.@.854FAQ 9.3.@.855FAQ 9.2.@.856FAQ 9.1.@.857FAQ 8.3.@.858FAQ 8.2.@.859FAQ 8.1.@.860FAQ 7.3.@.861FAQ 7.2.@.862FAQ 7.1.@.863FAQ 6.2.@.864FAQ 6.1.@.865FAQ 5.4.@.866FAQ 5.3.@.867FAQ 5.2.@.868FAQ 5.1.@.869FAQ 4.3.@.870FAQ 4.2.@.871FAQ 4.1.@.872FAQ 3.3.@.873FAQ 3.2.@.874FAQ 3.1.@.875FAQ 2.2.@.876FAQ 2.1.@.877FAQ 1.3.@.878FAQ 1.2.@.879FAQ 1.1.@.880Current climate

FAQ 11.3.iFAQ 11.2.yFAQ 11.1.anFAQ 11.1.auFAQ 10.2.bpFAQ 10.2.byFAQ 10.1.ckFAQ 10.1.crFAQ 9.3.doFAQ 9.3.dyFAQ 9.2.edFAQ 9.2.emFAQ 9.1.euFAQ 9.1.fbFAQ 8.3.fgFAQ 8.3.fmFAQ 8.2.gxFAQ 8.2.hgFAQ 8.1.hzFAQ 8.1.ikFAQ 7.3.ioFAQ 7.3.@.257FAQ 7.2.@.271FAQ 7.2.@.279FAQ 7.1.@.296FAQ 7.1.@.305FAQ 6.2.@.329FAQ 6.2.@.338FAQ 6.1.@.359FAQ 6.1.@.368FAQ 5.4.@.371FAQ 5.4.@.392FAQ 5.3.@.395FAQ 5.3.@.447FAQ 5.2.@.450FAQ 5.2.@.468FAQ 5.1.@.471FAQ 5.1.@.504FAQ 4.3.@.514FAQ 4.3.@.523FAQ 4.2.@.571FAQ 4.2.@.579FAQ 4.1.@.603FAQ 4.1.@.610FAQ 3.3.@.622FAQ 3.3.@.630FAQ 3.2.@.651FAQ 3.2.@.652FAQ 3.2.@.659FAQ 3.1.@.664FAQ 3.1.@.672FAQ 2.2.@.696FAQ 2.2.@.705FAQ 2.1.@.715FAQ 2.1.@.724FAQ 1.3.@.756FAQ 1.3.@.764FAQ 1.2.@.772FAQ 1.2.@.782FAQ 1.1.@.836FAQ 1.1.@.845FAQ 12.3.@.848FAQ 12.2.@.849FAQ 12.1.@.850FAQ 11.3.@.851FAQ 11.2.@.852FAQ 11.1.@.853FAQ 10.2.@.854FAQ 10.1.@.855FAQ 9.3.@.856FAQ 9.2.@.857FAQ 9.1.@.858FAQ 8.3.@.859FAQ 8.2.@.860FAQ 8.1.@.861FAQ 7.3.@.862FAQ 7.2.@.863FAQ 7.1.@.864FAQ 6.2.@.865FAQ 6.1.@.866FAQ 5.4.@.867FAQ 5.3.@.868FAQ 5.2.@.869FAQ 5.1.@.870FAQ 4.3.@.871FAQ 4.2.@.872FAQ 4.1.@.873FAQ 3.3.@.874FAQ 3.2.@.875FAQ 3.1.@.876FAQ 2.2.@.877FAQ 2.1.@.878FAQ 1.3.@.879FAQ 1.2.@.880FAQ 1.1.@.881Same probability but hotterPre-industrial climate

FAQ 11.3.jFAQ 11.2.zFAQ 11.1.aoFAQ 11.1.avFAQ 10.2.bqFAQ 10.2.bzFAQ 10.1.clFAQ 10.1.csFAQ 9.3.dpFAQ 9.3.dzFAQ 9.2.eeFAQ 9.2.enFAQ 9.1.evFAQ 9.1.fcFAQ 8.3.fhFAQ 8.3.fnFAQ 8.2.gyFAQ 8.2.hhFAQ 8.1.iaFAQ 8.1.ilFAQ 7.3.ipFAQ 7.3.@.258FAQ 7.2.@.272FAQ 7.2.@.280FAQ 7.1.@.297FAQ 7.1.@.306FAQ 6.2.@.330FAQ 6.2.@.339FAQ 6.1.@.360FAQ 6.1.@.369FAQ 5.4.@.372FAQ 5.4.@.393FAQ 5.3.@.396FAQ 5.3.@.448FAQ 5.2.@.451FAQ 5.2.@.469FAQ 5.1.@.472FAQ 5.1.@.505FAQ 4.3.@.515FAQ 4.3.@.524FAQ 4.2.@.572FAQ 4.2.@.580FAQ 4.1.@.604FAQ 4.1.@.611FAQ 3.3.@.623FAQ 3.3.@.631FAQ 3.2.@.652FAQ 3.2.@.653FAQ 3.2.@.660FAQ 3.1.@.665FAQ 3.1.@.673FAQ 2.2.@.697FAQ 2.2.@.706FAQ 2.1.@.716FAQ 2.1.@.725FAQ 1.3.@.757FAQ 1.3.@.765FAQ 1.2.@.773FAQ 1.2.@.783FAQ 1.1.@.837FAQ 1.1.@.846FAQ 12.3.@.849FAQ 12.2.@.850FAQ 12.1.@.851FAQ 11.3.@.852FAQ 11.2.@.853FAQ 11.1.@.854FAQ 10.2.@.855FAQ 10.1.@.856FAQ 9.3.@.857FAQ 9.2.@.858FAQ 9.1.@.859FAQ 8.3.@.860FAQ 8.2.@.861FAQ 8.1.@.862FAQ 7.3.@.863FAQ 7.2.@.864FAQ 7.1.@.865FAQ 6.2.@.866FAQ 6.1.@.867FAQ 5.4.@.868FAQ 5.3.@.869FAQ 5.2.@.870FAQ 5.1.@.871FAQ 4.3.@.872FAQ 4.2.@.873FAQ 4.1.@.874FAQ 3.3.@.875FAQ 3.2.@.876FAQ 3.1.@.877FAQ 2.2.@.878FAQ 2.1.@.879FAQ 1.3.@.880FAQ 1.2.@.881FAQ 1.1.@.882CoolerWarmerTemperature

FAQ 11.3.kFAQ 11.2.aaFAQ 11.1.apFAQ 11.1.awFAQ 10.2.brFAQ 10.2.caFAQ 10.1.cmFAQ 10.1.ctFAQ 9.3.dqFAQ 9.3.eaFAQ 9.2.efFAQ 9.2.eoFAQ 9.1.ewFAQ 9.1.fdFAQ 8.3.fiFAQ 8.3.foFAQ 8.2.gzFAQ 8.2.hiFAQ 8.1.ibFAQ 8.1.imFAQ 7.3.iqFAQ 7.3.@.259FAQ 7.2.@.273FAQ 7.2.@.281FAQ 7.1.@.298FAQ 7.1.@.307FAQ 6.2.@.331FAQ 6.2.@.340FAQ 6.1.@.361FAQ 6.1.@.370FAQ 5.4.@.373FAQ 5.4.@.394FAQ 5.3.@.397FAQ 5.3.@.449FAQ 5.2.@.452FAQ 5.2.@.470FAQ 5.1.@.473FAQ 5.1.@.506FAQ 4.3.@.516FAQ 4.3.@.525FAQ 4.2.@.573FAQ 4.2.@.581FAQ 4.1.@.605FAQ 4.1.@.612FAQ 3.3.@.624FAQ 3.3.@.632FAQ 3.2.@.653FAQ 3.2.@.654FAQ 3.2.@.661FAQ 3.1.@.666FAQ 3.1.@.674FAQ 2.2.@.698FAQ 2.2.@.707FAQ 2.1.@.717FAQ 2.1.@.726FAQ 1.3.@.758FAQ 1.3.@.766FAQ 1.2.@.774FAQ 1.2.@.784FAQ 1.1.@.838FAQ 1.1.@.847FAQ 12.3.@.850FAQ 12.2.@.851FAQ 12.1.@.852FAQ 11.3.@.853FAQ 11.2.@.854FAQ 11.1.@.855FAQ 10.2.@.856FAQ 10.1.@.857FAQ 9.3.@.858FAQ 9.2.@.859FAQ 9.1.@.860FAQ 8.3.@.861FAQ 8.2.@.862FAQ 8.1.@.863FAQ 7.3.@.864FAQ 7.2.@.865FAQ 7.1.@.866FAQ 6.2.@.867FAQ 6.1.@.868FAQ 5.4.@.869FAQ 5.3.@.870FAQ 5.2.@.871FAQ 5.1.@.872FAQ 4.3.@.873FAQ 4.2.@.874FAQ 4.1.@.875FAQ 3.3.@.876FAQ 3.2.@.877FAQ 3.1.@.878FAQ 2.2.@.879FAQ 2.1.@.880FAQ 1.3.@.881FAQ 1.2.@.882FAQ 1.1.@.883Annual chance of event

FAQ 11.3.lFAQ 11.2.abFAQ 11.1.aqFAQ 11.1.axFAQ 10.2.bsFAQ 10.2.cbFAQ 10.1.cnFAQ 10.1.cuFAQ 9.3.drFAQ 9.3.ebFAQ 9.2.egFAQ 9.2.epFAQ 9.1.exFAQ 9.1.feFAQ 8.3.fjFAQ 8.3.fpFAQ 8.2.haFAQ 8.2.hjFAQ 8.1.icFAQ 8.1.inFAQ 7.3.irFAQ 7.3.@.260FAQ 7.2.@.274FAQ 7.2.@.282FAQ 7.1.@.299FAQ 7.1.@.308FAQ 6.2.@.332FAQ 6.2.@.341FAQ 6.1.@.362FAQ 6.1.@.371FAQ 5.4.@.374FAQ 5.4.@.395FAQ 5.3.@.398FAQ 5.3.@.450FAQ 5.2.@.453FAQ 5.2.@.471FAQ 5.1.@.474FAQ 5.1.@.507FAQ 4.3.@.517FAQ 4.3.@.526FAQ 4.2.@.574FAQ 4.2.@.582FAQ 4.1.@.606FAQ 4.1.@.613FAQ 3.3.@.625FAQ 3.3.@.633FAQ 3.2.@.654FAQ 3.2.@.655FAQ 3.2.@.662FAQ 3.1.@.667FAQ 3.1.@.675FAQ 2.2.@.699FAQ 2.2.@.708FAQ 2.1.@.718FAQ 2.1.@.727FAQ 1.3.@.759FAQ 1.3.@.767FAQ 1.2.@.775FAQ 1.2.@.785FAQ 1.1.@.839FAQ 1.1.@.848FAQ 12.3.@.851FAQ 12.2.@.852FAQ 12.1.@.853FAQ 11.3.@.854FAQ 11.2.@.855FAQ 11.1.@.856FAQ 10.2.@.857FAQ 10.1.@.858FAQ 9.3.@.859FAQ 9.2.@.860FAQ 9.1.@.861FAQ 8.3.@.862FAQ 8.2.@.863FAQ 8.1.@.864FAQ 7.3.@.865FAQ 7.2.@.866FAQ 7.1.@.867FAQ 6.2.@.868FAQ 6.1.@.869FAQ 5.4.@.870FAQ 5.3.@.871FAQ 5.2.@.872FAQ 5.1.@.873FAQ 4.3.@.874FAQ 4.2.@.875FAQ 4.1.@.876FAQ 3.3.@.877FAQ 3.2.@.878FAQ 3.1.@.879FAQ 2.2.@.880FAQ 2.1.@.881FAQ 1.3.@.882FAQ 1.2.@.883FAQ 1.1.@.884More probable

FAQ 11.3.mFAQ 11.2.acFAQ 11.1.arFAQ 11.1.ayFAQ 10.2.btFAQ 10.2.ccFAQ 10.1.coFAQ 10.1.cvFAQ 9.3.dsFAQ 9.3.ecFAQ 9.2.ehFAQ 9.2.eqFAQ 9.1.eyFAQ 9.1.ffFAQ 8.3.fkFAQ 8.3.fqFAQ 8.2.hbFAQ 8.2.hkFAQ 8.1.idFAQ 8.1.ioFAQ 7.3.isFAQ 7.3.@.261FAQ 7.2.@.275FAQ 7.2.@.283FAQ 7.1.@.300FAQ 7.1.@.309FAQ 6.2.@.333FAQ 6.2.@.342FAQ 6.1.@.363FAQ 6.1.@.372FAQ 5.4.@.375FAQ 5.4.@.396FAQ 5.3.@.399FAQ 5.3.@.451FAQ 5.2.@.454FAQ 5.2.@.472FAQ 5.1.@.475FAQ 5.1.@.508FAQ 4.3.@.518FAQ 4.3.@.527FAQ 4.2.@.575FAQ 4.2.@.583FAQ 4.1.@.607FAQ 4.1.@.614FAQ 3.3.@.626FAQ 3.3.@.634FAQ 3.2.@.655FAQ 3.2.@.656FAQ 3.2.@.663FAQ 3.1.@.668FAQ 3.1.@.676FAQ 2.2.@.700FAQ 2.2.@.709FAQ 2.1.@.719FAQ 2.1.@.728FAQ 1.3.@.760FAQ 1.3.@.768FAQ 1.2.@.776FAQ 1.2.@.786FAQ 1.1.@.840FAQ 1.1.@.849FAQ 12.3.@.852FAQ 12.2.@.853FAQ 12.1.@.854FAQ 11.3.@.855FAQ 11.2.@.856FAQ 11.1.@.857FAQ 10.2.@.858FAQ 10.1.@.859FAQ 9.3.@.860FAQ 9.2.@.861FAQ 9.1.@.862FAQ 8.3.@.863FAQ 8.2.@.864FAQ 8.1.@.865FAQ 7.3.@.866FAQ 7.2.@.867FAQ 7.1.@.868FAQ 6.2.@.869FAQ 6.1.@.870FAQ 5.4.@.871FAQ 5.3.@.872FAQ 5.2.@.873FAQ 5.1.@.874FAQ 4.3.@.875FAQ 4.2.@.876FAQ 4.1.@.877FAQ 3.3.@.878FAQ 3.2.@.879FAQ 3.1.@.880FAQ 2.2.@.881FAQ 2.1.@.882FAQ 1.3.@.883FAQ 1.2.@.884FAQ 1.1.@.885Probabilities are lower for hotter (more extreme) eventsLess probable

FAQ 11.3.nFAQ 11.2.adFAQ 11.1.asFAQ 11.1.azFAQ 10.2.buFAQ 10.2.cdFAQ 10.1.cpFAQ 10.1.cwFAQ 9.3.dtFAQ 9.3.edFAQ 9.2.eiFAQ 9.2.erFAQ 9.1.ezFAQ 9.1.fgFAQ 8.3.flFAQ 8.3.frFAQ 8.2.hcFAQ 8.2.hlFAQ 8.1.ieFAQ 8.1.ipFAQ 7.3.itFAQ 7.3.@.262FAQ 7.2.@.276FAQ 7.2.@.284FAQ 7.1.@.301FAQ 7.1.@.310FAQ 6.2.@.334FAQ 6.2.@.343FAQ 6.1.@.364FAQ 6.1.@.373FAQ 5.4.@.376FAQ 5.4.@.397FAQ 5.3.@.400FAQ 5.3.@.452FAQ 5.2.@.455FAQ 5.2.@.473FAQ 5.1.@.476FAQ 5.1.@.509FAQ 4.3.@.519FAQ 4.3.@.528FAQ 4.2.@.576FAQ 4.2.@.584FAQ 4.1.@.608FAQ 4.1.@.615FAQ 3.3.@.627FAQ 3.3.@.635FAQ 3.2.@.656FAQ 3.2.@.657FAQ 3.2.@.664FAQ 3.1.@.669FAQ 3.1.@.677FAQ 2.2.@.701FAQ 2.2.@.710FAQ 2.1.@.720FAQ 2.1.@.729FAQ 1.3.@.761FAQ 1.3.@.769FAQ 1.2.@.777FAQ 1.2.@.787FAQ 1.1.@.841FAQ 1.1.@.850FAQ 12.3.@.853FAQ 12.2.@.854FAQ 12.1.@.855FAQ 11.3.@.856FAQ 11.2.@.857FAQ 11.1.@.858FAQ 10.2.@.859FAQ 10.1.@.860FAQ 9.3.@.861FAQ 9.2.@.862FAQ 9.1.@.863FAQ 8.3.@.864FAQ 8.2.@.865FAQ 8.1.@.866FAQ 7.3.@.867FAQ 7.2.@.868FAQ 7.1.@.869FAQ 6.2.@.870FAQ 6.1.@.871FAQ 5.4.@.872FAQ 5.3.@.873FAQ 5.2.@.874FAQ 5.1.@.875FAQ 4.3.@.876FAQ 4.2.@.877FAQ 4.1.@.878FAQ 3.3.@.879FAQ 3.2.@.880FAQ 3.1.@.881FAQ 2.2.@.882FAQ 2.1.@.883FAQ 1.3.@.884FAQ 1.2.@.885FAQ 1.1.@.886FAQ 11.3, Figure 1 | Changes in climate result in changes in the magnitude and probability of extremes. Example of how temperature extremes differ between a climate with pre-industrial greenhouse gases (shown in blue) and the current climate (shown in orange) for a representative region. The horizontal axis shows the range of extreme temperatures, while the vertical axis shows the annual chance of each temperature event’s occurrence. Moving towards the right indicates increasingly hotter extremes that are more rare (less probable). For hot extremes, an extreme event of a particular temperature in the pre-industrial climate would be more probable (vertical arrow) in the current climate. An event of a certain probability in the pre-industrial climate would be warmer (horizontal arrow) in the current climate. While the climate under

FAQ 11.3.oFAQ 11.2.aeFAQ 11.1.atFAQ 11.1.baFAQ 10.2.bvFAQ 10.2.ceFAQ 10.1.cqFAQ 10.1.cxFAQ 9.3.duFAQ 9.3.eeFAQ 9.2.ejFAQ 9.2.esFAQ 9.1.faFAQ 9.1.fhFAQ 8.3.fmFAQ 8.3.fsFAQ 8.2.hdFAQ 8.2.hmFAQ 8.1.ifFAQ 8.1.iqFAQ 7.3.iuFAQ 7.3.@.263FAQ 7.2.@.277FAQ 7.2.@.285FAQ 7.1.@.302FAQ 7.1.@.311FAQ 6.2.@.335FAQ 6.2.@.344FAQ 6.1.@.365FAQ 6.1.@.374FAQ 5.4.@.377FAQ 5.4.@.398FAQ 5.3.@.401FAQ 5.3.@.453FAQ 5.2.@.456FAQ 5.2.@.474FAQ 5.1.@.477FAQ 5.1.@.510FAQ 4.3.@.520FAQ 4.3.@.529FAQ 4.2.@.577FAQ 4.2.@.585FAQ 4.1.@.609FAQ 4.1.@.616FAQ 3.3.@.628FAQ 3.3.@.636FAQ 3.2.@.657FAQ 3.2.@.658FAQ 3.2.@.665FAQ 3.1.@.670FAQ 3.1.@.678FAQ 2.2.@.702FAQ 2.2.@.711FAQ 2.1.@.721FAQ 2.1.@.730FAQ 1.3.@.762FAQ 1.3.@.770FAQ 1.2.@.778FAQ 1.2.@.788FAQ 1.1.@.842FAQ 1.1.@.851FAQ 12.3.@.854FAQ 12.2.@.855FAQ 12.1.@.856FAQ 11.3.@.857FAQ 11.2.@.858FAQ 11.1.@.859FAQ 10.2.@.860FAQ 10.1.@.861FAQ 9.3.@.862FAQ 9.2.@.863FAQ 9.1.@.864FAQ 8.3.@.865FAQ 8.2.@.866FAQ 8.1.@.867FAQ 7.3.@.868FAQ 7.2.@.869FAQ 7.1.@.870FAQ 6.2.@.871FAQ 6.1.@.872FAQ 5.4.@.873FAQ 5.3.@.874FAQ 5.2.@.875FAQ 5.1.@.876FAQ 4.3.@.877FAQ 4.2.@.878FAQ 4.1.@.879FAQ 3.3.@.880FAQ 3.2.@.881FAQ 3.1.@.882FAQ 2.2.@.883FAQ 2.1.@.884FAQ 1.3.@.885FAQ 1.2.@.886FAQ 1.1.@.887FAQprobability and magnitude are expected and, as a result, it will be possible to attribute future temperature and precipitation extremes in many locations to human influences. Attributable changes may emerge for other types of extremes as the warming signal increases.

FAQ 11.3.pFAQ 11.2.afFAQ 11.1.auFAQ 11.1.bbFAQ 10.2.bwFAQ 10.2.cfFAQ 10.1.crFAQ 10.1.cyFAQ 9.3.dvFAQ 9.3.efFAQ 9.2.ekFAQ 9.2.etFAQ 9.1.fbFAQ 9.1.fiFAQ 8.3.fnFAQ 8.3.ftFAQ 8.2.heFAQ 8.2.hnFAQ 8.1.igFAQ 8.1.irFAQ 7.3.ivFAQ 7.3.@.264FAQ 7.2.@.278FAQ 7.2.@.286FAQ 7.1.@.303FAQ 7.1.@.312FAQ 6.2.@.336FAQ 6.2.@.345FAQ 6.1.@.366FAQ 6.1.@.375FAQ 5.4.@.378FAQ 5.4.@.399FAQ 5.3.@.402FAQ 5.3.@.454FAQ 5.2.@.457FAQ 5.2.@.475FAQ 5.1.@.478FAQ 5.1.@.511FAQ 4.3.@.521FAQ 4.3.@.530FAQ 4.2.@.578FAQ 4.2.@.586FAQ 4.1.@.610FAQ 4.1.@.617FAQ 3.3.@.629FAQ 3.3.@.637FAQ 3.2.@.658FAQ 3.2.@.659FAQ 3.2.@.666FAQ 3.1.@.671FAQ 3.1.@.679FAQ 2.2.@.703FAQ 2.2.@.712FAQ 2.1.@.722FAQ 2.1.@.731FAQ 1.3.@.763FAQ 1.3.@.771FAQ 1.2.@.779FAQ 1.2.@.789FAQ 1.1.@.843FAQ 1.1.@.852FAQ 12.3.@.855FAQ 12.2.@.856FAQ 12.1.@.857FAQ 11.3.@.858FAQ 11.2.@.859FAQ 11.1.@.860FAQ 10.2.@.861FAQ 10.1.@.862FAQ 9.3.@.863FAQ 9.2.@.864FAQ 9.1.@.865FAQ 8.3.@.866FAQ 8.2.@.867FAQ 8.1.@.868FAQ 7.3.@.869FAQ 7.2.@.870FAQ 7.1.@.871FAQ 6.2.@.872FAQ 6.1.@.873FAQ 5.4.@.874FAQ 5.3.@.875FAQ 5.2.@.876FAQ 5.1.@.877FAQ 4.3.@.878FAQ 4.2.@.879FAQ 4.1.@.880FAQ 3.3.@.881FAQ 3.2.@.882FAQ 3.1.@.883FAQ 2.2.@.884FAQ 2.1.@.885FAQ 1.3.@.886FAQ 1.2.@.887FAQ 1.1.@.888In conclusion, human-caused global warming has resulted in changes in a wide variety of recent extreme weather events. Strong increases in probability and magnitude, attributable to human influence, have been found for many heatwaves and hot extremes around the world.

FAQ 11.3.qFAQ 11.2.agFAQ 11.1.avFAQ 11.1.bcFAQ 10.2.bxFAQ 10.2.cgFAQ 10.1.csFAQ 10.1.czFAQ 9.3.dwFAQ 9.3.egFAQ 9.2.elFAQ 9.2.euFAQ 9.1.fcFAQ 9.1.fjFAQ 8.3.foFAQ 8.3.fuFAQ 8.2.hfFAQ 8.2.hoFAQ 8.1.ihFAQ 8.1.isFAQ 7.3.@.256FAQ 7.3.@.265FAQ 7.2.@.279FAQ 7.2.@.287FAQ 7.1.@.304FAQ 7.1.@.313FAQ 6.2.@.337FAQ 6.2.@.346FAQ 6.1.@.367FAQ 6.1.@.376FAQ 5.4.@.379FAQ 5.4.@.400FAQ 5.3.@.403FAQ 5.3.@.455FAQ 5.2.@.458FAQ 5.2.@.476FAQ 5.1.@.479FAQ 5.1.@.512FAQ 4.3.@.522FAQ 4.3.@.531FAQ 4.2.@.579FAQ 4.2.@.587FAQ 4.1.@.611FAQ 4.1.@.618FAQ 3.3.@.630FAQ 3.3.@.638FAQ 3.2.@.659FAQ 3.2.@.660FAQ 3.2.@.667FAQ 3.1.@.672FAQ 3.1.@.680FAQ 2.2.@.704FAQ 2.2.@.713FAQ 2.1.@.723FAQ 2.1.@.732FAQ 1.3.@.764FAQ 1.3.@.772FAQ 1.2.@.780FAQ 1.2.@.790FAQ 1.1.@.844FAQ 1.1.@.853FAQ 12.3.@.856FAQ 12.2.@.857FAQ 12.1.@.858FAQ 11.3.@.859FAQ 11.2.@.860FAQ 11.1.@.861FAQ 10.2.@.862FAQ 10.1.@.863FAQ 9.3.@.864FAQ 9.2.@.865FAQ 9.1.@.866FAQ 8.3.@.867FAQ 8.2.@.868FAQ 8.1.@.869FAQ 7.3.@.870FAQ 7.2.@.871FAQ 7.1.@.872FAQ 6.2.@.873FAQ 6.1.@.874FAQ 5.4.@.875FAQ 5.3.@.876FAQ 5.2.@.877FAQ 5.1.@.878FAQ 4.3.@.879FAQ 4.2.@.880FAQ 4.1.@.881FAQ 3.3.@.882FAQ 3.2.@.883FAQ 3.1.@.884FAQ 2.2.@.885FAQ 2.1.@.886FAQ 1.3.@.887FAQ 1.2.@.888FAQ 1.1.@.889FAQ 11.3 (continued)

FAQ 11.3.aFAQ 11.3.rFAQ 11.2.ahFAQ 11.1.awFAQ 11.1.bdFAQ 10.2.byFAQ 10.2.chFAQ 10.1.ctFAQ 10.1.daFAQ 9.3.dxFAQ 9.3.ehFAQ 9.2.emFAQ 9.2.evFAQ 9.1.fdFAQ 9.1.fkFAQ 8.3.fpFAQ 8.3.fvFAQ 8.2.hgFAQ 8.2.hpFAQ 8.1.iiFAQ 8.1.itFAQ 7.3.@.257FAQ 7.3.@.266FAQ 7.2.@.280FAQ 7.2.@.288FAQ 7.1.@.305FAQ 7.1.@.314FAQ 6.2.@.338FAQ 6.2.@.347FAQ 6.1.@.368FAQ 6.1.@.377FAQ 5.4.@.380FAQ 5.4.@.401FAQ 5.3.@.404FAQ 5.3.@.456FAQ 5.2.@.459FAQ 5.2.@.477FAQ 5.1.@.480FAQ 5.1.@.513FAQ 4.3.@.523FAQ 4.3.@.532FAQ 4.2.@.580FAQ 4.2.@.588FAQ 4.1.@.612FAQ 4.1.@.619FAQ 3.3.@.631FAQ 3.3.@.639FAQ 3.2.@.660FAQ 3.2.@.661FAQ 3.2.@.668FAQ 3.1.@.673FAQ 3.1.@.681FAQ 2.2.@.705FAQ 2.2.@.714FAQ 2.1.@.724FAQ 2.1.@.733FAQ 1.3.@.765FAQ 1.3.@.773FAQ 1.2.@.781FAQ 1.2.@.791FAQ 1.1.@.845FAQ 1.1.@.854FAQ 12.3.@.857FAQ 12.2.@.858FAQ 12.1.@.859FAQ 11.3.@.860FAQ 11.2.@.861FAQ 11.1.@.862FAQ 10.2.@.863FAQ 10.1.@.864FAQ 9.3.@.865FAQ 9.2.@.866FAQ 9.1.@.867FAQ 8.3.@.868FAQ 8.2.@.869FAQ 8.1.@.870FAQ 7.3.@.871FAQ 7.2.@.872FAQ 7.1.@.873FAQ 6.2.@.874FAQ 6.1.@.875FAQ 5.4.@.876FAQ 5.3.@.877FAQ 5.2.@.878FAQ 5.1.@.879FAQ 4.3.@.880FAQ 4.2.@.881FAQ 4.1.@.882FAQ 3.3.@.883FAQ 3.2.@.884FAQ 3.1.@.885FAQ 2.2.@.886FAQ 2.1.@.887FAQ 1.3.@.888FAQ 1.2.@.889FAQ 1.1.@.890FAQ

FAQ 11.3.bFAQ 11.3.sFAQ 11.2.aiFAQ 11.1.axFAQ 11.1.beFAQ 10.2.bzFAQ 10.2.ciFAQ 10.1.cuFAQ 10.1.dbFAQ 9.3.dyFAQ 9.3.eiFAQ 9.2.enFAQ 9.2.ewFAQ 9.1.feFAQ 9.1.flFAQ 8.3.fqFAQ 8.3.fwFAQ 8.2.hhFAQ 8.2.hqFAQ 8.1.ijFAQ 8.1.iuFAQ 7.3.@.258FAQ 7.3.@.267FAQ 7.2.@.281FAQ 7.2.@.289FAQ 7.1.@.306FAQ 7.1.@.315FAQ 6.2.@.339FAQ 6.2.@.348FAQ 6.1.@.369FAQ 6.1.@.378FAQ 5.4.@.381FAQ 5.4.@.402FAQ 5.3.@.405FAQ 5.3.@.457FAQ 5.2.@.460FAQ 5.2.@.478FAQ 5.1.@.481FAQ 5.1.@.514FAQ 4.3.@.524FAQ 4.3.@.533FAQ 4.2.@.581FAQ 4.2.@.589FAQ 4.1.@.613FAQ 4.1.@.620FAQ 3.3.@.632FAQ 3.3.@.640FAQ 3.2.@.661FAQ 3.2.@.662FAQ 3.2.@.669FAQ 3.1.@.674FAQ 3.1.@.682FAQ 2.2.@.706FAQ 2.2.@.715FAQ 2.1.@.725FAQ 2.1.@.734FAQ 1.3.@.766FAQ 1.3.@.774FAQ 1.2.@.782FAQ 1.2.@.792FAQ 1.1.@.846FAQ 1.1.@.855FAQ 12.3.@.858FAQ 12.2.@.859FAQ 12.1.@.860FAQ 11.3.@.861FAQ 11.2.@.862FAQ 11.1.@.863FAQ 10.2.@.864FAQ 10.1.@.865FAQ 9.3.@.866FAQ 9.2.@.867FAQ 9.1.@.868FAQ 8.3.@.869FAQ 8.2.@.870FAQ 8.1.@.871FAQ 7.3.@.872FAQ 7.2.@.873FAQ 7.1.@.874FAQ 6.2.@.875FAQ 6.1.@.876FAQ 5.4.@.877FAQ 5.3.@.878FAQ 5.2.@.879FAQ 5.1.@.880FAQ 4.3.@.881FAQ 4.2.@.882FAQ 4.1.@.883FAQ 3.3.@.884FAQ 3.2.@.885FAQ 3.1.@.886FAQ 2.2.@.887FAQ 2.1.@.888FAQ 1.3.@.889FAQ 1.2.@.890FAQ 1.1.@.891Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 11.3.cFAQ 11.3.tFAQ 11.2.ajFAQ 11.1.ayFAQ 11.1.bfFAQ 10.2.caFAQ 10.2.cjFAQ 10.1.cvFAQ 10.1.dcFAQ 9.3.dzFAQ 9.3.ejFAQ 9.2.eoFAQ 9.2.exFAQ 9.1.ffFAQ 9.1.fmFAQ 8.3.frFAQ 8.3.fxFAQ 8.2.hiFAQ 8.2.hrFAQ 8.1.ikFAQ 8.1.ivFAQ 7.3.@.259FAQ 7.3.@.268FAQ 7.2.@.282FAQ 7.2.@.290FAQ 7.1.@.307FAQ 7.1.@.316FAQ 6.2.@.340FAQ 6.2.@.349FAQ 6.1.@.370FAQ 6.1.@.379FAQ 5.4.@.382FAQ 5.4.@.403FAQ 5.3.@.406FAQ 5.3.@.458FAQ 5.2.@.461FAQ 5.2.@.479FAQ 5.1.@.482FAQ 5.1.@.515FAQ 4.3.@.525FAQ 4.3.@.534FAQ 4.2.@.582FAQ 4.2.@.590FAQ 4.1.@.614FAQ 4.1.@.621FAQ 3.3.@.633FAQ 3.3.@.641FAQ 3.2.@.662FAQ 3.2.@.663FAQ 3.2.@.670FAQ 3.1.@.675FAQ 3.1.@.683FAQ 2.2.@.707FAQ 2.2.@.716FAQ 2.1.@.726FAQ 2.1.@.735FAQ 1.3.@.767FAQ 1.3.@.775FAQ 1.2.@.783FAQ 1.2.@.793FAQ 1.1.@.847FAQ 1.1.@.856FAQ 12.3.@.859FAQ 12.2.@.860FAQ 12.1.@.861FAQ 11.3.@.862FAQ 11.2.@.863FAQ 11.1.@.864FAQ 10.2.@.865FAQ 10.1.@.866FAQ 9.3.@.867FAQ 9.2.@.868FAQ 9.1.@.869FAQ 8.3.@.870FAQ 8.2.@.871FAQ 8.1.@.872FAQ 7.3.@.873FAQ 7.2.@.874FAQ 7.1.@.875FAQ 6.2.@.876FAQ 6.1.@.877FAQ 5.4.@.878FAQ 5.3.@.879FAQ 5.2.@.880FAQ 5.1.@.881FAQ 4.3.@.882FAQ 4.2.@.883FAQ 4.1.@.884FAQ 3.3.@.885FAQ 3.2.@.886FAQ 3.1.@.887FAQ 2.2.@.888FAQ 2.1.@.889FAQ 1.3.@.890FAQ 1.2.@.891FAQ 1.1.@.892FAQ 12.1 | What Is a Climatic Impact-driver (CID)?

FAQ 12.1.aFAQ 11.3.dFAQ 11.3.uFAQ 11.2.akFAQ 11.1.azFAQ 11.1.bgFAQ 10.2.cbFAQ 10.2.ckFAQ 10.1.cwFAQ 10.1.ddFAQ 9.3.eaFAQ 9.3.ekFAQ 9.2.epFAQ 9.2.eyFAQ 9.1.fgFAQ 9.1.fnFAQ 8.3.fsFAQ 8.3.fyFAQ 8.2.hjFAQ 8.2.hsFAQ 8.1.ilFAQ 8.1.@.256FAQ 7.3.@.260FAQ 7.3.@.269FAQ 7.2.@.283FAQ 7.2.@.291FAQ 7.1.@.308FAQ 7.1.@.317FAQ 6.2.@.341FAQ 6.2.@.350FAQ 6.1.@.371FAQ 6.1.@.380FAQ 5.4.@.383FAQ 5.4.@.404FAQ 5.3.@.407FAQ 5.3.@.459FAQ 5.2.@.462FAQ 5.2.@.480FAQ 5.1.@.483FAQ 5.1.@.516FAQ 4.3.@.526FAQ 4.3.@.535FAQ 4.2.@.583FAQ 4.2.@.591FAQ 4.1.@.615FAQ 4.1.@.622FAQ 3.3.@.634FAQ 3.3.@.642FAQ 3.2.@.663FAQ 3.2.@.664FAQ 3.2.@.671FAQ 3.1.@.676FAQ 3.1.@.684FAQ 2.2.@.708FAQ 2.2.@.717FAQ 2.1.@.727FAQ 2.1.@.736FAQ 1.3.@.768FAQ 1.3.@.776FAQ 1.2.@.784FAQ 1.2.@.794FAQ 1.1.@.848FAQ 1.1.@.857FAQ 12.3.@.860FAQ 12.2.@.861FAQ 12.1.@.862FAQ 11.3.@.863FAQ 11.2.@.864FAQ 11.1.@.865FAQ 10.2.@.866FAQ 10.1.@.867FAQ 9.3.@.868FAQ 9.2.@.869FAQ 9.1.@.870FAQ 8.3.@.871FAQ 8.2.@.872FAQ 8.1.@.873FAQ 7.3.@.874FAQ 7.2.@.875FAQ 7.1.@.876FAQ 6.2.@.877FAQ 6.1.@.878FAQ 5.4.@.879FAQ 5.3.@.880FAQ 5.2.@.881FAQ 5.1.@.882FAQ 4.3.@.883FAQ 4.2.@.884FAQ 4.1.@.885FAQ 3.3.@.886FAQ 3.2.@.887FAQ 3.1.@.888FAQ 2.2.@.889FAQ 2.1.@.890FAQ 1.3.@.891FAQ 1.2.@.892FAQ 1.1.@.893A climatic impact-driver is a physical climate condition that directly affects society or ecosystems. Climatic impact-drivers may represent a long-term average condition (such as the average winter temperatures that affect indoor heating requirements), a common event (such as a frost that kills off warm-season plants), or an extreme event (such as a coastal flood that destroys homes). A single climatic impact-driver may lead to detrimental effects for one part of society while benefiting another, while others are not affected at all. A climatic impact-driver (or its change caused by climate change) is therefore not universally hazardous or beneficial, but we refer to it as a ‘hazard’ when experts determine it is detrimental to a specific system.

FAQ 12.1.bFAQ 11.3.eFAQ 11.3.vFAQ 11.2.alFAQ 11.1.baFAQ 11.1.bhFAQ 10.2.ccFAQ 10.2.clFAQ 10.1.cxFAQ 10.1.deFAQ 9.3.ebFAQ 9.3.elFAQ 9.2.eqFAQ 9.2.ezFAQ 9.1.fhFAQ 9.1.foFAQ 8.3.ftFAQ 8.3.fzFAQ 8.2.hkFAQ 8.2.htFAQ 8.1.imFAQ 8.1.@.257FAQ 7.3.@.261FAQ 7.3.@.270FAQ 7.2.@.284FAQ 7.2.@.292FAQ 7.1.@.309FAQ 7.1.@.318FAQ 6.2.@.342FAQ 6.2.@.351FAQ 6.1.@.372FAQ 6.1.@.381FAQ 5.4.@.384FAQ 5.4.@.405FAQ 5.3.@.408FAQ 5.3.@.460FAQ 5.2.@.463FAQ 5.2.@.481FAQ 5.1.@.484FAQ 5.1.@.517FAQ 4.3.@.527FAQ 4.3.@.536FAQ 4.2.@.584FAQ 4.2.@.592FAQ 4.1.@.616FAQ 4.1.@.623FAQ 3.3.@.635FAQ 3.3.@.643FAQ 3.2.@.664FAQ 3.2.@.665FAQ 3.2.@.672FAQ 3.1.@.677FAQ 3.1.@.685FAQ 2.2.@.709FAQ 2.2.@.718FAQ 2.1.@.728FAQ 2.1.@.737FAQ 1.3.@.769FAQ 1.3.@.777FAQ 1.2.@.785FAQ 1.2.@.795FAQ 1.1.@.849FAQ 1.1.@.858FAQ 12.3.@.861FAQ 12.2.@.862FAQ 12.1.@.863FAQ 11.3.@.864FAQ 11.2.@.865FAQ 11.1.@.866FAQ 10.2.@.867FAQ 10.1.@.868FAQ 9.3.@.869FAQ 9.2.@.870FAQ 9.1.@.871FAQ 8.3.@.872FAQ 8.2.@.873FAQ 8.1.@.874FAQ 7.3.@.875FAQ 7.2.@.876FAQ 7.1.@.877FAQ 6.2.@.878FAQ 6.1.@.879FAQ 5.4.@.880FAQ 5.3.@.881FAQ 5.2.@.882FAQ 5.1.@.883FAQ 4.3.@.884FAQ 4.2.@.885FAQ 4.1.@.886FAQ 3.3.@.887FAQ 3.2.@.888FAQ 3.1.@.889FAQ 2.2.@.890FAQ 2.1.@.891FAQ 1.3.@.892FAQ 1.2.@.893FAQ 1.1.@.894Climate change can alter many aspects of the climate system, but efforts to identify impacts and risks usually focus on a smaller set of changes known to affect, or potentially affect, things that society cares about. These climatic impact-drivers (CIDs) are formally defined in this Report as ‘physical climate system conditions (e.g., means, events, extremes) that affect an element of society or ecosystems. Depending on system tolerance, CIDs and their changes can be detrimental, beneficial, neutral, or a mixture of each across interacting system elements and regions’. Because people, infrastructure and ecosystems interact directly with their immediate environment, climate experts assess CIDs locally and regionally. CIDs may relate to temperature, the water cycle, wind and storms, snow and ice, oceanic and coastal processes or the chemistry and energy balance of the climate system. Future impacts and risk may also be directly affected by factors unrelated to the climate (such as socio-economic development, population growth, or a viral outbreak) that may also alter the vulnerability or exposure of systems.

FAQ 12.1.cFAQ 11.3.fFAQ 11.3.wFAQ 11.2.amFAQ 11.1.bbFAQ 11.1.biFAQ 10.2.cdFAQ 10.2.cmFAQ 10.1.cyFAQ 10.1.dfFAQ 9.3.ecFAQ 9.3.emFAQ 9.2.erFAQ 9.2.faFAQ 9.1.fiFAQ 9.1.fpFAQ 8.3.fuFAQ 8.3.gaFAQ 8.2.hlFAQ 8.2.huFAQ 8.1.inFAQ 8.1.@.258FAQ 7.3.@.262FAQ 7.3.@.271FAQ 7.2.@.285FAQ 7.2.@.293FAQ 7.1.@.310FAQ 7.1.@.319FAQ 6.2.@.343FAQ 6.2.@.352FAQ 6.1.@.373FAQ 6.1.@.382FAQ 5.4.@.385FAQ 5.4.@.406FAQ 5.3.@.409FAQ 5.3.@.461FAQ 5.2.@.464FAQ 5.2.@.482FAQ 5.1.@.485FAQ 5.1.@.518FAQ 4.3.@.528FAQ 4.3.@.537FAQ 4.2.@.585FAQ 4.2.@.593FAQ 4.1.@.617FAQ 4.1.@.624FAQ 3.3.@.636FAQ 3.3.@.644FAQ 3.2.@.665FAQ 3.2.@.666FAQ 3.2.@.673FAQ 3.1.@.678FAQ 3.1.@.686FAQ 2.2.@.710FAQ 2.2.@.719FAQ 2.1.@.729FAQ 2.1.@.738FAQ 1.3.@.770FAQ 1.3.@.778FAQ 1.2.@.786FAQ 1.2.@.796FAQ 1.1.@.850FAQ 1.1.@.859FAQ 12.3.@.862FAQ 12.2.@.863FAQ 12.1.@.864FAQ 11.3.@.865FAQ 11.2.@.866FAQ 11.1.@.867FAQ 10.2.@.868FAQ 10.1.@.869FAQ 9.3.@.870FAQ 9.2.@.871FAQ 9.1.@.872FAQ 8.3.@.873FAQ 8.2.@.874FAQ 8.1.@.875FAQ 7.3.@.876FAQ 7.2.@.877FAQ 7.1.@.878FAQ 6.2.@.879FAQ 6.1.@.880FAQ 5.4.@.881FAQ 5.3.@.882FAQ 5.2.@.883FAQ 5.1.@.884FAQ 4.3.@.885FAQ 4.2.@.886FAQ 4.1.@.887FAQ 3.3.@.888FAQ 3.2.@.889FAQ 3.1.@.890FAQ 2.2.@.891FAQ 2.1.@.892FAQ 1.3.@.893FAQ 1.2.@.894FAQ 1.1.@.895CIDs capture important characteristics of the average climate and both common and extreme events that shape society and nature (see FAQ 12.2). Some CIDs focus on aspects of the average climate (such as the seasonal progression of temperature and precipitation, average winds or the chemistry of the ocean) that determine, for example, species distribution, farming systems, the location of tourist resorts, the availability of water resources and the expected heating and cooling needs for buildings in an average year. CIDs also include common episodic events that are particularly important to systems, such as thaw events that can trigger the development of plants in spring, cold spells that are important for fruit crop chill requirements, or frost events that eliminate summer vegetation as winter sets in. Finally, CIDs include many extreme events connected to impacts such as hailstorms that damage vehicles, coastal floods that destroy shoreline property, tornadoes that damage infrastructure, droughts that increase competition for water resources, and heatwaves that can strain the health of outdoor labourers.

FAQ 12.1.dFAQ 11.3.gFAQ 11.3.xFAQ 11.2.anFAQ 11.1.bcFAQ 11.1.bjFAQ 10.2.ceFAQ 10.2.cnFAQ 10.1.czFAQ 10.1.dgFAQ 9.3.edFAQ 9.3.enFAQ 9.2.esFAQ 9.2.fbFAQ 9.1.fjFAQ 9.1.fqFAQ 8.3.fvFAQ 8.3.gbFAQ 8.2.hmFAQ 8.2.hvFAQ 8.1.ioFAQ 8.1.@.259FAQ 7.3.@.263FAQ 7.3.@.272FAQ 7.2.@.286FAQ 7.2.@.294FAQ 7.1.@.311FAQ 7.1.@.320FAQ 6.2.@.344FAQ 6.2.@.353FAQ 6.1.@.374FAQ 6.1.@.383FAQ 5.4.@.386FAQ 5.4.@.407FAQ 5.3.@.410FAQ 5.3.@.462FAQ 5.2.@.465FAQ 5.2.@.483FAQ 5.1.@.486FAQ 5.1.@.519FAQ 4.3.@.529FAQ 4.3.@.538FAQ 4.2.@.586FAQ 4.2.@.594FAQ 4.1.@.618FAQ 4.1.@.625FAQ 3.3.@.637FAQ 3.3.@.645FAQ 3.2.@.666FAQ 3.2.@.667FAQ 3.2.@.674FAQ 3.1.@.679FAQ 3.1.@.687FAQ 2.2.@.711FAQ 2.2.@.720FAQ 2.1.@.730FAQ 2.1.@.739FAQ 1.3.@.771FAQ 1.3.@.779FAQ 1.2.@.787FAQ 1.2.@.797FAQ 1.1.@.851FAQ 1.1.@.860FAQ 12.3.@.863FAQ 12.2.@.864FAQ 12.1.@.865FAQ 11.3.@.866FAQ 11.2.@.867FAQ 11.1.@.868FAQ 10.2.@.869FAQ 10.1.@.870FAQ 9.3.@.871FAQ 9.2.@.872FAQ 9.1.@.873FAQ 8.3.@.874FAQ 8.2.@.875FAQ 8.1.@.876FAQ 7.3.@.877FAQ 7.2.@.878FAQ 7.1.@.879FAQ 6.2.@.880FAQ 6.1.@.881FAQ 5.4.@.882FAQ 5.3.@.883FAQ 5.2.@.884FAQ 5.1.@.885FAQ 4.3.@.886FAQ 4.2.@.887FAQ 4.1.@.888FAQ 3.3.@.889FAQ 3.2.@.890FAQ 3.1.@.891FAQ 2.2.@.892FAQ 2.1.@.893FAQ 1.3.@.894FAQ 1.2.@.895FAQ 1.1.@.896Many aspects of our daily lives, businesses and natural systems depend on weather and climate, and there is great interest in anticipating the impacts of climate change on the things we care about. To meet these needs, scientists engage with companies and authorities to provide climate services – meaningful and possibly actionable climate information designed to assist decision-making. Climate science and services can focus on CIDs that substantially disrupt systems to support broader risk management approaches. A single CID change can have dramatically different implications for different sectors or even elements of the same sector, so engagement between climate scientists and stakeholders is important to contextualize the climate changes that will come. Climate services responding to planning and optimization of an activity can focus on more gradual changes in operating climate conditions.

FAQ 12.1.eFAQ 11.3.hFAQ 11.3.yFAQ 11.2.aoFAQ 11.1.bdFAQ 11.1.bkFAQ 10.2.cfFAQ 10.2.coFAQ 10.1.daFAQ 10.1.dhFAQ 9.3.eeFAQ 9.3.eoFAQ 9.2.etFAQ 9.2.fcFAQ 9.1.fkFAQ 9.1.frFAQ 8.3.fwFAQ 8.3.gcFAQ 8.2.hnFAQ 8.2.hwFAQ 8.1.ipFAQ 8.1.@.260FAQ 7.3.@.264FAQ 7.3.@.273FAQ 7.2.@.287FAQ 7.2.@.295FAQ 7.1.@.312FAQ 7.1.@.321FAQ 6.2.@.345FAQ 6.2.@.354FAQ 6.1.@.375FAQ 6.1.@.384FAQ 5.4.@.387FAQ 5.4.@.408FAQ 5.3.@.411FAQ 5.3.@.463FAQ 5.2.@.466FAQ 5.2.@.484FAQ 5.1.@.487FAQ 5.1.@.520FAQ 4.3.@.530FAQ 4.3.@.539FAQ 4.2.@.587FAQ 4.2.@.595FAQ 4.1.@.619FAQ 4.1.@.626FAQ 3.3.@.638FAQ 3.3.@.646FAQ 3.2.@.667FAQ 3.2.@.668FAQ 3.2.@.675FAQ 3.1.@.680FAQ 3.1.@.688FAQ 2.2.@.712FAQ 2.2.@.721FAQ 2.1.@.731FAQ 2.1.@.740FAQ 1.3.@.772FAQ 1.3.@.780FAQ 1.2.@.788FAQ 1.2.@.798FAQ 1.1.@.852FAQ 1.1.@.861FAQ 12.3.@.864FAQ 12.2.@.865FAQ 12.1.@.866FAQ 11.3.@.867FAQ 11.2.@.868FAQ 11.1.@.869FAQ 10.2.@.870FAQ 10.1.@.871FAQ 9.3.@.872FAQ 9.2.@.873FAQ 9.1.@.874FAQ 8.3.@.875FAQ 8.2.@.876FAQ 8.1.@.877FAQ 7.3.@.878FAQ 7.2.@.879FAQ 7.1.@.880FAQ 6.2.@.881FAQ 6.1.@.882FAQ 5.4.@.883FAQ 5.3.@.884FAQ 5.2.@.885FAQ 5.1.@.886FAQ 4.3.@.887FAQ 4.2.@.888FAQ 4.1.@.889FAQ 3.3.@.890FAQ 3.2.@.891FAQ 3.1.@.892FAQ 2.2.@.893FAQ 2.1.@.894FAQ 1.3.@.895FAQ 1.2.@.896FAQ 1.1.@.897FAQ 12.1, Figure 1 tracks example outcomes of seasonal snow cover changes that connect climate science to the need for mitigation, adaptation and regional risk management. The length of the season with snow on the ground is just one of many regional climate conditions that may change in the future, and it becomes a CID because there are many elements of society and ecosystems that rely on an expected seasonality of snow cover. Climate scientists and climate service providers examining human-driven climate change may identify different regions where the length of the season with snow cover could increase, decrease, or stay relatively unaffected. In each region, change in seasonal snow cover may affect different systems in beneficial or detrimental ways (in the latter case, changing seasonal snow cover would be a ‘hazard’), although systems such as coastal aquaculture remain relatively unaffected. The changing profile of benefits and hazards connected to these changes in the seasonal snow cover CID affects the profile of impacts, risks and benefits that stakeholders in the region will grapple with in response to climate change.

FAQ 12.1.fFAQ 11.3.iFAQ 11.3.zFAQ 11.2.apFAQ 11.1.beFAQ 11.1.blFAQ 10.2.cgFAQ 10.2.cpFAQ 10.1.dbFAQ 10.1.diFAQ 9.3.efFAQ 9.3.epFAQ 9.2.euFAQ 9.2.fdFAQ 9.1.flFAQ 9.1.fsFAQ 8.3.fxFAQ 8.3.gdFAQ 8.2.hoFAQ 8.2.hxFAQ 8.1.iqFAQ 8.1.@.261FAQ 7.3.@.265FAQ 7.3.@.274FAQ 7.2.@.288FAQ 7.2.@.296FAQ 7.1.@.313FAQ 7.1.@.322FAQ 6.2.@.346FAQ 6.2.@.355FAQ 6.1.@.376FAQ 6.1.@.385FAQ 5.4.@.388FAQ 5.4.@.409FAQ 5.3.@.412FAQ 5.3.@.464FAQ 5.2.@.467FAQ 5.2.@.485FAQ 5.1.@.488FAQ 5.1.@.521FAQ 4.3.@.531FAQ 4.3.@.540FAQ 4.2.@.588FAQ 4.2.@.596FAQ 4.1.@.620FAQ 4.1.@.627FAQ 3.3.@.639FAQ 3.3.@.647FAQ 3.2.@.668FAQ 3.2.@.669FAQ 3.2.@.676FAQ 3.1.@.681FAQ 3.1.@.689FAQ 2.2.@.713FAQ 2.2.@.722FAQ 2.1.@.732FAQ 2.1.@.741FAQ 1.3.@.773FAQ 1.3.@.781FAQ 1.2.@.789FAQ 1.2.@.799FAQ 1.1.@.853FAQ 1.1.@.862FAQ 12.3.@.865FAQ 12.2.@.866FAQ 12.1.@.867FAQ 11.3.@.868FAQ 11.2.@.869FAQ 11.1.@.870FAQ 10.2.@.871FAQ 10.1.@.872FAQ 9.3.@.873FAQ 9.2.@.874FAQ 9.1.@.875FAQ 8.3.@.876FAQ 8.2.@.877FAQ 8.1.@.878FAQ 7.3.@.879FAQ 7.2.@.880FAQ 7.1.@.881FAQ 6.2.@.882FAQ 6.1.@.883FAQ 5.4.@.884FAQ 5.3.@.885FAQ 5.2.@.886FAQ 5.1.@.887FAQ 4.3.@.888FAQ 4.2.@.889FAQ 4.1.@.890FAQ 3.3.@.891FAQ 3.2.@.892FAQ 3.1.@.893FAQ 2.2.@.894FAQ 2.1.@.895FAQ 1.3.@.896FAQ 1.2.@.897FAQ 1.1.@.898FAQ

FAQ 12.1.gFAQ 11.3.jFAQ 11.3.aaFAQ 11.2.aqFAQ 11.1.bfFAQ 11.1.bmFAQ 10.2.chFAQ 10.2.cqFAQ 10.1.dcFAQ 10.1.djFAQ 9.3.egFAQ 9.3.eqFAQ 9.2.evFAQ 9.2.feFAQ 9.1.fmFAQ 9.1.ftFAQ 8.3.fyFAQ 8.3.geFAQ 8.2.hpFAQ 8.2.hyFAQ 8.1.irFAQ 8.1.@.262FAQ 7.3.@.266FAQ 7.3.@.275FAQ 7.2.@.289FAQ 7.2.@.297FAQ 7.1.@.314FAQ 7.1.@.323FAQ 6.2.@.347FAQ 6.2.@.356FAQ 6.1.@.377FAQ 6.1.@.386FAQ 5.4.@.389FAQ 5.4.@.410FAQ 5.3.@.413FAQ 5.3.@.465FAQ 5.2.@.468FAQ 5.2.@.486FAQ 5.1.@.489FAQ 5.1.@.522FAQ 4.3.@.532FAQ 4.3.@.541FAQ 4.2.@.589FAQ 4.2.@.597FAQ 4.1.@.621FAQ 4.1.@.628FAQ 3.3.@.640FAQ 3.3.@.648FAQ 3.2.@.669FAQ 3.2.@.670FAQ 3.2.@.677FAQ 3.1.@.682FAQ 3.1.@.690FAQ 2.2.@.714FAQ 2.2.@.723FAQ 2.1.@.733FAQ 2.1.@.742FAQ 1.3.@.774FAQ 1.3.@.782FAQ 1.2.@.790FAQ 1.2.@.800FAQ 1.1.@.854FAQ 1.1.@.863FAQ 12.3.@.866FAQ 12.2.@.867FAQ 12.1.@.868FAQ 11.3.@.869FAQ 11.2.@.870FAQ 11.1.@.871FAQ 10.2.@.872FAQ 10.1.@.873FAQ 9.3.@.874FAQ 9.2.@.875FAQ 9.1.@.876FAQ 8.3.@.877FAQ 8.2.@.878FAQ 8.1.@.879FAQ 7.3.@.880FAQ 7.2.@.881FAQ 7.1.@.882FAQ 6.2.@.883FAQ 6.1.@.884FAQ 5.4.@.885FAQ 5.3.@.886FAQ 5.2.@.887FAQ 5.1.@.888FAQ 4.3.@.889FAQ 4.2.@.890FAQ 4.1.@.891FAQ 3.3.@.892FAQ 3.2.@.893FAQ 3.1.@.894FAQ 2.2.@.895FAQ 2.1.@.896FAQ 1.3.@.897FAQ 1.2.@.898FAQ 1.1.@.899FAQ 12.1 (continued)

FAQ 12.1.aFAQ 12.1.hFAQ 11.3.kFAQ 11.3.abFAQ 11.2.arFAQ 11.1.bgFAQ 11.1.bnFAQ 10.2.ciFAQ 10.2.crFAQ 10.1.ddFAQ 10.1.dkFAQ 9.3.ehFAQ 9.3.erFAQ 9.2.ewFAQ 9.2.ffFAQ 9.1.fnFAQ 9.1.fuFAQ 8.3.fzFAQ 8.3.gfFAQ 8.2.hqFAQ 8.2.hzFAQ 8.1.isFAQ 8.1.@.263FAQ 7.3.@.267FAQ 7.3.@.276FAQ 7.2.@.290FAQ 7.2.@.298FAQ 7.1.@.315FAQ 7.1.@.324FAQ 6.2.@.348FAQ 6.2.@.357FAQ 6.1.@.378FAQ 6.1.@.387FAQ 5.4.@.390FAQ 5.4.@.411FAQ 5.3.@.414FAQ 5.3.@.466FAQ 5.2.@.469FAQ 5.2.@.487FAQ 5.1.@.490FAQ 5.1.@.523FAQ 4.3.@.533FAQ 4.3.@.542FAQ 4.2.@.590FAQ 4.2.@.598FAQ 4.1.@.622FAQ 4.1.@.629FAQ 3.3.@.641FAQ 3.3.@.649FAQ 3.2.@.670FAQ 3.2.@.671FAQ 3.2.@.678FAQ 3.1.@.683FAQ 3.1.@.691FAQ 2.2.@.715FAQ 2.2.@.724FAQ 2.1.@.734FAQ 2.1.@.743FAQ 1.3.@.775FAQ 1.3.@.783FAQ 1.2.@.791FAQ 1.2.@.801FAQ 1.1.@.855FAQ 1.1.@.864FAQ 12.3.@.867FAQ 12.2.@.868FAQ 12.1.@.869FAQ 11.3.@.870FAQ 11.2.@.871FAQ 11.1.@.872FAQ 10.2.@.873FAQ 10.1.@.874FAQ 9.3.@.875FAQ 9.2.@.876FAQ 9.1.@.877FAQ 8.3.@.878FAQ 8.2.@.879FAQ 8.1.@.880FAQ 7.3.@.881FAQ 7.2.@.882FAQ 7.1.@.883FAQ 6.2.@.884FAQ 6.1.@.885FAQ 5.4.@.886FAQ 5.3.@.887FAQ 5.2.@.888FAQ 5.1.@.889FAQ 4.3.@.890FAQ 4.2.@.891FAQ 4.1.@.892FAQ 3.3.@.893FAQ 3.2.@.894FAQ 3.1.@.895FAQ 2.2.@.896FAQ 2.1.@.897FAQ 1.3.@.898FAQ 1.2.@.899FAQ 1.1.@.900FAQ 12.1, Figure 1 | A single climatic impact-driver can affect ecosystems and society in different ways. A variety of impacts from the same climatic impact-driver change, illustrated with the example of regional seasonal snow cover.

FAQ 12.1.bFAQ 12.1.iFAQ 11.3.lFAQ 11.3.acFAQ 11.2.asFAQ 11.1.bhFAQ 11.1.boFAQ 10.2.cjFAQ 10.2.csFAQ 10.1.deFAQ 10.1.dlFAQ 9.3.eiFAQ 9.3.esFAQ 9.2.exFAQ 9.2.fgFAQ 9.1.foFAQ 9.1.fvFAQ 8.3.gaFAQ 8.3.ggFAQ 8.2.hrFAQ 8.2.iaFAQ 8.1.itFAQ 8.1.@.264FAQ 7.3.@.268FAQ 7.3.@.277FAQ 7.2.@.291FAQ 7.2.@.299FAQ 7.1.@.316FAQ 7.1.@.325FAQ 6.2.@.349FAQ 6.2.@.358FAQ 6.1.@.379FAQ 6.1.@.388FAQ 5.4.@.391FAQ 5.4.@.412FAQ 5.3.@.415FAQ 5.3.@.467FAQ 5.2.@.470FAQ 5.2.@.488FAQ 5.1.@.491FAQ 5.1.@.524FAQ 4.3.@.534FAQ 4.3.@.543FAQ 4.2.@.591FAQ 4.2.@.599FAQ 4.1.@.623FAQ 4.1.@.630FAQ 3.3.@.642FAQ 3.3.@.650FAQ 3.2.@.671FAQ 3.2.@.672FAQ 3.2.@.679FAQ 3.1.@.684FAQ 3.1.@.692FAQ 2.2.@.716FAQ 2.2.@.725FAQ 2.1.@.735FAQ 2.1.@.744FAQ 1.3.@.776FAQ 1.3.@.784FAQ 1.2.@.792FAQ 1.2.@.802FAQ 1.1.@.856FAQ 1.1.@.865FAQ 12.3.@.868FAQ 12.2.@.869FAQ 12.1.@.870FAQ 11.3.@.871FAQ 11.2.@.872FAQ 11.1.@.873FAQ 10.2.@.874FAQ 10.1.@.875FAQ 9.3.@.876FAQ 9.2.@.877FAQ 9.1.@.878FAQ 8.3.@.879FAQ 8.2.@.880FAQ 8.1.@.881FAQ 7.3.@.882FAQ 7.2.@.883FAQ 7.1.@.884FAQ 6.2.@.885FAQ 6.1.@.886FAQ 5.4.@.887FAQ 5.3.@.888FAQ 5.2.@.889FAQ 5.1.@.890FAQ 4.3.@.891FAQ 4.2.@.892FAQ 4.1.@.893FAQ 3.3.@.894FAQ 3.2.@.895FAQ 3.1.@.896FAQ 2.2.@.897FAQ 2.1.@.898FAQ 1.3.@.899FAQ 1.2.@.900FAQ 1.1.@.901!

FAQ 12.1.cFAQ 12.1.jFAQ 11.3.mFAQ 11.3.adFAQ 11.2.atFAQ 11.1.biFAQ 11.1.bpFAQ 10.2.ckFAQ 10.2.ctFAQ 10.1.dfFAQ 10.1.dmFAQ 9.3.ejFAQ 9.3.etFAQ 9.2.eyFAQ 9.2.fhFAQ 9.1.fpFAQ 9.1.fwFAQ 8.3.gbFAQ 8.3.ghFAQ 8.2.hsFAQ 8.2.ibFAQ 8.1.iuFAQ 8.1.@.265FAQ 7.3.@.269FAQ 7.3.@.278FAQ 7.2.@.292FAQ 7.2.@.300FAQ 7.1.@.317FAQ 7.1.@.326FAQ 6.2.@.350FAQ 6.2.@.359FAQ 6.1.@.380FAQ 6.1.@.389FAQ 5.4.@.392FAQ 5.4.@.413FAQ 5.3.@.416FAQ 5.3.@.468FAQ 5.2.@.471FAQ 5.2.@.489FAQ 5.1.@.492FAQ 5.1.@.525FAQ 4.3.@.535FAQ 4.3.@.544FAQ 4.2.@.592FAQ 4.2.@.600FAQ 4.1.@.624FAQ 4.1.@.631FAQ 3.3.@.643FAQ 3.3.@.651FAQ 3.2.@.672FAQ 3.2.@.673FAQ 3.2.@.680FAQ 3.1.@.685FAQ 3.1.@.693FAQ 2.2.@.717FAQ 2.2.@.726FAQ 2.1.@.736FAQ 2.1.@.745FAQ 1.3.@.777FAQ 1.3.@.785FAQ 1.2.@.793FAQ 1.2.@.803FAQ 1.1.@.857FAQ 1.1.@.866FAQ 12.3.@.869FAQ 12.2.@.870FAQ 12.1.@.871FAQ 11.3.@.872FAQ 11.2.@.873FAQ 11.1.@.874FAQ 10.2.@.875FAQ 10.1.@.876FAQ 9.3.@.877FAQ 9.2.@.878FAQ 9.1.@.879FAQ 8.3.@.880FAQ 8.2.@.881FAQ 8.1.@.882FAQ 7.3.@.883FAQ 7.2.@.884FAQ 7.1.@.885FAQ 6.2.@.886FAQ 6.1.@.887FAQ 5.4.@.888FAQ 5.3.@.889FAQ 5.2.@.890FAQ 5.1.@.891FAQ 4.3.@.892FAQ 4.2.@.893FAQ 4.1.@.894FAQ 3.3.@.895FAQ 3.2.@.896FAQ 3.1.@.897FAQ 2.2.@.898FAQ 2.1.@.899FAQ 1.3.@.900FAQ 1.2.@.901FAQ 1.1.@.902!

FAQ 12.1.dFAQ 12.1.kFAQ 11.3.nFAQ 11.3.aeFAQ 11.2.auFAQ 11.1.bjFAQ 11.1.bqFAQ 10.2.clFAQ 10.2.cuFAQ 10.1.dgFAQ 10.1.dnFAQ 9.3.ekFAQ 9.3.euFAQ 9.2.ezFAQ 9.2.fiFAQ 9.1.fqFAQ 9.1.fxFAQ 8.3.gcFAQ 8.3.giFAQ 8.2.htFAQ 8.2.icFAQ 8.1.ivFAQ 8.1.@.266FAQ 7.3.@.270FAQ 7.3.@.279FAQ 7.2.@.293FAQ 7.2.@.301FAQ 7.1.@.318FAQ 7.1.@.327FAQ 6.2.@.351FAQ 6.2.@.360FAQ 6.1.@.381FAQ 6.1.@.390FAQ 5.4.@.393FAQ 5.4.@.414FAQ 5.3.@.417FAQ 5.3.@.469FAQ 5.2.@.472FAQ 5.2.@.490FAQ 5.1.@.493FAQ 5.1.@.526FAQ 4.3.@.536FAQ 4.3.@.545FAQ 4.2.@.593FAQ 4.2.@.601FAQ 4.1.@.625FAQ 4.1.@.632FAQ 3.3.@.644FAQ 3.3.@.652FAQ 3.2.@.673FAQ 3.2.@.674FAQ 3.2.@.681FAQ 3.1.@.686FAQ 3.1.@.694FAQ 2.2.@.718FAQ 2.2.@.727FAQ 2.1.@.737FAQ 2.1.@.746FAQ 1.3.@.778FAQ 1.3.@.786FAQ 1.2.@.794FAQ 1.2.@.804FAQ 1.1.@.858FAQ 1.1.@.867FAQ 12.3.@.870FAQ 12.2.@.871FAQ 12.1.@.872FAQ 11.3.@.873FAQ 11.2.@.874FAQ 11.1.@.875FAQ 10.2.@.876FAQ 10.1.@.877FAQ 9.3.@.878FAQ 9.2.@.879FAQ 9.1.@.880FAQ 8.3.@.881FAQ 8.2.@.882FAQ 8.1.@.883FAQ 7.3.@.884FAQ 7.2.@.885FAQ 7.1.@.886FAQ 6.2.@.887FAQ 6.1.@.888FAQ 5.4.@.889FAQ 5.3.@.890FAQ 5.2.@.891FAQ 5.1.@.892FAQ 4.3.@.893FAQ 4.2.@.894FAQ 4.1.@.895FAQ 3.3.@.896FAQ 3.2.@.897FAQ 3.1.@.898FAQ 2.2.@.899FAQ 2.1.@.900FAQ 1.3.@.901FAQ 1.2.@.902FAQ 1.1.@.903Climatic impact-driver

FAQ 12.1.eFAQ 12.1.lFAQ 11.3.oFAQ 11.3.afFAQ 11.2.avFAQ 11.1.bkFAQ 11.1.brFAQ 10.2.cmFAQ 10.2.cvFAQ 10.1.dhFAQ 10.1.doFAQ 9.3.elFAQ 9.3.evFAQ 9.2.faFAQ 9.2.fjFAQ 9.1.frFAQ 9.1.fyFAQ 8.3.gdFAQ 8.3.gjFAQ 8.2.huFAQ 8.2.idFAQ 8.1.@.256FAQ 8.1.@.267FAQ 7.3.@.271FAQ 7.3.@.280FAQ 7.2.@.294FAQ 7.2.@.302FAQ 7.1.@.319FAQ 7.1.@.328FAQ 6.2.@.352FAQ 6.2.@.361FAQ 6.1.@.382FAQ 6.1.@.391FAQ 5.4.@.394FAQ 5.4.@.415FAQ 5.3.@.418FAQ 5.3.@.470FAQ 5.2.@.473FAQ 5.2.@.491FAQ 5.1.@.494FAQ 5.1.@.527FAQ 4.3.@.537FAQ 4.3.@.546FAQ 4.2.@.594FAQ 4.2.@.602FAQ 4.1.@.626FAQ 4.1.@.633FAQ 3.3.@.645FAQ 3.3.@.653FAQ 3.2.@.674FAQ 3.2.@.675FAQ 3.2.@.682FAQ 3.1.@.687FAQ 3.1.@.695FAQ 2.2.@.719FAQ 2.2.@.728FAQ 2.1.@.738FAQ 2.1.@.747FAQ 1.3.@.779FAQ 1.3.@.787FAQ 1.2.@.795FAQ 1.2.@.805FAQ 1.1.@.859FAQ 1.1.@.868FAQ 12.3.@.871FAQ 12.2.@.872FAQ 12.1.@.873FAQ 11.3.@.874FAQ 11.2.@.875FAQ 11.1.@.876FAQ 10.2.@.877FAQ 10.1.@.878FAQ 9.3.@.879FAQ 9.2.@.880FAQ 9.1.@.881FAQ 8.3.@.882FAQ 8.2.@.883FAQ 8.1.@.884FAQ 7.3.@.885FAQ 7.2.@.886FAQ 7.1.@.887FAQ 6.2.@.888FAQ 6.1.@.889FAQ 5.4.@.890FAQ 5.3.@.891FAQ 5.2.@.892FAQ 5.1.@.893FAQ 4.3.@.894FAQ 4.2.@.895FAQ 4.1.@.896FAQ 3.3.@.897FAQ 3.2.@.898FAQ 3.1.@.899FAQ 2.2.@.900FAQ 2.1.@.901FAQ 1.3.@.902FAQ 1.2.@.903FAQ 1.1.@.904Possible changes

FAQ 12.1.fFAQ 12.1.mFAQ 11.3.pFAQ 11.3.agFAQ 11.2.awFAQ 11.1.blFAQ 11.1.bsFAQ 10.2.cnFAQ 10.2.cwFAQ 10.1.diFAQ 10.1.dpFAQ 9.3.emFAQ 9.3.ewFAQ 9.2.fbFAQ 9.2.fkFAQ 9.1.fsFAQ 9.1.fzFAQ 8.3.geFAQ 8.3.gkFAQ 8.2.hvFAQ 8.2.ieFAQ 8.1.@.257FAQ 8.1.@.268FAQ 7.3.@.272FAQ 7.3.@.281FAQ 7.2.@.295FAQ 7.2.@.303FAQ 7.1.@.320FAQ 7.1.@.329FAQ 6.2.@.353FAQ 6.2.@.362FAQ 6.1.@.383FAQ 6.1.@.392FAQ 5.4.@.395FAQ 5.4.@.416FAQ 5.3.@.419FAQ 5.3.@.471FAQ 5.2.@.474FAQ 5.2.@.492FAQ 5.1.@.495FAQ 5.1.@.528FAQ 4.3.@.538FAQ 4.3.@.547FAQ 4.2.@.595FAQ 4.2.@.603FAQ 4.1.@.627FAQ 4.1.@.634FAQ 3.3.@.646FAQ 3.3.@.654FAQ 3.2.@.675FAQ 3.2.@.676FAQ 3.2.@.683FAQ 3.1.@.688FAQ 3.1.@.696FAQ 2.2.@.720FAQ 2.2.@.729FAQ 2.1.@.739FAQ 2.1.@.748FAQ 1.3.@.780FAQ 1.3.@.788FAQ 1.2.@.796FAQ 1.2.@.806FAQ 1.1.@.860FAQ 1.1.@.869FAQ 12.3.@.872FAQ 12.2.@.873FAQ 12.1.@.874FAQ 11.3.@.875FAQ 11.2.@.876FAQ 11.1.@.877FAQ 10.2.@.878FAQ 10.1.@.879FAQ 9.3.@.880FAQ 9.2.@.881FAQ 9.1.@.882FAQ 8.3.@.883FAQ 8.2.@.884FAQ 8.1.@.885FAQ 7.3.@.886FAQ 7.2.@.887FAQ 7.1.@.888FAQ 6.2.@.889FAQ 6.1.@.890FAQ 5.4.@.891FAQ 5.3.@.892FAQ 5.2.@.893FAQ 5.1.@.894FAQ 4.3.@.895FAQ 4.2.@.896FAQ 4.1.@.897FAQ 3.3.@.898FAQ 3.2.@.899FAQ 3.1.@.900FAQ 2.2.@.901FAQ 2.1.@.902FAQ 1.3.@.903FAQ 1.2.@.904FAQ 1.1.@.905FAQ 12.1: What is a climatic impact-driver (CID)?

FAQ 12.1.gFAQ 12.1.nFAQ 11.3.qFAQ 11.3.ahFAQ 11.2.axFAQ 11.1.bmFAQ 11.1.btFAQ 10.2.coFAQ 10.2.cxFAQ 10.1.djFAQ 10.1.dqFAQ 9.3.enFAQ 9.3.exFAQ 9.2.fcFAQ 9.2.flFAQ 9.1.ftFAQ 9.1.gaFAQ 8.3.gfFAQ 8.3.glFAQ 8.2.hwFAQ 8.2.ifFAQ 8.1.@.258FAQ 8.1.@.269FAQ 7.3.@.273FAQ 7.3.@.282FAQ 7.2.@.296FAQ 7.2.@.304FAQ 7.1.@.321FAQ 7.1.@.330FAQ 6.2.@.354FAQ 6.2.@.363FAQ 6.1.@.384FAQ 6.1.@.393FAQ 5.4.@.396FAQ 5.4.@.417FAQ 5.3.@.420FAQ 5.3.@.472FAQ 5.2.@.475FAQ 5.2.@.493FAQ 5.1.@.496FAQ 5.1.@.529FAQ 4.3.@.539FAQ 4.3.@.548FAQ 4.2.@.596FAQ 4.2.@.604FAQ 4.1.@.628FAQ 4.1.@.635FAQ 3.3.@.647FAQ 3.3.@.655FAQ 3.2.@.676FAQ 3.2.@.677FAQ 3.2.@.684FAQ 3.1.@.689FAQ 3.1.@.697FAQ 2.2.@.721FAQ 2.2.@.730FAQ 2.1.@.740FAQ 2.1.@.749FAQ 1.3.@.781FAQ 1.3.@.789FAQ 1.2.@.797FAQ 1.2.@.807FAQ 1.1.@.861FAQ 1.1.@.870FAQ 12.3.@.873FAQ 12.2.@.874FAQ 12.1.@.875FAQ 11.3.@.876FAQ 11.2.@.877FAQ 11.1.@.878FAQ 10.2.@.879FAQ 10.1.@.880FAQ 9.3.@.881FAQ 9.2.@.882FAQ 9.1.@.883FAQ 8.3.@.884FAQ 8.2.@.885FAQ 8.1.@.886FAQ 7.3.@.887FAQ 7.2.@.888FAQ 7.1.@.889FAQ 6.2.@.890FAQ 6.1.@.891FAQ 5.4.@.892FAQ 5.3.@.893FAQ 5.2.@.894FAQ 5.1.@.895FAQ 4.3.@.896FAQ 4.2.@.897FAQ 4.1.@.898FAQ 3.3.@.899FAQ 3.2.@.900FAQ 3.1.@.901FAQ 2.2.@.902FAQ 2.1.@.903FAQ 1.3.@.904FAQ 1.2.@.905FAQ 1.1.@.906Impacts on societies and ecosystems

FAQ 12.1.hFAQ 12.1.oFAQ 11.3.rFAQ 11.3.aiFAQ 11.2.ayFAQ 11.1.bnFAQ 11.1.buFAQ 10.2.cpFAQ 10.2.cyFAQ 10.1.dkFAQ 10.1.drFAQ 9.3.eoFAQ 9.3.eyFAQ 9.2.fdFAQ 9.2.fmFAQ 9.1.fuFAQ 9.1.gbFAQ 8.3.ggFAQ 8.3.gmFAQ 8.2.hxFAQ 8.2.igFAQ 8.1.@.259FAQ 8.1.@.270FAQ 7.3.@.274FAQ 7.3.@.283FAQ 7.2.@.297FAQ 7.2.@.305FAQ 7.1.@.322FAQ 7.1.@.331FAQ 6.2.@.355FAQ 6.2.@.364FAQ 6.1.@.385FAQ 6.1.@.394FAQ 5.4.@.397FAQ 5.4.@.418FAQ 5.3.@.421FAQ 5.3.@.473FAQ 5.2.@.476FAQ 5.2.@.494FAQ 5.1.@.497FAQ 5.1.@.530FAQ 4.3.@.540FAQ 4.3.@.549FAQ 4.2.@.597FAQ 4.2.@.605FAQ 4.1.@.629FAQ 4.1.@.636FAQ 3.3.@.648FAQ 3.3.@.656FAQ 3.2.@.677FAQ 3.2.@.678FAQ 3.2.@.685FAQ 3.1.@.690FAQ 3.1.@.698FAQ 2.2.@.722FAQ 2.2.@.731FAQ 2.1.@.741FAQ 2.1.@.750FAQ 1.3.@.782FAQ 1.3.@.790FAQ 1.2.@.798FAQ 1.2.@.808FAQ 1.1.@.862FAQ 1.1.@.871FAQ 12.3.@.874FAQ 12.2.@.875FAQ 12.1.@.876FAQ 11.3.@.877FAQ 11.2.@.878FAQ 11.1.@.879FAQ 10.2.@.880FAQ 10.1.@.881FAQ 9.3.@.882FAQ 9.2.@.883FAQ 9.1.@.884FAQ 8.3.@.885FAQ 8.2.@.886FAQ 8.1.@.887FAQ 7.3.@.888FAQ 7.2.@.889FAQ 7.1.@.890FAQ 6.2.@.891FAQ 6.1.@.892FAQ 5.4.@.893FAQ 5.3.@.894FAQ 5.2.@.895FAQ 5.1.@.896FAQ 4.3.@.897FAQ 4.2.@.898FAQ 4.1.@.899FAQ 3.3.@.900FAQ 3.2.@.901FAQ 3.1.@.902FAQ 2.2.@.903FAQ 2.1.@.904FAQ 1.3.@.905FAQ 1.2.@.906FAQ 1.1.@.907Climate sciencesImpacts and risks

FAQ 12.1.iFAQ 12.1.pFAQ 11.3.sFAQ 11.3.ajFAQ 11.2.azFAQ 11.1.boFAQ 11.1.bvFAQ 10.2.cqFAQ 10.2.czFAQ 10.1.dlFAQ 10.1.dsFAQ 9.3.epFAQ 9.3.ezFAQ 9.2.feFAQ 9.2.fnFAQ 9.1.fvFAQ 9.1.gcFAQ 8.3.ghFAQ 8.3.gnFAQ 8.2.hyFAQ 8.2.ihFAQ 8.1.@.260FAQ 8.1.@.271FAQ 7.3.@.275FAQ 7.3.@.284FAQ 7.2.@.298FAQ 7.2.@.306FAQ 7.1.@.323FAQ 7.1.@.332FAQ 6.2.@.356FAQ 6.2.@.365FAQ 6.1.@.386FAQ 6.1.@.395FAQ 5.4.@.398FAQ 5.4.@.419FAQ 5.3.@.422FAQ 5.3.@.474FAQ 5.2.@.477FAQ 5.2.@.495FAQ 5.1.@.498FAQ 5.1.@.531FAQ 4.3.@.541FAQ 4.3.@.550FAQ 4.2.@.598FAQ 4.2.@.606FAQ 4.1.@.630FAQ 4.1.@.637FAQ 3.3.@.649FAQ 3.3.@.657FAQ 3.2.@.678FAQ 3.2.@.679FAQ 3.2.@.686FAQ 3.1.@.691FAQ 3.1.@.699FAQ 2.2.@.723FAQ 2.2.@.732FAQ 2.1.@.742FAQ 2.1.@.751FAQ 1.3.@.783FAQ 1.3.@.791FAQ 1.2.@.799FAQ 1.2.@.809FAQ 1.1.@.863FAQ 1.1.@.872FAQ 12.3.@.875FAQ 12.2.@.876FAQ 12.1.@.877FAQ 11.3.@.878FAQ 11.2.@.879FAQ 11.1.@.880FAQ 10.2.@.881FAQ 10.1.@.882FAQ 9.3.@.883FAQ 9.2.@.884FAQ 9.1.@.885FAQ 8.3.@.886FAQ 8.2.@.887FAQ 8.1.@.888FAQ 7.3.@.889FAQ 7.2.@.890FAQ 7.1.@.891FAQ 6.2.@.892FAQ 6.1.@.893FAQ 5.4.@.894FAQ 5.3.@.895FAQ 5.2.@.896FAQ 5.1.@.897FAQ 4.3.@.898FAQ 4.2.@.899FAQ 4.1.@.900FAQ 3.3.@.901FAQ 3.2.@.902FAQ 3.1.@.903FAQ 2.2.@.904FAQ 2.1.@.905FAQ 1.3.@.906FAQ 1.2.@.907FAQ 1.1.@.908Hazardous for crop planting

FAQ 12.1.jFAQ 12.1.qFAQ 11.3.tFAQ 11.3.akFAQ 11.2.baFAQ 11.1.bpFAQ 11.1.bwFAQ 10.2.crFAQ 10.2.daFAQ 10.1.dmFAQ 10.1.dtFAQ 9.3.eqFAQ 9.3.faFAQ 9.2.ffFAQ 9.2.foFAQ 9.1.fwFAQ 9.1.gdFAQ 8.3.giFAQ 8.3.goFAQ 8.2.hzFAQ 8.2.iiFAQ 8.1.@.261FAQ 8.1.@.272FAQ 7.3.@.276FAQ 7.3.@.285FAQ 7.2.@.299FAQ 7.2.@.307FAQ 7.1.@.324FAQ 7.1.@.333FAQ 6.2.@.357FAQ 6.2.@.366FAQ 6.1.@.387FAQ 6.1.@.396FAQ 5.4.@.399FAQ 5.4.@.420FAQ 5.3.@.423FAQ 5.3.@.475FAQ 5.2.@.478FAQ 5.2.@.496FAQ 5.1.@.499FAQ 5.1.@.532FAQ 4.3.@.542FAQ 4.3.@.551FAQ 4.2.@.599FAQ 4.2.@.607FAQ 4.1.@.631FAQ 4.1.@.638FAQ 3.3.@.650FAQ 3.3.@.658FAQ 3.2.@.679FAQ 3.2.@.680FAQ 3.2.@.687FAQ 3.1.@.692FAQ 3.1.@.700FAQ 2.2.@.724FAQ 2.2.@.733FAQ 2.1.@.743FAQ 2.1.@.752FAQ 1.3.@.784FAQ 1.3.@.792FAQ 1.2.@.800FAQ 1.2.@.810FAQ 1.1.@.864FAQ 1.1.@.873FAQ 12.3.@.876FAQ 12.2.@.877FAQ 12.1.@.878FAQ 11.3.@.879FAQ 11.2.@.880FAQ 11.1.@.881FAQ 10.2.@.882FAQ 10.1.@.883FAQ 9.3.@.884FAQ 9.2.@.885FAQ 9.1.@.886FAQ 8.3.@.887FAQ 8.2.@.888FAQ 8.1.@.889FAQ 7.3.@.890FAQ 7.2.@.891FAQ 7.1.@.892FAQ 6.2.@.893FAQ 6.1.@.894FAQ 5.4.@.895FAQ 5.3.@.896FAQ 5.2.@.897FAQ 5.1.@.898FAQ 4.3.@.899FAQ 4.2.@.900FAQ 4.1.@.901FAQ 3.3.@.902FAQ 3.2.@.903FAQ 3.1.@.904FAQ 2.2.@.905FAQ 2.1.@.906FAQ 1.3.@.907FAQ 1.2.@.908FAQ 1.1.@.909Beneficial for skiing resorts

FAQ 12.1.kFAQ 12.1.rFAQ 11.3.uFAQ 11.3.alFAQ 11.2.bbFAQ 11.1.bqFAQ 11.1.bxFAQ 10.2.csFAQ 10.2.dbFAQ 10.1.dnFAQ 10.1.duFAQ 9.3.erFAQ 9.3.fbFAQ 9.2.fgFAQ 9.2.fpFAQ 9.1.fxFAQ 9.1.geFAQ 8.3.gjFAQ 8.3.gpFAQ 8.2.iaFAQ 8.2.ijFAQ 8.1.@.262FAQ 8.1.@.273FAQ 7.3.@.277FAQ 7.3.@.286FAQ 7.2.@.300FAQ 7.2.@.308FAQ 7.1.@.325FAQ 7.1.@.334FAQ 6.2.@.358FAQ 6.2.@.367FAQ 6.1.@.388FAQ 6.1.@.397FAQ 5.4.@.400FAQ 5.4.@.421FAQ 5.3.@.424FAQ 5.3.@.476FAQ 5.2.@.479FAQ 5.2.@.497FAQ 5.1.@.500FAQ 5.1.@.533FAQ 4.3.@.543FAQ 4.3.@.552FAQ 4.2.@.600FAQ 4.2.@.608FAQ 4.1.@.632FAQ 4.1.@.639FAQ 3.3.@.651FAQ 3.3.@.659FAQ 3.2.@.680FAQ 3.2.@.681FAQ 3.2.@.688FAQ 3.1.@.693FAQ 3.1.@.701FAQ 2.2.@.725FAQ 2.2.@.734FAQ 2.1.@.744FAQ 2.1.@.753FAQ 1.3.@.785FAQ 1.3.@.793FAQ 1.2.@.801FAQ 1.2.@.811FAQ 1.1.@.865FAQ 1.1.@.874FAQ 12.3.@.877FAQ 12.2.@.878FAQ 12.1.@.879FAQ 11.3.@.880FAQ 11.2.@.881FAQ 11.1.@.882FAQ 10.2.@.883FAQ 10.1.@.884FAQ 9.3.@.885FAQ 9.2.@.886FAQ 9.1.@.887FAQ 8.3.@.888FAQ 8.2.@.889FAQ 8.1.@.890FAQ 7.3.@.891FAQ 7.2.@.892FAQ 7.1.@.893FAQ 6.2.@.894FAQ 6.1.@.895FAQ 5.4.@.896FAQ 5.3.@.897FAQ 5.2.@.898FAQ 5.1.@.899FAQ 4.3.@.900FAQ 4.2.@.901FAQ 4.1.@.902FAQ 3.3.@.903FAQ 3.2.@.904FAQ 3.1.@.905FAQ 2.2.@.906FAQ 2.1.@.907FAQ 1.3.@.908FAQ 1.2.@.909FAQ 1.1.@.910Impacts on snow-camouflaged species

FAQ 12.1.lFAQ 12.1.sFAQ 11.3.vFAQ 11.3.amFAQ 11.2.bcFAQ 11.1.brFAQ 11.1.byFAQ 10.2.ctFAQ 10.2.dcFAQ 10.1.doFAQ 10.1.dvFAQ 9.3.esFAQ 9.3.fcFAQ 9.2.fhFAQ 9.2.fqFAQ 9.1.fyFAQ 9.1.gfFAQ 8.3.gkFAQ 8.3.gqFAQ 8.2.ibFAQ 8.2.ikFAQ 8.1.@.263FAQ 8.1.@.274FAQ 7.3.@.278FAQ 7.3.@.287FAQ 7.2.@.301FAQ 7.2.@.309FAQ 7.1.@.326FAQ 7.1.@.335FAQ 6.2.@.359FAQ 6.2.@.368FAQ 6.1.@.389FAQ 6.1.@.398FAQ 5.4.@.401FAQ 5.4.@.422FAQ 5.3.@.425FAQ 5.3.@.477FAQ 5.2.@.480FAQ 5.2.@.498FAQ 5.1.@.501FAQ 5.1.@.534FAQ 4.3.@.544FAQ 4.3.@.553FAQ 4.2.@.601FAQ 4.2.@.609FAQ 4.1.@.633FAQ 4.1.@.640FAQ 3.3.@.652FAQ 3.3.@.660FAQ 3.2.@.681FAQ 3.2.@.682FAQ 3.2.@.689FAQ 3.1.@.694FAQ 3.1.@.702FAQ 2.2.@.726FAQ 2.2.@.735FAQ 2.1.@.745FAQ 2.1.@.754FAQ 1.3.@.786FAQ 1.3.@.794FAQ 1.2.@.802FAQ 1.2.@.812FAQ 1.1.@.866FAQ 1.1.@.875FAQ 12.3.@.878FAQ 12.2.@.879FAQ 12.1.@.880FAQ 11.3.@.881FAQ 11.2.@.882FAQ 11.1.@.883FAQ 10.2.@.884FAQ 10.1.@.885FAQ 9.3.@.886FAQ 9.2.@.887FAQ 9.1.@.888FAQ 8.3.@.889FAQ 8.2.@.890FAQ 8.1.@.891FAQ 7.3.@.892FAQ 7.2.@.893FAQ 7.1.@.894FAQ 6.2.@.895FAQ 6.1.@.896FAQ 5.4.@.897FAQ 5.3.@.898FAQ 5.2.@.899FAQ 5.1.@.900FAQ 4.3.@.901FAQ 4.2.@.902FAQ 4.1.@.903FAQ 3.3.@.904FAQ 3.2.@.905FAQ 3.1.@.906FAQ 2.2.@.907FAQ 2.1.@.908FAQ 1.3.@.909FAQ 1.2.@.910FAQ 1.1.@.911Beneficial for some predators

FAQ 12.1.mFAQ 12.1.tFAQ 11.3.wFAQ 11.3.anFAQ 11.2.bdFAQ 11.1.bsFAQ 11.1.bzFAQ 10.2.cuFAQ 10.2.ddFAQ 10.1.dpFAQ 10.1.dwFAQ 9.3.etFAQ 9.3.fdFAQ 9.2.fiFAQ 9.2.frFAQ 9.1.fzFAQ 9.1.ggFAQ 8.3.glFAQ 8.3.grFAQ 8.2.icFAQ 8.2.ilFAQ 8.1.@.264FAQ 8.1.@.275FAQ 7.3.@.279FAQ 7.3.@.288FAQ 7.2.@.302FAQ 7.2.@.310FAQ 7.1.@.327FAQ 7.1.@.336FAQ 6.2.@.360FAQ 6.2.@.369FAQ 6.1.@.390FAQ 6.1.@.399FAQ 5.4.@.402FAQ 5.4.@.423FAQ 5.3.@.426FAQ 5.3.@.478FAQ 5.2.@.481FAQ 5.2.@.499FAQ 5.1.@.502FAQ 5.1.@.535FAQ 4.3.@.545FAQ 4.3.@.554FAQ 4.2.@.602FAQ 4.2.@.610FAQ 4.1.@.634FAQ 4.1.@.641FAQ 3.3.@.653FAQ 3.3.@.661FAQ 3.2.@.682FAQ 3.2.@.683FAQ 3.2.@.690FAQ 3.1.@.695FAQ 3.1.@.703FAQ 2.2.@.727FAQ 2.2.@.736FAQ 2.1.@.746FAQ 2.1.@.755FAQ 1.3.@.787FAQ 1.3.@.795FAQ 1.2.@.803FAQ 1.2.@.813FAQ 1.1.@.867FAQ 1.1.@.876FAQ 12.3.@.879FAQ 12.2.@.880FAQ 12.1.@.881FAQ 11.3.@.882FAQ 11.2.@.883FAQ 11.1.@.884FAQ 10.2.@.885FAQ 10.1.@.886FAQ 9.3.@.887FAQ 9.2.@.888FAQ 9.1.@.889FAQ 8.3.@.890FAQ 8.2.@.891FAQ 8.1.@.892FAQ 7.3.@.893FAQ 7.2.@.894FAQ 7.1.@.895FAQ 6.2.@.896FAQ 6.1.@.897FAQ 5.4.@.898FAQ 5.3.@.899FAQ 5.2.@.900FAQ 5.1.@.901FAQ 4.3.@.902FAQ 4.2.@.903FAQ 4.1.@.904FAQ 3.3.@.905FAQ 3.2.@.906FAQ 3.1.@.907FAQ 2.2.@.908FAQ 2.1.@.909FAQ 1.3.@.910FAQ 1.2.@.911FAQ 1.1.@.912Examples for seasonal snow cover Regional climate change

FAQ 12.1.nFAQ 12.1.uFAQ 11.3.xFAQ 11.3.aoFAQ 11.2.beFAQ 11.1.btFAQ 11.1.caFAQ 10.2.cvFAQ 10.2.deFAQ 10.1.dqFAQ 10.1.dxFAQ 9.3.euFAQ 9.3.feFAQ 9.2.fjFAQ 9.2.fsFAQ 9.1.gaFAQ 9.1.ghFAQ 8.3.gmFAQ 8.3.gsFAQ 8.2.idFAQ 8.2.imFAQ 8.1.@.265FAQ 8.1.@.276FAQ 7.3.@.280FAQ 7.3.@.289FAQ 7.2.@.303FAQ 7.2.@.311FAQ 7.1.@.328FAQ 7.1.@.337FAQ 6.2.@.361FAQ 6.2.@.370FAQ 6.1.@.391FAQ 6.1.@.400FAQ 5.4.@.403FAQ 5.4.@.424FAQ 5.3.@.427FAQ 5.3.@.479FAQ 5.2.@.482FAQ 5.2.@.500FAQ 5.1.@.503FAQ 5.1.@.536FAQ 4.3.@.546FAQ 4.3.@.555FAQ 4.2.@.603FAQ 4.2.@.611FAQ 4.1.@.635FAQ 4.1.@.642FAQ 3.3.@.654FAQ 3.3.@.662FAQ 3.2.@.683FAQ 3.2.@.684FAQ 3.2.@.691FAQ 3.1.@.696FAQ 3.1.@.704FAQ 2.2.@.728FAQ 2.2.@.737FAQ 2.1.@.747FAQ 2.1.@.756FAQ 1.3.@.788FAQ 1.3.@.796FAQ 1.2.@.804FAQ 1.2.@.814FAQ 1.1.@.868FAQ 1.1.@.877FAQ 12.3.@.880FAQ 12.2.@.881FAQ 12.1.@.882FAQ 11.3.@.883FAQ 11.2.@.884FAQ 11.1.@.885FAQ 10.2.@.886FAQ 10.1.@.887FAQ 9.3.@.888FAQ 9.2.@.889FAQ 9.1.@.890FAQ 8.3.@.891FAQ 8.2.@.892FAQ 8.1.@.893FAQ 7.3.@.894FAQ 7.2.@.895FAQ 7.1.@.896FAQ 6.2.@.897FAQ 6.1.@.898FAQ 5.4.@.899FAQ 5.3.@.900FAQ 5.2.@.901FAQ 5.1.@.902FAQ 4.3.@.903FAQ 4.2.@.904FAQ 4.1.@.905FAQ 3.3.@.906FAQ 3.2.@.907FAQ 3.1.@.908FAQ 2.2.@.909FAQ 2.1.@.910FAQ 1.3.@.911FAQ 1.2.@.912FAQ 1.1.@.913A climatic impact-driver (CID)is a climate condition that directly affects elements of society or ecosystems.Climatic impact-drivers and their changes can lead to positive, negative, or inconsequential outcomes (or a mixture).

FAQ 12.1.oFAQ 12.1.vFAQ 11.3.yFAQ 11.3.apFAQ 11.2.bfFAQ 11.1.buFAQ 11.1.cbFAQ 10.2.cwFAQ 10.2.dfFAQ 10.1.drFAQ 10.1.dyFAQ 9.3.evFAQ 9.3.ffFAQ 9.2.fkFAQ 9.2.ftFAQ 9.1.gbFAQ 9.1.giFAQ 8.3.gnFAQ 8.3.gtFAQ 8.2.ieFAQ 8.2.inFAQ 8.1.@.266FAQ 8.1.@.277FAQ 7.3.@.281FAQ 7.3.@.290FAQ 7.2.@.304FAQ 7.2.@.312FAQ 7.1.@.329FAQ 7.1.@.338FAQ 6.2.@.362FAQ 6.2.@.371FAQ 6.1.@.392FAQ 6.1.@.401FAQ 5.4.@.404FAQ 5.4.@.425FAQ 5.3.@.428FAQ 5.3.@.480FAQ 5.2.@.483FAQ 5.2.@.501FAQ 5.1.@.504FAQ 5.1.@.537FAQ 4.3.@.547FAQ 4.3.@.556FAQ 4.2.@.604FAQ 4.2.@.612FAQ 4.1.@.636FAQ 4.1.@.643FAQ 3.3.@.655FAQ 3.3.@.663FAQ 3.2.@.684FAQ 3.2.@.685FAQ 3.2.@.692FAQ 3.1.@.697FAQ 3.1.@.705FAQ 2.2.@.729FAQ 2.2.@.738FAQ 2.1.@.748FAQ 2.1.@.757FAQ 1.3.@.789FAQ 1.3.@.797FAQ 1.2.@.805FAQ 1.2.@.815FAQ 1.1.@.869FAQ 1.1.@.878FAQ 12.3.@.881FAQ 12.2.@.882FAQ 12.1.@.883FAQ 11.3.@.884FAQ 11.2.@.885FAQ 11.1.@.886FAQ 10.2.@.887FAQ 10.1.@.888FAQ 9.3.@.889FAQ 9.2.@.890FAQ 9.1.@.891FAQ 8.3.@.892FAQ 8.2.@.893FAQ 8.1.@.894FAQ 7.3.@.895FAQ 7.2.@.896FAQ 7.1.@.897FAQ 6.2.@.898FAQ 6.1.@.899FAQ 5.4.@.900FAQ 5.3.@.901FAQ 5.2.@.902FAQ 5.1.@.903FAQ 4.3.@.904FAQ 4.2.@.905FAQ 4.1.@.906FAQ 3.3.@.907FAQ 3.2.@.908FAQ 3.1.@.909FAQ 2.2.@.910FAQ 2.1.@.911FAQ 1.3.@.912FAQ 1.2.@.913FAQ 1.1.@.914No change

FAQ 12.1.pFAQ 12.1.wFAQ 11.3.zFAQ 11.3.aqFAQ 11.2.bgFAQ 11.1.bvFAQ 11.1.ccFAQ 10.2.cxFAQ 10.2.dgFAQ 10.1.dsFAQ 10.1.dzFAQ 9.3.ewFAQ 9.3.fgFAQ 9.2.flFAQ 9.2.fuFAQ 9.1.gcFAQ 9.1.gjFAQ 8.3.goFAQ 8.3.guFAQ 8.2.ifFAQ 8.2.ioFAQ 8.1.@.267FAQ 8.1.@.278FAQ 7.3.@.282FAQ 7.3.@.291FAQ 7.2.@.305FAQ 7.2.@.313FAQ 7.1.@.330FAQ 7.1.@.339FAQ 6.2.@.363FAQ 6.2.@.372FAQ 6.1.@.393FAQ 6.1.@.402FAQ 5.4.@.405FAQ 5.4.@.426FAQ 5.3.@.429FAQ 5.3.@.481FAQ 5.2.@.484FAQ 5.2.@.502FAQ 5.1.@.505FAQ 5.1.@.538FAQ 4.3.@.548FAQ 4.3.@.557FAQ 4.2.@.605FAQ 4.2.@.613FAQ 4.1.@.637FAQ 4.1.@.644FAQ 3.3.@.656FAQ 3.3.@.664FAQ 3.2.@.685FAQ 3.2.@.686FAQ 3.2.@.693FAQ 3.1.@.698FAQ 3.1.@.706FAQ 2.2.@.730FAQ 2.2.@.739FAQ 2.1.@.749FAQ 2.1.@.758FAQ 1.3.@.790FAQ 1.3.@.798FAQ 1.2.@.806FAQ 1.2.@.816FAQ 1.1.@.870FAQ 1.1.@.879FAQ 12.3.@.882FAQ 12.2.@.883FAQ 12.1.@.884FAQ 11.3.@.885FAQ 11.2.@.886FAQ 11.1.@.887FAQ 10.2.@.888FAQ 10.1.@.889FAQ 9.3.@.890FAQ 9.2.@.891FAQ 9.1.@.892FAQ 8.3.@.893FAQ 8.2.@.894FAQ 8.1.@.895FAQ 7.3.@.896FAQ 7.2.@.897FAQ 7.1.@.898FAQ 6.2.@.899FAQ 6.1.@.900FAQ 5.4.@.901FAQ 5.3.@.902FAQ 5.2.@.903FAQ 5.1.@.904FAQ 4.3.@.905FAQ 4.2.@.906FAQ 4.1.@.907FAQ 3.3.@.908FAQ 3.2.@.909FAQ 3.1.@.910FAQ 2.2.@.911FAQ 2.1.@.912FAQ 1.3.@.913FAQ 1.2.@.914FAQ 1.1.@.915Decrease

FAQ 12.1.qFAQ 12.1.xFAQ 11.3.aaFAQ 11.3.arFAQ 11.2.bhFAQ 11.1.bwFAQ 11.1.cdFAQ 10.2.cyFAQ 10.2.dhFAQ 10.1.dtFAQ 10.1.eaFAQ 9.3.exFAQ 9.3.fhFAQ 9.2.fmFAQ 9.2.fvFAQ 9.1.gdFAQ 9.1.gkFAQ 8.3.gpFAQ 8.3.gvFAQ 8.2.igFAQ 8.2.ipFAQ 8.1.@.268FAQ 8.1.@.279FAQ 7.3.@.283FAQ 7.3.@.292FAQ 7.2.@.306FAQ 7.2.@.314FAQ 7.1.@.331FAQ 7.1.@.340FAQ 6.2.@.364FAQ 6.2.@.373FAQ 6.1.@.394FAQ 6.1.@.403FAQ 5.4.@.406FAQ 5.4.@.427FAQ 5.3.@.430FAQ 5.3.@.482FAQ 5.2.@.485FAQ 5.2.@.503FAQ 5.1.@.506FAQ 5.1.@.539FAQ 4.3.@.549FAQ 4.3.@.558FAQ 4.2.@.606FAQ 4.2.@.614FAQ 4.1.@.638FAQ 4.1.@.645FAQ 3.3.@.657FAQ 3.3.@.665FAQ 3.2.@.686FAQ 3.2.@.687FAQ 3.2.@.694FAQ 3.1.@.699FAQ 3.1.@.707FAQ 2.2.@.731FAQ 2.2.@.740FAQ 2.1.@.750FAQ 2.1.@.759FAQ 1.3.@.791FAQ 1.3.@.799FAQ 1.2.@.807FAQ 1.2.@.817FAQ 1.1.@.871FAQ 1.1.@.880FAQ 12.3.@.883FAQ 12.2.@.884FAQ 12.1.@.885FAQ 11.3.@.886FAQ 11.2.@.887FAQ 11.1.@.888FAQ 10.2.@.889FAQ 10.1.@.890FAQ 9.3.@.891FAQ 9.2.@.892FAQ 9.1.@.893FAQ 8.3.@.894FAQ 8.2.@.895FAQ 8.1.@.896FAQ 7.3.@.897FAQ 7.2.@.898FAQ 7.1.@.899FAQ 6.2.@.900FAQ 6.1.@.901FAQ 5.4.@.902FAQ 5.3.@.903FAQ 5.2.@.904FAQ 5.1.@.905FAQ 4.3.@.906FAQ 4.2.@.907FAQ 4.1.@.908FAQ 3.3.@.909FAQ 3.2.@.910FAQ 3.1.@.911FAQ 2.2.@.912FAQ 2.1.@.913FAQ 1.3.@.914FAQ 1.2.@.915FAQ 1.1.@.916Inconsequential for coastal aquaculture

FAQ 12.1.rFAQ 12.1.yFAQ 11.3.abFAQ 11.3.asFAQ 11.2.biFAQ 11.1.bxFAQ 11.1.ceFAQ 10.2.czFAQ 10.2.diFAQ 10.1.duFAQ 10.1.ebFAQ 9.3.eyFAQ 9.3.fiFAQ 9.2.fnFAQ 9.2.fwFAQ 9.1.geFAQ 9.1.glFAQ 8.3.gqFAQ 8.3.gwFAQ 8.2.ihFAQ 8.2.iqFAQ 8.1.@.269FAQ 8.1.@.280FAQ 7.3.@.284FAQ 7.3.@.293FAQ 7.2.@.307FAQ 7.2.@.315FAQ 7.1.@.332FAQ 7.1.@.341FAQ 6.2.@.365FAQ 6.2.@.374FAQ 6.1.@.395FAQ 6.1.@.404FAQ 5.4.@.407FAQ 5.4.@.428FAQ 5.3.@.431FAQ 5.3.@.483FAQ 5.2.@.486FAQ 5.2.@.504FAQ 5.1.@.507FAQ 5.1.@.540FAQ 4.3.@.550FAQ 4.3.@.559FAQ 4.2.@.607FAQ 4.2.@.615FAQ 4.1.@.639FAQ 4.1.@.646FAQ 3.3.@.658FAQ 3.3.@.666FAQ 3.2.@.687FAQ 3.2.@.688FAQ 3.2.@.695FAQ 3.1.@.700FAQ 3.1.@.708FAQ 2.2.@.732FAQ 2.2.@.741FAQ 2.1.@.751FAQ 2.1.@.760FAQ 1.3.@.792FAQ 1.3.@.800FAQ 1.2.@.808FAQ 1.2.@.818FAQ 1.1.@.872FAQ 1.1.@.881FAQ 12.3.@.884FAQ 12.2.@.885FAQ 12.1.@.886FAQ 11.3.@.887FAQ 11.2.@.888FAQ 11.1.@.889FAQ 10.2.@.890FAQ 10.1.@.891FAQ 9.3.@.892FAQ 9.2.@.893FAQ 9.1.@.894FAQ 8.3.@.895FAQ 8.2.@.896FAQ 8.1.@.897FAQ 7.3.@.898FAQ 7.2.@.899FAQ 7.1.@.900FAQ 6.2.@.901FAQ 6.1.@.902FAQ 5.4.@.903FAQ 5.3.@.904FAQ 5.2.@.905FAQ 5.1.@.906FAQ 4.3.@.907FAQ 4.2.@.908FAQ 4.1.@.909FAQ 3.3.@.910FAQ 3.2.@.911FAQ 3.1.@.912FAQ 2.2.@.913FAQ 2.1.@.914FAQ 1.3.@.915FAQ 1.2.@.916FAQ 1.1.@.917Increase

FAQ 12.1.sFAQ 12.1.zFAQ 11.3.acFAQ 11.3.atFAQ 11.2.bjFAQ 11.1.byFAQ 11.1.cfFAQ 10.2.daFAQ 10.2.djFAQ 10.1.dvFAQ 10.1.ecFAQ 9.3.ezFAQ 9.3.fjFAQ 9.2.foFAQ 9.2.fxFAQ 9.1.gfFAQ 9.1.gmFAQ 8.3.grFAQ 8.3.gxFAQ 8.2.iiFAQ 8.2.irFAQ 8.1.@.270FAQ 8.1.@.281FAQ 7.3.@.285FAQ 7.3.@.294FAQ 7.2.@.308FAQ 7.2.@.316FAQ 7.1.@.333FAQ 7.1.@.342FAQ 6.2.@.366FAQ 6.2.@.375FAQ 6.1.@.396FAQ 6.1.@.405FAQ 5.4.@.408FAQ 5.4.@.429FAQ 5.3.@.432FAQ 5.3.@.484FAQ 5.2.@.487FAQ 5.2.@.505FAQ 5.1.@.508FAQ 5.1.@.541FAQ 4.3.@.551FAQ 4.3.@.560FAQ 4.2.@.608FAQ 4.2.@.616FAQ 4.1.@.640FAQ 4.1.@.647FAQ 3.3.@.659FAQ 3.3.@.667FAQ 3.2.@.688FAQ 3.2.@.689FAQ 3.2.@.696FAQ 3.1.@.701FAQ 3.1.@.709FAQ 2.2.@.733FAQ 2.2.@.742FAQ 2.1.@.752FAQ 2.1.@.761FAQ 1.3.@.793FAQ 1.3.@.801FAQ 1.2.@.809FAQ 1.2.@.819FAQ 1.1.@.873FAQ 1.1.@.882FAQ 12.3.@.885FAQ 12.2.@.886FAQ 12.1.@.887FAQ 11.3.@.888FAQ 11.2.@.889FAQ 11.1.@.890FAQ 10.2.@.891FAQ 10.1.@.892FAQ 9.3.@.893FAQ 9.2.@.894FAQ 9.1.@.895FAQ 8.3.@.896FAQ 8.2.@.897FAQ 8.1.@.898FAQ 7.3.@.899FAQ 7.2.@.900FAQ 7.1.@.901FAQ 6.2.@.902FAQ 6.1.@.903FAQ 5.4.@.904FAQ 5.3.@.905FAQ 5.2.@.906FAQ 5.1.@.907FAQ 4.3.@.908FAQ 4.2.@.909FAQ 4.1.@.910FAQ 3.3.@.911FAQ 3.2.@.912FAQ 3.1.@.913FAQ 2.2.@.914FAQ 2.1.@.915FAQ 1.3.@.916FAQ 1.2.@.917FAQ 1.1.@.918Seasonal snow cover

FAQ 12.1.tFAQ 12.1.aaFAQ 11.3.adFAQ 11.3.auFAQ 11.2.bkFAQ 11.1.bzFAQ 11.1.cgFAQ 10.2.dbFAQ 10.2.dkFAQ 10.1.dwFAQ 10.1.edFAQ 9.3.faFAQ 9.3.fkFAQ 9.2.fpFAQ 9.2.fyFAQ 9.1.ggFAQ 9.1.gnFAQ 8.3.gsFAQ 8.3.gyFAQ 8.2.ijFAQ 8.2.isFAQ 8.1.@.271FAQ 8.1.@.282FAQ 7.3.@.286FAQ 7.3.@.295FAQ 7.2.@.309FAQ 7.2.@.317FAQ 7.1.@.334FAQ 7.1.@.343FAQ 6.2.@.367FAQ 6.2.@.376FAQ 6.1.@.397FAQ 6.1.@.406FAQ 5.4.@.409FAQ 5.4.@.430FAQ 5.3.@.433FAQ 5.3.@.485FAQ 5.2.@.488FAQ 5.2.@.506FAQ 5.1.@.509FAQ 5.1.@.542FAQ 4.3.@.552FAQ 4.3.@.561FAQ 4.2.@.609FAQ 4.2.@.617FAQ 4.1.@.641FAQ 4.1.@.648FAQ 3.3.@.660FAQ 3.3.@.668FAQ 3.2.@.689FAQ 3.2.@.690FAQ 3.2.@.697FAQ 3.1.@.702FAQ 3.1.@.710FAQ 2.2.@.734FAQ 2.2.@.743FAQ 2.1.@.753FAQ 2.1.@.762FAQ 1.3.@.794FAQ 1.3.@.802FAQ 1.2.@.810FAQ 1.2.@.820FAQ 1.1.@.874FAQ 1.1.@.883FAQ 12.3.@.886FAQ 12.2.@.887FAQ 12.1.@.888FAQ 11.3.@.889FAQ 11.2.@.890FAQ 11.1.@.891FAQ 10.2.@.892FAQ 10.1.@.893FAQ 9.3.@.894FAQ 9.2.@.895FAQ 9.1.@.896FAQ 8.3.@.897FAQ 8.2.@.898FAQ 8.1.@.899FAQ 7.3.@.900FAQ 7.2.@.901FAQ 7.1.@.902FAQ 6.2.@.903FAQ 6.1.@.904FAQ 5.4.@.905FAQ 5.3.@.906FAQ 5.2.@.907FAQ 5.1.@.908FAQ 4.3.@.909FAQ 4.2.@.910FAQ 4.1.@.911FAQ 3.3.@.912FAQ 3.2.@.913FAQ 3.1.@.914FAQ 2.2.@.915FAQ 2.1.@.916FAQ 1.3.@.917FAQ 1.2.@.918FAQ 1.1.@.919FAQ

FAQ 12.1.uFAQ 12.1.abFAQ 11.3.aeFAQ 11.3.avFAQ 11.2.blFAQ 11.1.caFAQ 11.1.chFAQ 10.2.dcFAQ 10.2.dlFAQ 10.1.dxFAQ 10.1.eeFAQ 9.3.fbFAQ 9.3.flFAQ 9.2.fqFAQ 9.2.fzFAQ 9.1.ghFAQ 9.1.goFAQ 8.3.gtFAQ 8.3.gzFAQ 8.2.ikFAQ 8.2.itFAQ 8.1.@.272FAQ 8.1.@.283FAQ 7.3.@.287FAQ 7.3.@.296FAQ 7.2.@.310FAQ 7.2.@.318FAQ 7.1.@.335FAQ 7.1.@.344FAQ 6.2.@.368FAQ 6.2.@.377FAQ 6.1.@.398FAQ 6.1.@.407FAQ 5.4.@.410FAQ 5.4.@.431FAQ 5.3.@.434FAQ 5.3.@.486FAQ 5.2.@.489FAQ 5.2.@.507FAQ 5.1.@.510FAQ 5.1.@.543FAQ 4.3.@.553FAQ 4.3.@.562FAQ 4.2.@.610FAQ 4.2.@.618FAQ 4.1.@.642FAQ 4.1.@.649FAQ 3.3.@.661FAQ 3.3.@.669FAQ 3.2.@.690FAQ 3.2.@.691FAQ 3.2.@.698FAQ 3.1.@.703FAQ 3.1.@.711FAQ 2.2.@.735FAQ 2.2.@.744FAQ 2.1.@.754FAQ 2.1.@.763FAQ 1.3.@.795FAQ 1.3.@.803FAQ 1.2.@.811FAQ 1.2.@.821FAQ 1.1.@.875FAQ 1.1.@.884FAQ 12.3.@.887FAQ 12.2.@.888FAQ 12.1.@.889FAQ 11.3.@.890FAQ 11.2.@.891FAQ 11.1.@.892FAQ 10.2.@.893FAQ 10.1.@.894FAQ 9.3.@.895FAQ 9.2.@.896FAQ 9.1.@.897FAQ 8.3.@.898FAQ 8.2.@.899FAQ 8.1.@.900FAQ 7.3.@.901FAQ 7.2.@.902FAQ 7.1.@.903FAQ 6.2.@.904FAQ 6.1.@.905FAQ 5.4.@.906FAQ 5.3.@.907FAQ 5.2.@.908FAQ 5.1.@.909FAQ 4.3.@.910FAQ 4.2.@.911FAQ 4.1.@.912FAQ 3.3.@.913FAQ 3.2.@.914FAQ 3.1.@.915FAQ 2.2.@.916FAQ 2.1.@.917FAQ 1.3.@.918FAQ 1.2.@.919FAQ 1.1.@.920Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 12.1.vFAQ 12.1.acFAQ 11.3.afFAQ 11.3.awFAQ 11.2.bmFAQ 11.1.cbFAQ 11.1.ciFAQ 10.2.ddFAQ 10.2.dmFAQ 10.1.dyFAQ 10.1.efFAQ 9.3.fcFAQ 9.3.fmFAQ 9.2.frFAQ 9.2.gaFAQ 9.1.giFAQ 9.1.gpFAQ 8.3.guFAQ 8.3.haFAQ 8.2.ilFAQ 8.2.iuFAQ 8.1.@.273FAQ 8.1.@.284FAQ 7.3.@.288FAQ 7.3.@.297FAQ 7.2.@.311FAQ 7.2.@.319FAQ 7.1.@.336FAQ 7.1.@.345FAQ 6.2.@.369FAQ 6.2.@.378FAQ 6.1.@.399FAQ 6.1.@.408FAQ 5.4.@.411FAQ 5.4.@.432FAQ 5.3.@.435FAQ 5.3.@.487FAQ 5.2.@.490FAQ 5.2.@.508FAQ 5.1.@.511FAQ 5.1.@.544FAQ 4.3.@.554FAQ 4.3.@.563FAQ 4.2.@.611FAQ 4.2.@.619FAQ 4.1.@.643FAQ 4.1.@.650FAQ 3.3.@.662FAQ 3.3.@.670FAQ 3.2.@.691FAQ 3.2.@.692FAQ 3.2.@.699FAQ 3.1.@.704FAQ 3.1.@.712FAQ 2.2.@.736FAQ 2.2.@.745FAQ 2.1.@.755FAQ 2.1.@.764FAQ 1.3.@.796FAQ 1.3.@.804FAQ 1.2.@.812FAQ 1.2.@.822FAQ 1.1.@.876FAQ 1.1.@.885FAQ 12.3.@.888FAQ 12.2.@.889FAQ 12.1.@.890FAQ 11.3.@.891FAQ 11.2.@.892FAQ 11.1.@.893FAQ 10.2.@.894FAQ 10.1.@.895FAQ 9.3.@.896FAQ 9.2.@.897FAQ 9.1.@.898FAQ 8.3.@.899FAQ 8.2.@.900FAQ 8.1.@.901FAQ 7.3.@.902FAQ 7.2.@.903FAQ 7.1.@.904FAQ 6.2.@.905FAQ 6.1.@.906FAQ 5.4.@.907FAQ 5.3.@.908FAQ 5.2.@.909FAQ 5.1.@.910FAQ 4.3.@.911FAQ 4.2.@.912FAQ 4.1.@.913FAQ 3.3.@.914FAQ 3.2.@.915FAQ 3.1.@.916FAQ 2.2.@.917FAQ 2.1.@.918FAQ 1.3.@.919FAQ 1.2.@.920FAQ 1.1.@.921FAQ 12.2 | What Are Climatic Thresholds and Why Are They Important?

FAQ 12.2.aFAQ 12.1.wFAQ 12.1.adFAQ 11.3.agFAQ 11.3.axFAQ 11.2.bnFAQ 11.1.ccFAQ 11.1.cjFAQ 10.2.deFAQ 10.2.dnFAQ 10.1.dzFAQ 10.1.egFAQ 9.3.fdFAQ 9.3.fnFAQ 9.2.fsFAQ 9.2.gbFAQ 9.1.gjFAQ 9.1.gqFAQ 8.3.gvFAQ 8.3.hbFAQ 8.2.imFAQ 8.2.ivFAQ 8.1.@.274FAQ 8.1.@.285FAQ 7.3.@.289FAQ 7.3.@.298FAQ 7.2.@.312FAQ 7.2.@.320FAQ 7.1.@.337FAQ 7.1.@.346FAQ 6.2.@.370FAQ 6.2.@.379FAQ 6.1.@.400FAQ 6.1.@.409FAQ 5.4.@.412FAQ 5.4.@.433FAQ 5.3.@.436FAQ 5.3.@.488FAQ 5.2.@.491FAQ 5.2.@.509FAQ 5.1.@.512FAQ 5.1.@.545FAQ 4.3.@.555FAQ 4.3.@.564FAQ 4.2.@.612FAQ 4.2.@.620FAQ 4.1.@.644FAQ 4.1.@.651FAQ 3.3.@.663FAQ 3.3.@.671FAQ 3.2.@.692FAQ 3.2.@.693FAQ 3.2.@.700FAQ 3.1.@.705FAQ 3.1.@.713FAQ 2.2.@.737FAQ 2.2.@.746FAQ 2.1.@.756FAQ 2.1.@.765FAQ 1.3.@.797FAQ 1.3.@.805FAQ 1.2.@.813FAQ 1.2.@.823FAQ 1.1.@.877FAQ 1.1.@.886FAQ 12.3.@.889FAQ 12.2.@.890FAQ 12.1.@.891FAQ 11.3.@.892FAQ 11.2.@.893FAQ 11.1.@.894FAQ 10.2.@.895FAQ 10.1.@.896FAQ 9.3.@.897FAQ 9.2.@.898FAQ 9.1.@.899FAQ 8.3.@.900FAQ 8.2.@.901FAQ 8.1.@.902FAQ 7.3.@.903FAQ 7.2.@.904FAQ 7.1.@.905FAQ 6.2.@.906FAQ 6.1.@.907FAQ 5.4.@.908FAQ 5.3.@.909FAQ 5.2.@.910FAQ 5.1.@.911FAQ 4.3.@.912FAQ 4.2.@.913FAQ 4.1.@.914FAQ 3.3.@.915FAQ 3.2.@.916FAQ 3.1.@.917FAQ 2.2.@.918FAQ 2.1.@.919FAQ 1.3.@.920FAQ 1.2.@.921FAQ 1.1.@.922Climatic thresholds tell us about the tolerance of society and ecosystems so that we can better scrutinize the types of climate changes that are expected to impact things we care about. Many systems have natural or structural thresholds. If conditions exceed those thresholds, the result can be sudden changes or even collapses in health, productivity, utility or behaviour. Adaptation and risk management efforts can change these thresholds, altering the profile of climate conditions that would be problematic and increasing overall system resilience.

FAQ 12.2.bFAQ 12.1.xFAQ 12.1.aeFAQ 11.3.ahFAQ 11.3.ayFAQ 11.2.boFAQ 11.1.cdFAQ 11.1.ckFAQ 10.2.dfFAQ 10.2.doFAQ 10.1.eaFAQ 10.1.ehFAQ 9.3.feFAQ 9.3.foFAQ 9.2.ftFAQ 9.2.gcFAQ 9.1.gkFAQ 9.1.grFAQ 8.3.gwFAQ 8.3.hcFAQ 8.2.inFAQ 8.2.@.256FAQ 8.1.@.275FAQ 8.1.@.286FAQ 7.3.@.290FAQ 7.3.@.299FAQ 7.2.@.313FAQ 7.2.@.321FAQ 7.1.@.338FAQ 7.1.@.347FAQ 6.2.@.371FAQ 6.2.@.380FAQ 6.1.@.401FAQ 6.1.@.410FAQ 5.4.@.413FAQ 5.4.@.434FAQ 5.3.@.437FAQ 5.3.@.489FAQ 5.2.@.492FAQ 5.2.@.510FAQ 5.1.@.513FAQ 5.1.@.546FAQ 4.3.@.556FAQ 4.3.@.565FAQ 4.2.@.613FAQ 4.2.@.621FAQ 4.1.@.645FAQ 4.1.@.652FAQ 3.3.@.664FAQ 3.3.@.672FAQ 3.2.@.693FAQ 3.2.@.694FAQ 3.2.@.701FAQ 3.1.@.706FAQ 3.1.@.714FAQ 2.2.@.738FAQ 2.2.@.747FAQ 2.1.@.757FAQ 2.1.@.766FAQ 1.3.@.798FAQ 1.3.@.806FAQ 1.2.@.814FAQ 1.2.@.824FAQ 1.1.@.878FAQ 1.1.@.887FAQ 12.3.@.890FAQ 12.2.@.891FAQ 12.1.@.892FAQ 11.3.@.893FAQ 11.2.@.894FAQ 11.1.@.895FAQ 10.2.@.896FAQ 10.1.@.897FAQ 9.3.@.898FAQ 9.2.@.899FAQ 9.1.@.900FAQ 8.3.@.901FAQ 8.2.@.902FAQ 8.1.@.903FAQ 7.3.@.904FAQ 7.2.@.905FAQ 7.1.@.906FAQ 6.2.@.907FAQ 6.1.@.908FAQ 5.4.@.909FAQ 5.3.@.910FAQ 5.2.@.911FAQ 5.1.@.912FAQ 4.3.@.913FAQ 4.2.@.914FAQ 4.1.@.915FAQ 3.3.@.916FAQ 3.2.@.917FAQ 3.1.@.918FAQ 2.2.@.919FAQ 2.1.@.920FAQ 1.3.@.921FAQ 1.2.@.922FAQ 1.1.@.923Decision makers have long observed that certain weather and climate conditions can be problematic, or hazardous, for things they care about (i.e., things with socio-economic, cultural or intrinsic value). Many elements of society and ecosystems operate in a suitable climate zone selected naturally or by stakeholders considering the expected climate conditions. However, as climate change moves conditions beyond expected ranges, they may cross a climatic ‘threshold’ – a level beyond which there are either gradual changes in system behaviour or abrupt, non-linear and potentially irreversible impacts.

FAQ 12.2.cFAQ 12.1.yFAQ 12.1.afFAQ 11.3.aiFAQ 11.3.azFAQ 11.2.bpFAQ 11.1.ceFAQ 11.1.clFAQ 10.2.dgFAQ 10.2.dpFAQ 10.1.ebFAQ 10.1.eiFAQ 9.3.ffFAQ 9.3.fpFAQ 9.2.fuFAQ 9.2.gdFAQ 9.1.glFAQ 9.1.gsFAQ 8.3.gxFAQ 8.3.hdFAQ 8.2.ioFAQ 8.2.@.257FAQ 8.1.@.276FAQ 8.1.@.287FAQ 7.3.@.291FAQ 7.3.@.300FAQ 7.2.@.314FAQ 7.2.@.322FAQ 7.1.@.339FAQ 7.1.@.348FAQ 6.2.@.372FAQ 6.2.@.381FAQ 6.1.@.402FAQ 6.1.@.411FAQ 5.4.@.414FAQ 5.4.@.435FAQ 5.3.@.438FAQ 5.3.@.490FAQ 5.2.@.493FAQ 5.2.@.511FAQ 5.1.@.514FAQ 5.1.@.547FAQ 4.3.@.557FAQ 4.3.@.566FAQ 4.2.@.614FAQ 4.2.@.622FAQ 4.1.@.646FAQ 4.1.@.653FAQ 3.3.@.665FAQ 3.3.@.673FAQ 3.2.@.694FAQ 3.2.@.695FAQ 3.2.@.702FAQ 3.1.@.707FAQ 3.1.@.715FAQ 2.2.@.739FAQ 2.2.@.748FAQ 2.1.@.758FAQ 2.1.@.767FAQ 1.3.@.799FAQ 1.3.@.807FAQ 1.2.@.815FAQ 1.2.@.825FAQ 1.1.@.879FAQ 1.1.@.888FAQ 12.3.@.891FAQ 12.2.@.892FAQ 12.1.@.893FAQ 11.3.@.894FAQ 11.2.@.895FAQ 11.1.@.896FAQ 10.2.@.897FAQ 10.1.@.898FAQ 9.3.@.899FAQ 9.2.@.900FAQ 9.1.@.901FAQ 8.3.@.902FAQ 8.2.@.903FAQ 8.1.@.904FAQ 7.3.@.905FAQ 7.2.@.906FAQ 7.1.@.907FAQ 6.2.@.908FAQ 6.1.@.909FAQ 5.4.@.910FAQ 5.3.@.911FAQ 5.2.@.912FAQ 5.1.@.913FAQ 4.3.@.914FAQ 4.2.@.915FAQ 4.1.@.916FAQ 3.3.@.917FAQ 3.2.@.918FAQ 3.1.@.919FAQ 2.2.@.920FAQ 2.1.@.921FAQ 1.3.@.922FAQ 1.2.@.923FAQ 1.1.@.924Climatic thresholds can be associated with either natural or structural tolerance levels. Natural thresholds, for instance, include heat and humidity conditions above which humans cannot regulate their internal temperatures through sweat, drought durations that heighten competition between species, and winter temperatures that are lethal for pests or disease-carrying vector species. Structural thresholds include engineered limits of drainage systems, extreme wind speeds that limit wind turbine operation, the height of coastal protection infrastructure, and the locations of irrigation infrastructure or tropical cyclone sheltering facilities.

FAQ 12.2.dFAQ 12.1.zFAQ 12.1.agFAQ 11.3.ajFAQ 11.3.baFAQ 11.2.bqFAQ 11.1.cfFAQ 11.1.cmFAQ 10.2.dhFAQ 10.2.dqFAQ 10.1.ecFAQ 10.1.ejFAQ 9.3.fgFAQ 9.3.fqFAQ 9.2.fvFAQ 9.2.geFAQ 9.1.gmFAQ 9.1.gtFAQ 8.3.gyFAQ 8.3.heFAQ 8.2.ipFAQ 8.2.@.258FAQ 8.1.@.277FAQ 8.1.@.288FAQ 7.3.@.292FAQ 7.3.@.301FAQ 7.2.@.315FAQ 7.2.@.323FAQ 7.1.@.340FAQ 7.1.@.349FAQ 6.2.@.373FAQ 6.2.@.382FAQ 6.1.@.403FAQ 6.1.@.412FAQ 5.4.@.415FAQ 5.4.@.436FAQ 5.3.@.439FAQ 5.3.@.491FAQ 5.2.@.494FAQ 5.2.@.512FAQ 5.1.@.515FAQ 5.1.@.548FAQ 4.3.@.558FAQ 4.3.@.567FAQ 4.2.@.615FAQ 4.2.@.623FAQ 4.1.@.647FAQ 4.1.@.654FAQ 3.3.@.666FAQ 3.3.@.674FAQ 3.2.@.695FAQ 3.2.@.696FAQ 3.2.@.703FAQ 3.1.@.708FAQ 3.1.@.716FAQ 2.2.@.740FAQ 2.2.@.749FAQ 2.1.@.759FAQ 2.1.@.768FAQ 1.3.@.800FAQ 1.3.@.808FAQ 1.2.@.816FAQ 1.2.@.826FAQ 1.1.@.880FAQ 1.1.@.889FAQ 12.3.@.892FAQ 12.2.@.893FAQ 12.1.@.894FAQ 11.3.@.895FAQ 11.2.@.896FAQ 11.1.@.897FAQ 10.2.@.898FAQ 10.1.@.899FAQ 9.3.@.900FAQ 9.2.@.901FAQ 9.1.@.902FAQ 8.3.@.903FAQ 8.2.@.904FAQ 8.1.@.905FAQ 7.3.@.906FAQ 7.2.@.907FAQ 7.1.@.908FAQ 6.2.@.909FAQ 6.1.@.910FAQ 5.4.@.911FAQ 5.3.@.912FAQ 5.2.@.913FAQ 5.1.@.914FAQ 4.3.@.915FAQ 4.2.@.916FAQ 4.1.@.917FAQ 3.3.@.918FAQ 3.2.@.919FAQ 3.1.@.920FAQ 2.2.@.921FAQ 2.1.@.922FAQ 1.3.@.923FAQ 1.2.@.924FAQ 1.1.@.925Thresholds may be defined according to raw values (such as maximum temperature exceeding 35°C) or percentiles (such as the local 99th percentile daily rainfall total). They also often have strong seasonal dependence (see FAQ 12.3). For example, the amount of snowfall that a deciduous tree can withstand depends on whether the snowfall occurs before or after the tree sheds its leaves. Most systems respond to changes in complex ways, and those responses are not determined solely or precisely by specific thresholds of a single climate variable. Nonetheless, thresholds can be useful indicators of system behaviours, and an understanding of these thresholds can help inform risk management decisions.

FAQ 12.2.eFAQ 12.1.aaFAQ 12.1.ahFAQ 11.3.akFAQ 11.3.bbFAQ 11.2.brFAQ 11.1.cgFAQ 11.1.cnFAQ 10.2.diFAQ 10.2.drFAQ 10.1.edFAQ 10.1.ekFAQ 9.3.fhFAQ 9.3.frFAQ 9.2.fwFAQ 9.2.gfFAQ 9.1.gnFAQ 9.1.guFAQ 8.3.gzFAQ 8.3.hfFAQ 8.2.iqFAQ 8.2.@.259FAQ 8.1.@.278FAQ 8.1.@.289FAQ 7.3.@.293FAQ 7.3.@.302FAQ 7.2.@.316FAQ 7.2.@.324FAQ 7.1.@.341FAQ 7.1.@.350FAQ 6.2.@.374FAQ 6.2.@.383FAQ 6.1.@.404FAQ 6.1.@.413FAQ 5.4.@.416FAQ 5.4.@.437FAQ 5.3.@.440FAQ 5.3.@.492FAQ 5.2.@.495FAQ 5.2.@.513FAQ 5.1.@.516FAQ 5.1.@.549FAQ 4.3.@.559FAQ 4.3.@.568FAQ 4.2.@.616FAQ 4.2.@.624FAQ 4.1.@.648FAQ 4.1.@.655FAQ 3.3.@.667FAQ 3.3.@.675FAQ 3.2.@.696FAQ 3.2.@.697FAQ 3.2.@.704FAQ 3.1.@.709FAQ 3.1.@.717FAQ 2.2.@.741FAQ 2.2.@.750FAQ 2.1.@.760FAQ 2.1.@.769FAQ 1.3.@.801FAQ 1.3.@.809FAQ 1.2.@.817FAQ 1.2.@.827FAQ 1.1.@.881FAQ 1.1.@.890FAQ 12.3.@.893FAQ 12.2.@.894FAQ 12.1.@.895FAQ 11.3.@.896FAQ 11.2.@.897FAQ 11.1.@.898FAQ 10.2.@.899FAQ 10.1.@.900FAQ 9.3.@.901FAQ 9.2.@.902FAQ 9.1.@.903FAQ 8.3.@.904FAQ 8.2.@.905FAQ 8.1.@.906FAQ 7.3.@.907FAQ 7.2.@.908FAQ 7.1.@.909FAQ 6.2.@.910FAQ 6.1.@.911FAQ 5.4.@.912FAQ 5.3.@.913FAQ 5.2.@.914FAQ 5.1.@.915FAQ 4.3.@.916FAQ 4.2.@.917FAQ 4.1.@.918FAQ 3.3.@.919FAQ 3.2.@.920FAQ 3.1.@.921FAQ 2.2.@.922FAQ 2.1.@.923FAQ 1.3.@.924FAQ 1.2.@.925FAQ 1.1.@.926FAQ 12.2 Figure 1 illustrates how threshold conditions can help us understand climate conditions that are suitable for normal system operation and the thresholds beyond which impacts occur. Crops tend to grow most optimally within a suitable range of daily temperatures that is influenced by the varieties being cultivated and the way the farm is managed. As daily temperatures rise above a ‘critical’ temperature threshold, plants begin to experience heat stress that reduces growth and may lower resulting yields. If temperatures reach a higher ‘limiting’ temperature threshold, crops may suffer leaf loss, pollen sterility, or tissue damage that can lead to crop failure. Farmers typically select a cropping system with some consideration to the probability of extreme temperature events that may occur within a typical season, and so identifying hot temperature thresholds helps farmers select their seed and field management strategies as part of their overall risk management. Climate experts may therefore aim to assist farm planning by providing information about the climate change-induced shifts to the expected frequency of daily heat extremes that exceed crop tolerance thresholds.

FAQ 12.2.aFAQ 12.2.fFAQ 12.1.abFAQ 12.1.aiFAQ 11.3.alFAQ 11.3.bcFAQ 11.2.bsFAQ 11.1.chFAQ 11.1.coFAQ 10.2.djFAQ 10.2.dsFAQ 10.1.eeFAQ 10.1.elFAQ 9.3.fiFAQ 9.3.fsFAQ 9.2.fxFAQ 9.2.ggFAQ 9.1.goFAQ 9.1.gvFAQ 8.3.haFAQ 8.3.hgFAQ 8.2.irFAQ 8.2.@.260FAQ 8.1.@.279FAQ 8.1.@.290FAQ 7.3.@.294FAQ 7.3.@.303FAQ 7.2.@.317FAQ 7.2.@.325FAQ 7.1.@.342FAQ 7.1.@.351FAQ 6.2.@.375FAQ 6.2.@.384FAQ 6.1.@.405FAQ 6.1.@.414FAQ 5.4.@.417FAQ 5.4.@.438FAQ 5.3.@.441FAQ 5.3.@.493FAQ 5.2.@.496FAQ 5.2.@.514FAQ 5.1.@.517FAQ 5.1.@.550FAQ 4.3.@.560FAQ 4.3.@.569FAQ 4.2.@.617FAQ 4.2.@.625FAQ 4.1.@.649FAQ 4.1.@.656FAQ 3.3.@.668FAQ 3.3.@.676FAQ 3.2.@.697FAQ 3.2.@.698FAQ 3.2.@.705FAQ 3.1.@.710FAQ 3.1.@.718FAQ 2.2.@.742FAQ 2.2.@.751FAQ 2.1.@.761FAQ 2.1.@.770FAQ 1.3.@.802FAQ 1.3.@.810FAQ 1.2.@.818FAQ 1.2.@.828FAQ 1.1.@.882FAQ 1.1.@.891FAQ 12.3.@.894FAQ 12.2.@.895FAQ 12.1.@.896FAQ 11.3.@.897FAQ 11.2.@.898FAQ 11.1.@.899FAQ 10.2.@.900FAQ 10.1.@.901FAQ 9.3.@.902FAQ 9.2.@.903FAQ 9.1.@.904FAQ 8.3.@.905FAQ 8.2.@.906FAQ 8.1.@.907FAQ 7.3.@.908FAQ 7.2.@.909FAQ 7.1.@.910FAQ 6.2.@.911FAQ 6.1.@.912FAQ 5.4.@.913FAQ 5.3.@.914FAQ 5.2.@.915FAQ 5.1.@.916FAQ 4.3.@.917FAQ 4.2.@.918FAQ 4.1.@.919FAQ 3.3.@.920FAQ 3.2.@.921FAQ 3.1.@.922FAQ 2.2.@.923FAQ 2.1.@.924FAQ 1.3.@.925FAQ 1.2.@.926FAQ 1.1.@.927Adaptation and other changes in societies and environment can shift climatic thresholds by modifying vulnerability and exposure. For example, adaptation efforts may include breeding new crops with higher heat tolerance levels so that corresponding dangerous thresholds occur less frequently. Likewise, increasing the height of a flood embankment protecting a given community can increase the level of river flow that may be tolerated without flooding, reducing the frequency of damaging floods. Stakeholders therefore benefit from climate services that are based on a co-development process, with scientists identifying system-relevant thresholds and developing tailored climatic impact-driver indices that represent these thresholds (FAQ 12.1). These thresholds help focus the provision of action-relevant climate information for adaptation and risk management.

FAQ 12.2.bFAQ 12.2.gFAQ 12.1.acFAQ 12.1.ajFAQ 11.3.amFAQ 11.3.bdFAQ 11.2.btFAQ 11.1.ciFAQ 11.1.cpFAQ 10.2.dkFAQ 10.2.dtFAQ 10.1.efFAQ 10.1.emFAQ 9.3.fjFAQ 9.3.ftFAQ 9.2.fyFAQ 9.2.ghFAQ 9.1.gpFAQ 9.1.gwFAQ 8.3.hbFAQ 8.3.hhFAQ 8.2.isFAQ 8.2.@.261FAQ 8.1.@.280FAQ 8.1.@.291FAQ 7.3.@.295FAQ 7.3.@.304FAQ 7.2.@.318FAQ 7.2.@.326FAQ 7.1.@.343FAQ 7.1.@.352FAQ 6.2.@.376FAQ 6.2.@.385FAQ 6.1.@.406FAQ 6.1.@.415FAQ 5.4.@.418FAQ 5.4.@.439FAQ 5.3.@.442FAQ 5.3.@.494FAQ 5.2.@.497FAQ 5.2.@.515FAQ 5.1.@.518FAQ 5.1.@.551FAQ 4.3.@.561FAQ 4.3.@.570FAQ 4.2.@.618FAQ 4.2.@.626FAQ 4.1.@.650FAQ 4.1.@.657FAQ 3.3.@.669FAQ 3.3.@.677FAQ 3.2.@.698FAQ 3.2.@.699FAQ 3.2.@.706FAQ 3.1.@.711FAQ 3.1.@.719FAQ 2.2.@.743FAQ 2.2.@.752FAQ 2.1.@.762FAQ 2.1.@.771FAQ 1.3.@.803FAQ 1.3.@.811FAQ 1.2.@.819FAQ 1.2.@.829FAQ 1.1.@.883FAQ 1.1.@.892FAQ 12.3.@.895FAQ 12.2.@.896FAQ 12.1.@.897FAQ 11.3.@.898FAQ 11.2.@.899FAQ 11.1.@.900FAQ 10.2.@.901FAQ 10.1.@.902FAQ 9.3.@.903FAQ 9.2.@.904FAQ 9.1.@.905FAQ 8.3.@.906FAQ 8.2.@.907FAQ 8.1.@.908FAQ 7.3.@.909FAQ 7.2.@.910FAQ 7.1.@.911FAQ 6.2.@.912FAQ 6.1.@.913FAQ 5.4.@.914FAQ 5.3.@.915FAQ 5.2.@.916FAQ 5.1.@.917FAQ 4.3.@.918FAQ 4.2.@.919FAQ 4.1.@.920FAQ 3.3.@.921FAQ 3.2.@.922FAQ 3.1.@.923FAQ 2.2.@.924FAQ 2.1.@.925FAQ 1.3.@.926FAQ 1.2.@.927FAQ 1.1.@.928FAQ

FAQ 12.2.cFAQ 12.2.hFAQ 12.1.adFAQ 12.1.akFAQ 11.3.anFAQ 11.3.beFAQ 11.2.buFAQ 11.1.cjFAQ 11.1.cqFAQ 10.2.dlFAQ 10.2.duFAQ 10.1.egFAQ 10.1.enFAQ 9.3.fkFAQ 9.3.fuFAQ 9.2.fzFAQ 9.2.giFAQ 9.1.gqFAQ 9.1.gxFAQ 8.3.hcFAQ 8.3.hiFAQ 8.2.itFAQ 8.2.@.262FAQ 8.1.@.281FAQ 8.1.@.292FAQ 7.3.@.296FAQ 7.3.@.305FAQ 7.2.@.319FAQ 7.2.@.327FAQ 7.1.@.344FAQ 7.1.@.353FAQ 6.2.@.377FAQ 6.2.@.386FAQ 6.1.@.407FAQ 6.1.@.416FAQ 5.4.@.419FAQ 5.4.@.440FAQ 5.3.@.443FAQ 5.3.@.495FAQ 5.2.@.498FAQ 5.2.@.516FAQ 5.1.@.519FAQ 5.1.@.552FAQ 4.3.@.562FAQ 4.3.@.571FAQ 4.2.@.619FAQ 4.2.@.627FAQ 4.1.@.651FAQ 4.1.@.658FAQ 3.3.@.670FAQ 3.3.@.678FAQ 3.2.@.699FAQ 3.2.@.700FAQ 3.2.@.707FAQ 3.1.@.712FAQ 3.1.@.720FAQ 2.2.@.744FAQ 2.2.@.753FAQ 2.1.@.763FAQ 2.1.@.772FAQ 1.3.@.804FAQ 1.3.@.812FAQ 1.2.@.820FAQ 1.2.@.830FAQ 1.1.@.884FAQ 1.1.@.893FAQ 12.3.@.896FAQ 12.2.@.897FAQ 12.1.@.898FAQ 11.3.@.899FAQ 11.2.@.900FAQ 11.1.@.901FAQ 10.2.@.902FAQ 10.1.@.903FAQ 9.3.@.904FAQ 9.2.@.905FAQ 9.1.@.906FAQ 8.3.@.907FAQ 8.2.@.908FAQ 8.1.@.909FAQ 7.3.@.910FAQ 7.2.@.911FAQ 7.1.@.912FAQ 6.2.@.913FAQ 6.1.@.914FAQ 5.4.@.915FAQ 5.3.@.916FAQ 5.2.@.917FAQ 5.1.@.918FAQ 4.3.@.919FAQ 4.2.@.920FAQ 4.1.@.921FAQ 3.3.@.922FAQ 3.2.@.923FAQ 3.1.@.924FAQ 2.2.@.925FAQ 2.1.@.926FAQ 1.3.@.927FAQ 1.2.@.928FAQ 1.1.@.929FAQ 12.2 (continued)

FAQ 12.2.aFAQ 12.2.dFAQ 12.2.iFAQ 12.1.aeFAQ 12.1.alFAQ 11.3.aoFAQ 11.3.bfFAQ 11.2.bvFAQ 11.1.ckFAQ 11.1.crFAQ 10.2.dmFAQ 10.2.dvFAQ 10.1.ehFAQ 10.1.eoFAQ 9.3.flFAQ 9.3.fvFAQ 9.2.gaFAQ 9.2.gjFAQ 9.1.grFAQ 9.1.gyFAQ 8.3.hdFAQ 8.3.hjFAQ 8.2.iuFAQ 8.2.@.263FAQ 8.1.@.282FAQ 8.1.@.293FAQ 7.3.@.297FAQ 7.3.@.306FAQ 7.2.@.320FAQ 7.2.@.328FAQ 7.1.@.345FAQ 7.1.@.354FAQ 6.2.@.378FAQ 6.2.@.387FAQ 6.1.@.408FAQ 6.1.@.417FAQ 5.4.@.420FAQ 5.4.@.441FAQ 5.3.@.444FAQ 5.3.@.496FAQ 5.2.@.499FAQ 5.2.@.517FAQ 5.1.@.520FAQ 5.1.@.553FAQ 4.3.@.563FAQ 4.3.@.572FAQ 4.2.@.620FAQ 4.2.@.628FAQ 4.1.@.652FAQ 4.1.@.659FAQ 3.3.@.671FAQ 3.3.@.679FAQ 3.2.@.700FAQ 3.2.@.701FAQ 3.2.@.708FAQ 3.1.@.713FAQ 3.1.@.721FAQ 2.2.@.745FAQ 2.2.@.754FAQ 2.1.@.764FAQ 2.1.@.773FAQ 1.3.@.805FAQ 1.3.@.813FAQ 1.2.@.821FAQ 1.2.@.831FAQ 1.1.@.885FAQ 1.1.@.894FAQ 12.3.@.897FAQ 12.2.@.898FAQ 12.1.@.899FAQ 11.3.@.900FAQ 11.2.@.901FAQ 11.1.@.902FAQ 10.2.@.903FAQ 10.1.@.904FAQ 9.3.@.905FAQ 9.2.@.906FAQ 9.1.@.907FAQ 8.3.@.908FAQ 8.2.@.909FAQ 8.1.@.910FAQ 7.3.@.911FAQ 7.2.@.912FAQ 7.1.@.913FAQ 6.2.@.914FAQ 6.1.@.915FAQ 5.4.@.916FAQ 5.3.@.917FAQ 5.2.@.918FAQ 5.1.@.919FAQ 4.3.@.920FAQ 4.2.@.921FAQ 4.1.@.922FAQ 3.3.@.923FAQ 3.2.@.924FAQ 3.1.@.925FAQ 2.2.@.926FAQ 2.1.@.927FAQ 1.3.@.928FAQ 1.2.@.929FAQ 1.1.@.930FAQ 12.2, Figure 1 | Crop response to maximum temperature thresholds. Crop growth rate responds to daily maximum temperature increases, leading to reduced growth and crop failure as temperatures exceed critical and limiting temperature thresholds, respectively. Note that changes in other environmental factors (such as carbon dioxide and water) may increase the tolerance of plants to increasing temperatures.

FAQ 12.2.bFAQ 12.2.eFAQ 12.2.jFAQ 12.1.afFAQ 12.1.amFAQ 11.3.apFAQ 11.3.bgFAQ 11.2.bwFAQ 11.1.clFAQ 11.1.csFAQ 10.2.dnFAQ 10.2.dwFAQ 10.1.eiFAQ 10.1.epFAQ 9.3.fmFAQ 9.3.fwFAQ 9.2.gbFAQ 9.2.gkFAQ 9.1.gsFAQ 9.1.gzFAQ 8.3.heFAQ 8.3.hkFAQ 8.2.ivFAQ 8.2.@.264FAQ 8.1.@.283FAQ 8.1.@.294FAQ 7.3.@.298FAQ 7.3.@.307FAQ 7.2.@.321FAQ 7.2.@.329FAQ 7.1.@.346FAQ 7.1.@.355FAQ 6.2.@.379FAQ 6.2.@.388FAQ 6.1.@.409FAQ 6.1.@.418FAQ 5.4.@.421FAQ 5.4.@.442FAQ 5.3.@.445FAQ 5.3.@.497FAQ 5.2.@.500FAQ 5.2.@.518FAQ 5.1.@.521FAQ 5.1.@.554FAQ 4.3.@.564FAQ 4.3.@.573FAQ 4.2.@.621FAQ 4.2.@.629FAQ 4.1.@.653FAQ 4.1.@.660FAQ 3.3.@.672FAQ 3.3.@.680FAQ 3.2.@.701FAQ 3.2.@.702FAQ 3.2.@.709FAQ 3.1.@.714FAQ 3.1.@.722FAQ 2.2.@.746FAQ 2.2.@.755FAQ 2.1.@.765FAQ 2.1.@.774FAQ 1.3.@.806FAQ 1.3.@.814FAQ 1.2.@.822FAQ 1.2.@.832FAQ 1.1.@.886FAQ 1.1.@.895FAQ 12.3.@.898FAQ 12.2.@.899FAQ 12.1.@.900FAQ 11.3.@.901FAQ 11.2.@.902FAQ 11.1.@.903FAQ 10.2.@.904FAQ 10.1.@.905FAQ 9.3.@.906FAQ 9.2.@.907FAQ 9.1.@.908FAQ 8.3.@.909FAQ 8.2.@.910FAQ 8.1.@.911FAQ 7.3.@.912FAQ 7.2.@.913FAQ 7.1.@.914FAQ 6.2.@.915FAQ 6.1.@.916FAQ 5.4.@.917FAQ 5.3.@.918FAQ 5.2.@.919FAQ 5.1.@.920FAQ 4.3.@.921FAQ 4.2.@.922FAQ 4.1.@.923FAQ 3.3.@.924FAQ 3.2.@.925FAQ 3.1.@.926FAQ 2.2.@.927FAQ 2.1.@.928FAQ 1.3.@.929FAQ 1.2.@.930FAQ 1.1.@.931FAQ 12.2: What are climatic thresholds and why are they important?Many systems have thresholds that can lead to sudden changes, if climate conditions exceed them. Adaptation and risk management efforts can increase overall system resilience by identifying and changing tolerance thresholds.

FAQ 12.2.cFAQ 12.2.fFAQ 12.2.kFAQ 12.1.agFAQ 12.1.anFAQ 11.3.aqFAQ 11.3.bhFAQ 11.2.bxFAQ 11.1.cmFAQ 11.1.ctFAQ 10.2.doFAQ 10.2.dxFAQ 10.1.ejFAQ 10.1.eqFAQ 9.3.fnFAQ 9.3.fxFAQ 9.2.gcFAQ 9.2.glFAQ 9.1.gtFAQ 9.1.haFAQ 8.3.hfFAQ 8.3.hlFAQ 8.2.@.256FAQ 8.2.@.265FAQ 8.1.@.284FAQ 8.1.@.295FAQ 7.3.@.299FAQ 7.3.@.308FAQ 7.2.@.322FAQ 7.2.@.330FAQ 7.1.@.347FAQ 7.1.@.356FAQ 6.2.@.380FAQ 6.2.@.389FAQ 6.1.@.410FAQ 6.1.@.419FAQ 5.4.@.422FAQ 5.4.@.443FAQ 5.3.@.446FAQ 5.3.@.498FAQ 5.2.@.501FAQ 5.2.@.519FAQ 5.1.@.522FAQ 5.1.@.555FAQ 4.3.@.565FAQ 4.3.@.574FAQ 4.2.@.622FAQ 4.2.@.630FAQ 4.1.@.654FAQ 4.1.@.661FAQ 3.3.@.673FAQ 3.3.@.681FAQ 3.2.@.702FAQ 3.2.@.703FAQ 3.2.@.710FAQ 3.1.@.715FAQ 3.1.@.723FAQ 2.2.@.747FAQ 2.2.@.756FAQ 2.1.@.766FAQ 2.1.@.775FAQ 1.3.@.807FAQ 1.3.@.815FAQ 1.2.@.823FAQ 1.2.@.833FAQ 1.1.@.887FAQ 1.1.@.896FAQ 12.3.@.899FAQ 12.2.@.900FAQ 12.1.@.901FAQ 11.3.@.902FAQ 11.2.@.903FAQ 11.1.@.904FAQ 10.2.@.905FAQ 10.1.@.906FAQ 9.3.@.907FAQ 9.2.@.908FAQ 9.1.@.909FAQ 8.3.@.910FAQ 8.2.@.911FAQ 8.1.@.912FAQ 7.3.@.913FAQ 7.2.@.914FAQ 7.1.@.915FAQ 6.2.@.916FAQ 6.1.@.917FAQ 5.4.@.918FAQ 5.3.@.919FAQ 5.2.@.920FAQ 5.1.@.921FAQ 4.3.@.922FAQ 4.2.@.923FAQ 4.1.@.924FAQ 3.3.@.925FAQ 3.2.@.926FAQ 3.1.@.927FAQ 2.2.@.928FAQ 2.1.@.929FAQ 1.3.@.930FAQ 1.2.@.931FAQ 1.1.@.932Increasing crop productionCritical temperature threshold

FAQ 12.2.dFAQ 12.2.gFAQ 12.2.lFAQ 12.1.ahFAQ 12.1.aoFAQ 11.3.arFAQ 11.3.biFAQ 11.2.byFAQ 11.1.cnFAQ 11.1.cuFAQ 10.2.dpFAQ 10.2.dyFAQ 10.1.ekFAQ 10.1.erFAQ 9.3.foFAQ 9.3.fyFAQ 9.2.gdFAQ 9.2.gmFAQ 9.1.guFAQ 9.1.hbFAQ 8.3.hgFAQ 8.3.hmFAQ 8.2.@.257FAQ 8.2.@.266FAQ 8.1.@.285FAQ 8.1.@.296FAQ 7.3.@.300FAQ 7.3.@.309FAQ 7.2.@.323FAQ 7.2.@.331FAQ 7.1.@.348FAQ 7.1.@.357FAQ 6.2.@.381FAQ 6.2.@.390FAQ 6.1.@.411FAQ 6.1.@.420FAQ 5.4.@.423FAQ 5.4.@.444FAQ 5.3.@.447FAQ 5.3.@.499FAQ 5.2.@.502FAQ 5.2.@.520FAQ 5.1.@.523FAQ 5.1.@.556FAQ 4.3.@.566FAQ 4.3.@.575FAQ 4.2.@.623FAQ 4.2.@.631FAQ 4.1.@.655FAQ 4.1.@.662FAQ 3.3.@.674FAQ 3.3.@.682FAQ 3.2.@.703FAQ 3.2.@.704FAQ 3.2.@.711FAQ 3.1.@.716FAQ 3.1.@.724FAQ 2.2.@.748FAQ 2.2.@.757FAQ 2.1.@.767FAQ 2.1.@.776FAQ 1.3.@.808FAQ 1.3.@.816FAQ 1.2.@.824FAQ 1.2.@.834FAQ 1.1.@.888FAQ 1.1.@.897FAQ 12.3.@.900FAQ 12.2.@.901FAQ 12.1.@.902FAQ 11.3.@.903FAQ 11.2.@.904FAQ 11.1.@.905FAQ 10.2.@.906FAQ 10.1.@.907FAQ 9.3.@.908FAQ 9.2.@.909FAQ 9.1.@.910FAQ 8.3.@.911FAQ 8.2.@.912FAQ 8.1.@.913FAQ 7.3.@.914FAQ 7.2.@.915FAQ 7.1.@.916FAQ 6.2.@.917FAQ 6.1.@.918FAQ 5.4.@.919FAQ 5.3.@.920FAQ 5.2.@.921FAQ 5.1.@.922FAQ 4.3.@.923FAQ 4.2.@.924FAQ 4.1.@.925FAQ 3.3.@.926FAQ 3.2.@.927FAQ 3.1.@.928FAQ 2.2.@.929FAQ 2.1.@.930FAQ 1.3.@.931FAQ 1.2.@.932FAQ 1.1.@.933Optimal growthReduced growthCrop failure

FAQ 12.2.eFAQ 12.2.hFAQ 12.2.mFAQ 12.1.aiFAQ 12.1.apFAQ 11.3.asFAQ 11.3.bjFAQ 11.2.bzFAQ 11.1.coFAQ 11.1.cvFAQ 10.2.dqFAQ 10.2.dzFAQ 10.1.elFAQ 10.1.esFAQ 9.3.fpFAQ 9.3.fzFAQ 9.2.geFAQ 9.2.gnFAQ 9.1.gvFAQ 9.1.hcFAQ 8.3.hhFAQ 8.3.hnFAQ 8.2.@.258FAQ 8.2.@.267FAQ 8.1.@.286FAQ 8.1.@.297FAQ 7.3.@.301FAQ 7.3.@.310FAQ 7.2.@.324FAQ 7.2.@.332FAQ 7.1.@.349FAQ 7.1.@.358FAQ 6.2.@.382FAQ 6.2.@.391FAQ 6.1.@.412FAQ 6.1.@.421FAQ 5.4.@.424FAQ 5.4.@.445FAQ 5.3.@.448FAQ 5.3.@.500FAQ 5.2.@.503FAQ 5.2.@.521FAQ 5.1.@.524FAQ 5.1.@.557FAQ 4.3.@.567FAQ 4.3.@.576FAQ 4.2.@.624FAQ 4.2.@.632FAQ 4.1.@.656FAQ 4.1.@.663FAQ 3.3.@.675FAQ 3.3.@.683FAQ 3.2.@.704FAQ 3.2.@.705FAQ 3.2.@.712FAQ 3.1.@.717FAQ 3.1.@.725FAQ 2.2.@.749FAQ 2.2.@.758FAQ 2.1.@.768FAQ 2.1.@.777FAQ 1.3.@.809FAQ 1.3.@.817FAQ 1.2.@.825FAQ 1.2.@.835FAQ 1.1.@.889FAQ 1.1.@.898FAQ 12.3.@.901FAQ 12.2.@.902FAQ 12.1.@.903FAQ 11.3.@.904FAQ 11.2.@.905FAQ 11.1.@.906FAQ 10.2.@.907FAQ 10.1.@.908FAQ 9.3.@.909FAQ 9.2.@.910FAQ 9.1.@.911FAQ 8.3.@.912FAQ 8.2.@.913FAQ 8.1.@.914FAQ 7.3.@.915FAQ 7.2.@.916FAQ 7.1.@.917FAQ 6.2.@.918FAQ 6.1.@.919FAQ 5.4.@.920FAQ 5.3.@.921FAQ 5.2.@.922FAQ 5.1.@.923FAQ 4.3.@.924FAQ 4.2.@.925FAQ 4.1.@.926FAQ 3.3.@.927FAQ 3.2.@.928FAQ 3.1.@.929FAQ 2.2.@.930FAQ 2.1.@.931FAQ 1.3.@.932FAQ 1.2.@.933FAQ 1.1.@.934Limiting temperature threshold

FAQ 12.2.fFAQ 12.2.iFAQ 12.2.nFAQ 12.1.ajFAQ 12.1.aqFAQ 11.3.atFAQ 11.3.bkFAQ 11.2.caFAQ 11.1.cpFAQ 11.1.cwFAQ 10.2.drFAQ 10.2.eaFAQ 10.1.emFAQ 10.1.etFAQ 9.3.fqFAQ 9.3.gaFAQ 9.2.gfFAQ 9.2.goFAQ 9.1.gwFAQ 9.1.hdFAQ 8.3.hiFAQ 8.3.hoFAQ 8.2.@.259FAQ 8.2.@.268FAQ 8.1.@.287FAQ 8.1.@.298FAQ 7.3.@.302FAQ 7.3.@.311FAQ 7.2.@.325FAQ 7.2.@.333FAQ 7.1.@.350FAQ 7.1.@.359FAQ 6.2.@.383FAQ 6.2.@.392FAQ 6.1.@.413FAQ 6.1.@.422FAQ 5.4.@.425FAQ 5.4.@.446FAQ 5.3.@.449FAQ 5.3.@.501FAQ 5.2.@.504FAQ 5.2.@.522FAQ 5.1.@.525FAQ 5.1.@.558FAQ 4.3.@.568FAQ 4.3.@.577FAQ 4.2.@.625FAQ 4.2.@.633FAQ 4.1.@.657FAQ 4.1.@.664FAQ 3.3.@.676FAQ 3.3.@.684FAQ 3.2.@.705FAQ 3.2.@.706FAQ 3.2.@.713FAQ 3.1.@.718FAQ 3.1.@.726FAQ 2.2.@.750FAQ 2.2.@.759FAQ 2.1.@.769FAQ 2.1.@.778FAQ 1.3.@.810FAQ 1.3.@.818FAQ 1.2.@.826FAQ 1.2.@.836FAQ 1.1.@.890FAQ 1.1.@.899FAQ 12.3.@.902FAQ 12.2.@.903FAQ 12.1.@.904FAQ 11.3.@.905FAQ 11.2.@.906FAQ 11.1.@.907FAQ 10.2.@.908FAQ 10.1.@.909FAQ 9.3.@.910FAQ 9.2.@.911FAQ 9.1.@.912FAQ 8.3.@.913FAQ 8.2.@.914FAQ 8.1.@.915FAQ 7.3.@.916FAQ 7.2.@.917FAQ 7.1.@.918FAQ 6.2.@.919FAQ 6.1.@.920FAQ 5.4.@.921FAQ 5.3.@.922FAQ 5.2.@.923FAQ 5.1.@.924FAQ 4.3.@.925FAQ 4.2.@.926FAQ 4.1.@.927FAQ 3.3.@.928FAQ 3.2.@.929FAQ 3.1.@.930FAQ 2.2.@.931FAQ 2.1.@.932FAQ 1.3.@.933FAQ 1.2.@.934FAQ 1.1.@.935Increasing daily maximum temperature

FAQ 12.2.gFAQ 12.2.jFAQ 12.2.oFAQ 12.1.akFAQ 12.1.arFAQ 11.3.auFAQ 11.3.blFAQ 11.2.cbFAQ 11.1.cqFAQ 11.1.cxFAQ 10.2.dsFAQ 10.2.ebFAQ 10.1.enFAQ 10.1.euFAQ 9.3.frFAQ 9.3.gbFAQ 9.2.ggFAQ 9.2.gpFAQ 9.1.gxFAQ 9.1.heFAQ 8.3.hjFAQ 8.3.hpFAQ 8.2.@.260FAQ 8.2.@.269FAQ 8.1.@.288FAQ 8.1.@.299FAQ 7.3.@.303FAQ 7.3.@.312FAQ 7.2.@.326FAQ 7.2.@.334FAQ 7.1.@.351FAQ 7.1.@.360FAQ 6.2.@.384FAQ 6.2.@.393FAQ 6.1.@.414FAQ 6.1.@.423FAQ 5.4.@.426FAQ 5.4.@.447FAQ 5.3.@.450FAQ 5.3.@.502FAQ 5.2.@.505FAQ 5.2.@.523FAQ 5.1.@.526FAQ 5.1.@.559FAQ 4.3.@.569FAQ 4.3.@.578FAQ 4.2.@.626FAQ 4.2.@.634FAQ 4.1.@.658FAQ 4.1.@.665FAQ 3.3.@.677FAQ 3.3.@.685FAQ 3.2.@.706FAQ 3.2.@.707FAQ 3.2.@.714FAQ 3.1.@.719FAQ 3.1.@.727FAQ 2.2.@.751FAQ 2.2.@.760FAQ 2.1.@.770FAQ 2.1.@.779FAQ 1.3.@.811FAQ 1.3.@.819FAQ 1.2.@.827FAQ 1.2.@.837FAQ 1.1.@.891FAQ 1.1.@.900FAQ 12.3.@.903FAQ 12.2.@.904FAQ 12.1.@.905FAQ 11.3.@.906FAQ 11.2.@.907FAQ 11.1.@.908FAQ 10.2.@.909FAQ 10.1.@.910FAQ 9.3.@.911FAQ 9.2.@.912FAQ 9.1.@.913FAQ 8.3.@.914FAQ 8.2.@.915FAQ 8.1.@.916FAQ 7.3.@.917FAQ 7.2.@.918FAQ 7.1.@.919FAQ 6.2.@.920FAQ 6.1.@.921FAQ 5.4.@.922FAQ 5.3.@.923FAQ 5.2.@.924FAQ 5.1.@.925FAQ 4.3.@.926FAQ 4.2.@.927FAQ 4.1.@.928FAQ 3.3.@.929FAQ 3.2.@.930FAQ 3.1.@.931FAQ 2.2.@.932FAQ 2.1.@.933FAQ 1.3.@.934FAQ 1.2.@.935FAQ 1.1.@.936FAQ

FAQ 12.2.hFAQ 12.2.kFAQ 12.2.pFAQ 12.1.alFAQ 12.1.asFAQ 11.3.avFAQ 11.3.bmFAQ 11.2.ccFAQ 11.1.crFAQ 11.1.cyFAQ 10.2.dtFAQ 10.2.ecFAQ 10.1.eoFAQ 10.1.evFAQ 9.3.fsFAQ 9.3.gcFAQ 9.2.ghFAQ 9.2.gqFAQ 9.1.gyFAQ 9.1.hfFAQ 8.3.hkFAQ 8.3.hqFAQ 8.2.@.261FAQ 8.2.@.270FAQ 8.1.@.289FAQ 8.1.@.300FAQ 7.3.@.304FAQ 7.3.@.313FAQ 7.2.@.327FAQ 7.2.@.335FAQ 7.1.@.352FAQ 7.1.@.361FAQ 6.2.@.385FAQ 6.2.@.394FAQ 6.1.@.415FAQ 6.1.@.424FAQ 5.4.@.427FAQ 5.4.@.448FAQ 5.3.@.451FAQ 5.3.@.503FAQ 5.2.@.506FAQ 5.2.@.524FAQ 5.1.@.527FAQ 5.1.@.560FAQ 4.3.@.570FAQ 4.3.@.579FAQ 4.2.@.627FAQ 4.2.@.635FAQ 4.1.@.659FAQ 4.1.@.666FAQ 3.3.@.678FAQ 3.3.@.686FAQ 3.2.@.707FAQ 3.2.@.708FAQ 3.2.@.715FAQ 3.1.@.720FAQ 3.1.@.728FAQ 2.2.@.752FAQ 2.2.@.761FAQ 2.1.@.771FAQ 2.1.@.780FAQ 1.3.@.812FAQ 1.3.@.820FAQ 1.2.@.828FAQ 1.2.@.838FAQ 1.1.@.892FAQ 1.1.@.901FAQ 12.3.@.904FAQ 12.2.@.905FAQ 12.1.@.906FAQ 11.3.@.907FAQ 11.2.@.908FAQ 11.1.@.909FAQ 10.2.@.910FAQ 10.1.@.911FAQ 9.3.@.912FAQ 9.2.@.913FAQ 9.1.@.914FAQ 8.3.@.915FAQ 8.2.@.916FAQ 8.1.@.917FAQ 7.3.@.918FAQ 7.2.@.919FAQ 7.1.@.920FAQ 6.2.@.921FAQ 6.1.@.922FAQ 5.4.@.923FAQ 5.3.@.924FAQ 5.2.@.925FAQ 5.1.@.926FAQ 4.3.@.927FAQ 4.2.@.928FAQ 4.1.@.929FAQ 3.3.@.930FAQ 3.2.@.931FAQ 3.1.@.932FAQ 2.2.@.933FAQ 2.1.@.934FAQ 1.3.@.935FAQ 1.2.@.936FAQ 1.1.@.937Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ 12.2.iFAQ 12.2.lFAQ 12.2.qFAQ 12.1.amFAQ 12.1.atFAQ 11.3.awFAQ 11.3.bnFAQ 11.2.cdFAQ 11.1.csFAQ 11.1.czFAQ 10.2.duFAQ 10.2.edFAQ 10.1.epFAQ 10.1.ewFAQ 9.3.ftFAQ 9.3.gdFAQ 9.2.giFAQ 9.2.grFAQ 9.1.gzFAQ 9.1.hgFAQ 8.3.hlFAQ 8.3.hrFAQ 8.2.@.262FAQ 8.2.@.271FAQ 8.1.@.290FAQ 8.1.@.301FAQ 7.3.@.305FAQ 7.3.@.314FAQ 7.2.@.328FAQ 7.2.@.336FAQ 7.1.@.353FAQ 7.1.@.362FAQ 6.2.@.386FAQ 6.2.@.395FAQ 6.1.@.416FAQ 6.1.@.425FAQ 5.4.@.428FAQ 5.4.@.449FAQ 5.3.@.452FAQ 5.3.@.504FAQ 5.2.@.507FAQ 5.2.@.525FAQ 5.1.@.528FAQ 5.1.@.561FAQ 4.3.@.571FAQ 4.3.@.580FAQ 4.2.@.628FAQ 4.2.@.636FAQ 4.1.@.660FAQ 4.1.@.667FAQ 3.3.@.679FAQ 3.3.@.687FAQ 3.2.@.708FAQ 3.2.@.709FAQ 3.2.@.716FAQ 3.1.@.721FAQ 3.1.@.729FAQ 2.2.@.753FAQ 2.2.@.762FAQ 2.1.@.772FAQ 2.1.@.781FAQ 1.3.@.813FAQ 1.3.@.821FAQ 1.2.@.829FAQ 1.2.@.839FAQ 1.1.@.893FAQ 1.1.@.902FAQ 12.3.@.905FAQ 12.2.@.906FAQ 12.1.@.907FAQ 11.3.@.908FAQ 11.2.@.909FAQ 11.1.@.910FAQ 10.2.@.911FAQ 10.1.@.912FAQ 9.3.@.913FAQ 9.2.@.914FAQ 9.1.@.915FAQ 8.3.@.916FAQ 8.2.@.917FAQ 8.1.@.918FAQ 7.3.@.919FAQ 7.2.@.920FAQ 7.1.@.921FAQ 6.2.@.922FAQ 6.1.@.923FAQ 5.4.@.924FAQ 5.3.@.925FAQ 5.2.@.926FAQ 5.1.@.927FAQ 4.3.@.928FAQ 4.2.@.929FAQ 4.1.@.930FAQ 3.3.@.931FAQ 3.2.@.932FAQ 3.1.@.933FAQ 2.2.@.934FAQ 2.1.@.935FAQ 1.3.@.936FAQ 1.2.@.937FAQ 1.1.@.938FAQ 12.3 | How Will Climate Change Affect the Regional Characteristics of a Climate Hazard?

FAQ 12.3.aFAQ 12.2.jFAQ 12.2.mFAQ 12.2.rFAQ 12.1.anFAQ 12.1.auFAQ 11.3.axFAQ 11.3.boFAQ 11.2.ceFAQ 11.1.ctFAQ 11.1.daFAQ 10.2.dvFAQ 10.2.eeFAQ 10.1.eqFAQ 10.1.exFAQ 9.3.fuFAQ 9.3.geFAQ 9.2.gjFAQ 9.2.gsFAQ 9.1.haFAQ 9.1.hhFAQ 8.3.hmFAQ 8.3.hsFAQ 8.2.@.263FAQ 8.2.@.272FAQ 8.1.@.291FAQ 8.1.@.302FAQ 7.3.@.306FAQ 7.3.@.315FAQ 7.2.@.329FAQ 7.2.@.337FAQ 7.1.@.354FAQ 7.1.@.363FAQ 6.2.@.387FAQ 6.2.@.396FAQ 6.1.@.417FAQ 6.1.@.426FAQ 5.4.@.429FAQ 5.4.@.450FAQ 5.3.@.453FAQ 5.3.@.505FAQ 5.2.@.508FAQ 5.2.@.526FAQ 5.1.@.529FAQ 5.1.@.562FAQ 4.3.@.572FAQ 4.3.@.581FAQ 4.2.@.629FAQ 4.2.@.637FAQ 4.1.@.661FAQ 4.1.@.668FAQ 3.3.@.680FAQ 3.3.@.688FAQ 3.2.@.709FAQ 3.2.@.710FAQ 3.2.@.717FAQ 3.1.@.722FAQ 3.1.@.730FAQ 2.2.@.754FAQ 2.2.@.763FAQ 2.1.@.773FAQ 2.1.@.782FAQ 1.3.@.814FAQ 1.3.@.822FAQ 1.2.@.830FAQ 1.2.@.840FAQ 1.1.@.894FAQ 1.1.@.903FAQ 12.3.@.906FAQ 12.2.@.907FAQ 12.1.@.908FAQ 11.3.@.909FAQ 11.2.@.910FAQ 11.1.@.911FAQ 10.2.@.912FAQ 10.1.@.913FAQ 9.3.@.914FAQ 9.2.@.915FAQ 9.1.@.916FAQ 8.3.@.917FAQ 8.2.@.918FAQ 8.1.@.919FAQ 7.3.@.920FAQ 7.2.@.921FAQ 7.1.@.922FAQ 6.2.@.923FAQ 6.1.@.924FAQ 5.4.@.925FAQ 5.3.@.926FAQ 5.2.@.927FAQ 5.1.@.928FAQ 4.3.@.929FAQ 4.2.@.930FAQ 4.1.@.931FAQ 3.3.@.932FAQ 3.2.@.933FAQ 3.1.@.934FAQ 2.2.@.935FAQ 2.1.@.936FAQ 1.3.@.937FAQ 1.2.@.938FAQ 1.1.@.939Human-driven climate change can alter the regional characteristics of a climate hazard by changing the magnitude or intensity of the climate hazard, the frequency with which it occurs, the duration that hazardous conditions persist, the timing when the hazard occurs, or the spatial extent threatened by the hazard. By examining each of these aspects of a hazard’s profile change, climate services may provide climate risk information that allows decision makers to better tailor adaptation, mitigation and risk management strategies.

FAQ 12.3.bFAQ 12.2.kFAQ 12.2.nFAQ 12.2.sFAQ 12.1.aoFAQ 12.1.avFAQ 11.3.ayFAQ 11.3.bpFAQ 11.2.cfFAQ 11.1.cuFAQ 11.1.dbFAQ 10.2.dwFAQ 10.2.efFAQ 10.1.erFAQ 10.1.eyFAQ 9.3.fvFAQ 9.3.gfFAQ 9.2.gkFAQ 9.2.gtFAQ 9.1.hbFAQ 9.1.hiFAQ 8.3.hnFAQ 8.3.htFAQ 8.2.@.264FAQ 8.2.@.273FAQ 8.1.@.292FAQ 8.1.@.303FAQ 7.3.@.307FAQ 7.3.@.316FAQ 7.2.@.330FAQ 7.2.@.338FAQ 7.1.@.355FAQ 7.1.@.364FAQ 6.2.@.388FAQ 6.2.@.397FAQ 6.1.@.418FAQ 6.1.@.427FAQ 5.4.@.430FAQ 5.4.@.451FAQ 5.3.@.454FAQ 5.3.@.506FAQ 5.2.@.509FAQ 5.2.@.527FAQ 5.1.@.530FAQ 5.1.@.563FAQ 4.3.@.573FAQ 4.3.@.582FAQ 4.2.@.630FAQ 4.2.@.638FAQ 4.1.@.662FAQ 4.1.@.669FAQ 3.3.@.681FAQ 3.3.@.689FAQ 3.2.@.710FAQ 3.2.@.711FAQ 3.2.@.718FAQ 3.1.@.723FAQ 3.1.@.731FAQ 2.2.@.755FAQ 2.2.@.764FAQ 2.1.@.774FAQ 2.1.@.783FAQ 1.3.@.815FAQ 1.3.@.823FAQ 1.2.@.831FAQ 1.2.@.841FAQ 1.1.@.895FAQ 1.1.@.904FAQ 12.3.@.907FAQ 12.2.@.908FAQ 12.1.@.909FAQ 11.3.@.910FAQ 11.2.@.911FAQ 11.1.@.912FAQ 10.2.@.913FAQ 10.1.@.914FAQ 9.3.@.915FAQ 9.2.@.916FAQ 9.1.@.917FAQ 8.3.@.918FAQ 8.2.@.919FAQ 8.1.@.920FAQ 7.3.@.921FAQ 7.2.@.922FAQ 7.1.@.923FAQ 6.2.@.924FAQ 6.1.@.925FAQ 5.4.@.926FAQ 5.3.@.927FAQ 5.2.@.928FAQ 5.1.@.929FAQ 4.3.@.930FAQ 4.2.@.931FAQ 4.1.@.932FAQ 3.3.@.933FAQ 3.2.@.934FAQ 3.1.@.935FAQ 2.2.@.936FAQ 2.1.@.937FAQ 1.3.@.938FAQ 1.2.@.939FAQ 1.1.@.940A climate hazard is a climate condition with the potential to harm natural systems or society. Examples include heatwaves, droughts, heavy snowfall events and sea level rise. Climate scientists look for patterns in climatic impact-drivers to detect the signature of changing hazards that may influence stakeholder planning (FAQ 12.1). Climate service providers work with stakeholders and impacts experts to identify key system responses and tolerance thresholds (FAQ 12.2) and then examine historical observations and future climate projections to identify associated changes to the characteristics of a regional hazard’s profile. Climate change can alter at least five different characteristics of the hazard profile of a region (FAQ 12.3, Figure 1):

FAQ 12.3.cFAQ 12.2.lFAQ 12.2.oFAQ 12.2.tFAQ 12.1.apFAQ 12.1.awFAQ 11.3.azFAQ 11.3.bqFAQ 11.2.cgFAQ 11.1.cvFAQ 11.1.dcFAQ 10.2.dxFAQ 10.2.egFAQ 10.1.esFAQ 10.1.ezFAQ 9.3.fwFAQ 9.3.ggFAQ 9.2.glFAQ 9.2.guFAQ 9.1.hcFAQ 9.1.hjFAQ 8.3.hoFAQ 8.3.huFAQ 8.2.@.265FAQ 8.2.@.274FAQ 8.1.@.293FAQ 8.1.@.304FAQ 7.3.@.308FAQ 7.3.@.317FAQ 7.2.@.331FAQ 7.2.@.339FAQ 7.1.@.356FAQ 7.1.@.365FAQ 6.2.@.389FAQ 6.2.@.398FAQ 6.1.@.419FAQ 6.1.@.428FAQ 5.4.@.431FAQ 5.4.@.452FAQ 5.3.@.455FAQ 5.3.@.507FAQ 5.2.@.510FAQ 5.2.@.528FAQ 5.1.@.531FAQ 5.1.@.564FAQ 4.3.@.574FAQ 4.3.@.583FAQ 4.2.@.631FAQ 4.2.@.639FAQ 4.1.@.663FAQ 4.1.@.670FAQ 3.3.@.682FAQ 3.3.@.690FAQ 3.2.@.711FAQ 3.2.@.712FAQ 3.2.@.719FAQ 3.1.@.724FAQ 3.1.@.732FAQ 2.2.@.756FAQ 2.2.@.765FAQ 2.1.@.775FAQ 2.1.@.784FAQ 1.3.@.816FAQ 1.3.@.824FAQ 1.2.@.832FAQ 1.2.@.842FAQ 1.1.@.896FAQ 1.1.@.905FAQ 12.3.@.908FAQ 12.2.@.909FAQ 12.1.@.910FAQ 11.3.@.911FAQ 11.2.@.912FAQ 11.1.@.913FAQ 10.2.@.914FAQ 10.1.@.915FAQ 9.3.@.916FAQ 9.2.@.917FAQ 9.1.@.918FAQ 8.3.@.919FAQ 8.2.@.920FAQ 8.1.@.921FAQ 7.3.@.922FAQ 7.2.@.923FAQ 7.1.@.924FAQ 6.2.@.925FAQ 6.1.@.926FAQ 5.4.@.927FAQ 5.3.@.928FAQ 5.2.@.929FAQ 5.1.@.930FAQ 4.3.@.931FAQ 4.2.@.932FAQ 4.1.@.933FAQ 3.3.@.934FAQ 3.2.@.935FAQ 3.1.@.936FAQ 2.2.@.937FAQ 2.1.@.938FAQ 1.3.@.939FAQ 1.2.@.940FAQ 1.1.@.941Magnitude or intensity is the raw value of a climate hazard, such as an increase in the maximum yearly temperature or in the height of flooding that results from a coastal storm with a 1% change of occurring each year.

FAQ 12.3.dFAQ 12.2.mFAQ 12.2.pFAQ 12.2.uFAQ 12.1.aqFAQ 12.1.axFAQ 11.3.baFAQ 11.3.brFAQ 11.2.chFAQ 11.1.cwFAQ 11.1.ddFAQ 10.2.dyFAQ 10.2.ehFAQ 10.1.etFAQ 10.1.faFAQ 9.3.fxFAQ 9.3.ghFAQ 9.2.gmFAQ 9.2.gvFAQ 9.1.hdFAQ 9.1.hkFAQ 8.3.hpFAQ 8.3.hvFAQ 8.2.@.266FAQ 8.2.@.275FAQ 8.1.@.294FAQ 8.1.@.305FAQ 7.3.@.309FAQ 7.3.@.318FAQ 7.2.@.332FAQ 7.2.@.340FAQ 7.1.@.357FAQ 7.1.@.366FAQ 6.2.@.390FAQ 6.2.@.399FAQ 6.1.@.420FAQ 6.1.@.429FAQ 5.4.@.432FAQ 5.4.@.453FAQ 5.3.@.456FAQ 5.3.@.508FAQ 5.2.@.511FAQ 5.2.@.529FAQ 5.1.@.532FAQ 5.1.@.565FAQ 4.3.@.575FAQ 4.3.@.584FAQ 4.2.@.632FAQ 4.2.@.640FAQ 4.1.@.664FAQ 4.1.@.671FAQ 3.3.@.683FAQ 3.3.@.691FAQ 3.2.@.712FAQ 3.2.@.713FAQ 3.2.@.720FAQ 3.1.@.725FAQ 3.1.@.733FAQ 2.2.@.757FAQ 2.2.@.766FAQ 2.1.@.776FAQ 2.1.@.785FAQ 1.3.@.817FAQ 1.3.@.825FAQ 1.2.@.833FAQ 1.2.@.843FAQ 1.1.@.897FAQ 1.1.@.906FAQ 12.3.@.909FAQ 12.2.@.910FAQ 12.1.@.911FAQ 11.3.@.912FAQ 11.2.@.913FAQ 11.1.@.914FAQ 10.2.@.915FAQ 10.1.@.916FAQ 9.3.@.917FAQ 9.2.@.918FAQ 9.1.@.919FAQ 8.3.@.920FAQ 8.2.@.921FAQ 8.1.@.922FAQ 7.3.@.923FAQ 7.2.@.924FAQ 7.1.@.925FAQ 6.2.@.926FAQ 6.1.@.927FAQ 5.4.@.928FAQ 5.3.@.929FAQ 5.2.@.930FAQ 5.1.@.931FAQ 4.3.@.932FAQ 4.2.@.933FAQ 4.1.@.934FAQ 3.3.@.935FAQ 3.2.@.936FAQ 3.1.@.937FAQ 2.2.@.938FAQ 2.1.@.939FAQ 1.3.@.940FAQ 1.2.@.941FAQ 1.1.@.942Frequency is the number of times that a climate hazard reaches or surpasses a threshold over a given period. For example, increases to the number of heavy snowfall events, tornadoes, or floods experienced in a year or in a decade.

FAQ 12.3.eFAQ 12.2.nFAQ 12.2.qFAQ 12.2.vFAQ 12.1.arFAQ 12.1.ayFAQ 11.3.bbFAQ 11.3.bsFAQ 11.2.ciFAQ 11.1.cxFAQ 11.1.deFAQ 10.2.dzFAQ 10.2.eiFAQ 10.1.euFAQ 10.1.fbFAQ 9.3.fyFAQ 9.3.giFAQ 9.2.gnFAQ 9.2.gwFAQ 9.1.heFAQ 9.1.hlFAQ 8.3.hqFAQ 8.3.hwFAQ 8.2.@.267FAQ 8.2.@.276FAQ 8.1.@.295FAQ 8.1.@.306FAQ 7.3.@.310FAQ 7.3.@.319FAQ 7.2.@.333FAQ 7.2.@.341FAQ 7.1.@.358FAQ 7.1.@.367FAQ 6.2.@.391FAQ 6.2.@.400FAQ 6.1.@.421FAQ 6.1.@.430FAQ 5.4.@.433FAQ 5.4.@.454FAQ 5.3.@.457FAQ 5.3.@.509FAQ 5.2.@.512FAQ 5.2.@.530FAQ 5.1.@.533FAQ 5.1.@.566FAQ 4.3.@.576FAQ 4.3.@.585FAQ 4.2.@.633FAQ 4.2.@.641FAQ 4.1.@.665FAQ 4.1.@.672FAQ 3.3.@.684FAQ 3.3.@.692FAQ 3.2.@.713FAQ 3.2.@.714FAQ 3.2.@.721FAQ 3.1.@.726FAQ 3.1.@.734FAQ 2.2.@.758FAQ 2.2.@.767FAQ 2.1.@.777FAQ 2.1.@.786FAQ 1.3.@.818FAQ 1.3.@.826FAQ 1.2.@.834FAQ 1.2.@.844FAQ 1.1.@.898FAQ 1.1.@.907FAQ 12.3.@.910FAQ 12.2.@.911FAQ 12.1.@.912FAQ 11.3.@.913FAQ 11.2.@.914FAQ 11.1.@.915FAQ 10.2.@.916FAQ 10.1.@.917FAQ 9.3.@.918FAQ 9.2.@.919FAQ 9.1.@.920FAQ 8.3.@.921FAQ 8.2.@.922FAQ 8.1.@.923FAQ 7.3.@.924FAQ 7.2.@.925FAQ 7.1.@.926FAQ 6.2.@.927FAQ 6.1.@.928FAQ 5.4.@.929FAQ 5.3.@.930FAQ 5.2.@.931FAQ 5.1.@.932FAQ 4.3.@.933FAQ 4.2.@.934FAQ 4.1.@.935FAQ 3.3.@.936FAQ 3.2.@.937FAQ 3.1.@.938FAQ 2.2.@.939FAQ 2.1.@.940FAQ 1.3.@.941FAQ 1.2.@.942FAQ 1.1.@.943Duration is the length of time over which hazardous conditions persist beyond a threshold, such as an increase in the number of consecutive days where maximum air temperature exceeds 35°C, the number of consecutive months of drought conditions, or the number of days that a tropical cyclone affects a location.

FAQ 12.3.fFAQ 12.2.oFAQ 12.2.rFAQ 12.2.wFAQ 12.1.asFAQ 12.1.azFAQ 11.3.bcFAQ 11.3.btFAQ 11.2.cjFAQ 11.1.cyFAQ 11.1.dfFAQ 10.2.eaFAQ 10.2.ejFAQ 10.1.evFAQ 10.1.fcFAQ 9.3.fzFAQ 9.3.gjFAQ 9.2.goFAQ 9.2.gxFAQ 9.1.hfFAQ 9.1.hmFAQ 8.3.hrFAQ 8.3.hxFAQ 8.2.@.268FAQ 8.2.@.277FAQ 8.1.@.296FAQ 8.1.@.307FAQ 7.3.@.311FAQ 7.3.@.320FAQ 7.2.@.334FAQ 7.2.@.342FAQ 7.1.@.359FAQ 7.1.@.368FAQ 6.2.@.392FAQ 6.2.@.401FAQ 6.1.@.422FAQ 6.1.@.431FAQ 5.4.@.434FAQ 5.4.@.455FAQ 5.3.@.458FAQ 5.3.@.510FAQ 5.2.@.513FAQ 5.2.@.531FAQ 5.1.@.534FAQ 5.1.@.567FAQ 4.3.@.577FAQ 4.3.@.586FAQ 4.2.@.634FAQ 4.2.@.642FAQ 4.1.@.666FAQ 4.1.@.673FAQ 3.3.@.685FAQ 3.3.@.693FAQ 3.2.@.714FAQ 3.2.@.715FAQ 3.2.@.722FAQ 3.1.@.727FAQ 3.1.@.735FAQ 2.2.@.759FAQ 2.2.@.768FAQ 2.1.@.778FAQ 2.1.@.787FAQ 1.3.@.819FAQ 1.3.@.827FAQ 1.2.@.835FAQ 1.2.@.845FAQ 1.1.@.899FAQ 1.1.@.908FAQ 12.3.@.911FAQ 12.2.@.912FAQ 12.1.@.913FAQ 11.3.@.914FAQ 11.2.@.915FAQ 11.1.@.916FAQ 10.2.@.917FAQ 10.1.@.918FAQ 9.3.@.919FAQ 9.2.@.920FAQ 9.1.@.921FAQ 8.3.@.922FAQ 8.2.@.923FAQ 8.1.@.924FAQ 7.3.@.925FAQ 7.2.@.926FAQ 7.1.@.927FAQ 6.2.@.928FAQ 6.1.@.929FAQ 5.4.@.930FAQ 5.3.@.931FAQ 5.2.@.932FAQ 5.1.@.933FAQ 4.3.@.934FAQ 4.2.@.935FAQ 4.1.@.936FAQ 3.3.@.937FAQ 3.2.@.938FAQ 3.1.@.939FAQ 2.2.@.940FAQ 2.1.@.941FAQ 1.3.@.942FAQ 1.2.@.943FAQ 1.1.@.944Timing captures the occurrence of a hazardous event in relation to the course of a day, season, year, or other period in which sectoral elements are evolving or co-dependent (such as the time of year when migrating animals expect to find a seasonal food supply). Examples include a shift towards an earlier day of the year when the last spring frost occurs or a delay in the typical arrival date for the first seasonal rains, the length of the winter period when the ground is typically covered by snow, or a reduction in the typical time needed for soil moisture to move from normal to drought conditions.

FAQ 12.3.gFAQ 12.2.pFAQ 12.2.sFAQ 12.2.xFAQ 12.1.atFAQ 12.1.baFAQ 11.3.bdFAQ 11.3.buFAQ 11.2.ckFAQ 11.1.czFAQ 11.1.dgFAQ 10.2.ebFAQ 10.2.ekFAQ 10.1.ewFAQ 10.1.fdFAQ 9.3.gaFAQ 9.3.gkFAQ 9.2.gpFAQ 9.2.gyFAQ 9.1.hgFAQ 9.1.hnFAQ 8.3.hsFAQ 8.3.hyFAQ 8.2.@.269FAQ 8.2.@.278FAQ 8.1.@.297FAQ 8.1.@.308FAQ 7.3.@.312FAQ 7.3.@.321FAQ 7.2.@.335FAQ 7.2.@.343FAQ 7.1.@.360FAQ 7.1.@.369FAQ 6.2.@.393FAQ 6.2.@.402FAQ 6.1.@.423FAQ 6.1.@.432FAQ 5.4.@.435FAQ 5.4.@.456FAQ 5.3.@.459FAQ 5.3.@.511FAQ 5.2.@.514FAQ 5.2.@.532FAQ 5.1.@.535FAQ 5.1.@.568FAQ 4.3.@.578FAQ 4.3.@.587FAQ 4.2.@.635FAQ 4.2.@.643FAQ 4.1.@.667FAQ 4.1.@.674FAQ 3.3.@.686FAQ 3.3.@.694FAQ 3.2.@.715FAQ 3.2.@.716FAQ 3.2.@.723FAQ 3.1.@.728FAQ 3.1.@.736FAQ 2.2.@.760FAQ 2.2.@.769FAQ 2.1.@.779FAQ 2.1.@.788FAQ 1.3.@.820FAQ 1.3.@.828FAQ 1.2.@.836FAQ 1.2.@.846FAQ 1.1.@.900FAQ 1.1.@.909FAQ 12.3.@.912FAQ 12.2.@.913FAQ 12.1.@.914FAQ 11.3.@.915FAQ 11.2.@.916FAQ 11.1.@.917FAQ 10.2.@.918FAQ 10.1.@.919FAQ 9.3.@.920FAQ 9.2.@.921FAQ 9.1.@.922FAQ 8.3.@.923FAQ 8.2.@.924FAQ 8.1.@.925FAQ 7.3.@.926FAQ 7.2.@.927FAQ 7.1.@.928FAQ 6.2.@.929FAQ 6.1.@.930FAQ 5.4.@.931FAQ 5.3.@.932FAQ 5.2.@.933FAQ 5.1.@.934FAQ 4.3.@.935FAQ 4.2.@.936FAQ 4.1.@.937FAQ 3.3.@.938FAQ 3.2.@.939FAQ 3.1.@.940FAQ 2.2.@.941FAQ 2.1.@.942FAQ 1.3.@.943FAQ 1.2.@.944FAQ 1.1.@.945Spatial extent is the region in which a hazardous condition is expected, such as the area currently threatened by tropical cyclones, geographical areas where the coldest day of the year restricts a particular pest or pathogen, terrain where permafrost is present, the area that would flood following a common storm, zones where climate conditions are conducive to outdoor labour, or the size of a marine heatwave.

FAQ 12.3.hFAQ 12.2.qFAQ 12.2.tFAQ 12.2.yFAQ 12.1.auFAQ 12.1.bbFAQ 11.3.beFAQ 11.3.bvFAQ 11.2.clFAQ 11.1.daFAQ 11.1.dhFAQ 10.2.ecFAQ 10.2.elFAQ 10.1.exFAQ 10.1.feFAQ 9.3.gbFAQ 9.3.glFAQ 9.2.gqFAQ 9.2.gzFAQ 9.1.hhFAQ 9.1.hoFAQ 8.3.htFAQ 8.3.hzFAQ 8.2.@.270FAQ 8.2.@.279FAQ 8.1.@.298FAQ 8.1.@.309FAQ 7.3.@.313FAQ 7.3.@.322FAQ 7.2.@.336FAQ 7.2.@.344FAQ 7.1.@.361FAQ 7.1.@.370FAQ 6.2.@.394FAQ 6.2.@.403FAQ 6.1.@.424FAQ 6.1.@.433FAQ 5.4.@.436FAQ 5.4.@.457FAQ 5.3.@.460FAQ 5.3.@.512FAQ 5.2.@.515FAQ 5.2.@.533FAQ 5.1.@.536FAQ 5.1.@.569FAQ 4.3.@.579FAQ 4.3.@.588FAQ 4.2.@.636FAQ 4.2.@.644FAQ 4.1.@.668FAQ 4.1.@.675FAQ 3.3.@.687FAQ 3.3.@.695FAQ 3.2.@.716FAQ 3.2.@.717FAQ 3.2.@.724FAQ 3.1.@.729FAQ 3.1.@.737FAQ 2.2.@.761FAQ 2.2.@.770FAQ 2.1.@.780FAQ 2.1.@.789FAQ 1.3.@.821FAQ 1.3.@.829FAQ 1.2.@.837FAQ 1.2.@.847FAQ 1.1.@.901FAQ 1.1.@.910FAQ 12.3.@.913FAQ 12.2.@.914FAQ 12.1.@.915FAQ 11.3.@.916FAQ 11.2.@.917FAQ 11.1.@.918FAQ 10.2.@.919FAQ 10.1.@.920FAQ 9.3.@.921FAQ 9.2.@.922FAQ 9.1.@.923FAQ 8.3.@.924FAQ 8.2.@.925FAQ 8.1.@.926FAQ 7.3.@.927FAQ 7.2.@.928FAQ 7.1.@.929FAQ 6.2.@.930FAQ 6.1.@.931FAQ 5.4.@.932FAQ 5.3.@.933FAQ 5.2.@.934FAQ 5.1.@.935FAQ 4.3.@.936FAQ 4.2.@.937FAQ 4.1.@.938FAQ 3.3.@.939FAQ 3.2.@.940FAQ 3.1.@.941FAQ 2.2.@.942FAQ 2.1.@.943FAQ 1.3.@.944FAQ 1.2.@.945FAQ 1.1.@.946Hazard profile changes are often intertwined or stem from related physical changes to the climate system. For example, changes in the frequency and magnitude of extreme events are often directly related to each other as a result of atmospheric dynamics and chemical processes. In many cases, one aspect of hazard change is more apparent than others, which may provide a first emergent signal indicating a larger set of changes to come (FAQ 1.2).

FAQ 12.3.iFAQ 12.2.rFAQ 12.2.uFAQ 12.2.zFAQ 12.1.avFAQ 12.1.bcFAQ 11.3.bfFAQ 11.3.bwFAQ 11.2.cmFAQ 11.1.dbFAQ 11.1.diFAQ 10.2.edFAQ 10.2.emFAQ 10.1.eyFAQ 10.1.ffFAQ 9.3.gcFAQ 9.3.gmFAQ 9.2.grFAQ 9.2.haFAQ 9.1.hiFAQ 9.1.hpFAQ 8.3.huFAQ 8.3.iaFAQ 8.2.@.271FAQ 8.2.@.280FAQ 8.1.@.299FAQ 8.1.@.310FAQ 7.3.@.314FAQ 7.3.@.323FAQ 7.2.@.337FAQ 7.2.@.345FAQ 7.1.@.362FAQ 7.1.@.371FAQ 6.2.@.395FAQ 6.2.@.404FAQ 6.1.@.425FAQ 6.1.@.434FAQ 5.4.@.437FAQ 5.4.@.458FAQ 5.3.@.461FAQ 5.3.@.513FAQ 5.2.@.516FAQ 5.2.@.534FAQ 5.1.@.537FAQ 5.1.@.570FAQ 4.3.@.580FAQ 4.3.@.589FAQ 4.2.@.637FAQ 4.2.@.645FAQ 4.1.@.669FAQ 4.1.@.676FAQ 3.3.@.688FAQ 3.3.@.696FAQ 3.2.@.717FAQ 3.2.@.718FAQ 3.2.@.725FAQ 3.1.@.730FAQ 3.1.@.738FAQ 2.2.@.762FAQ 2.2.@.771FAQ 2.1.@.781FAQ 2.1.@.790FAQ 1.3.@.822FAQ 1.3.@.830FAQ 1.2.@.838FAQ 1.2.@.848FAQ 1.1.@.902FAQ 1.1.@.911FAQ 12.3.@.914FAQ 12.2.@.915FAQ 12.1.@.916FAQ 11.3.@.917FAQ 11.2.@.918FAQ 11.1.@.919FAQ 10.2.@.920FAQ 10.1.@.921FAQ 9.3.@.922FAQ 9.2.@.923FAQ 9.1.@.924FAQ 8.3.@.925FAQ 8.2.@.926FAQ 8.1.@.927FAQ 7.3.@.928FAQ 7.2.@.929FAQ 7.1.@.930FAQ 6.2.@.931FAQ 6.1.@.932FAQ 5.4.@.933FAQ 5.3.@.934FAQ 5.2.@.935FAQ 5.1.@.936FAQ 4.3.@.937FAQ 4.2.@.938FAQ 4.1.@.939FAQ 3.3.@.940FAQ 3.2.@.941FAQ 3.1.@.942FAQ 2.2.@.943FAQ 2.1.@.944FAQ 1.3.@.945FAQ 1.2.@.946FAQ 1.1.@.947Information about how a hazard has changed or will change helps stakeholders prioritize more robust adaptation, mitigation and risk management strategies. For example, allocation of limited disaster relief resources may be designed to recognize that tropical cyclones are projected to become more intense even as the frequency of those storms may not change. Planning may also factor in the fact that even heatwaves that are not record-breaking in their intensity can still be problematic for vulnerable populations when they persist over a long period. Likewise, firefighters recognize new logistical challenges in the lengthening of the fire weather season and an expansion of fire conditions into parts of the world where fires were not previously a great concern. Strong engagement between climate scientists and stakeholders therefore helps climate services tailor and communicate clear information about the types of changing climate hazards to be addressed in resilience efforts.

FAQ 12.3.jFAQ 12.2.sFAQ 12.2.vFAQ 12.2.aaFAQ 12.1.awFAQ 12.1.bdFAQ 11.3.bgFAQ 11.3.bxFAQ 11.2.cnFAQ 11.1.dcFAQ 11.1.djFAQ 10.2.eeFAQ 10.2.enFAQ 10.1.ezFAQ 10.1.fgFAQ 9.3.gdFAQ 9.3.gnFAQ 9.2.gsFAQ 9.2.hbFAQ 9.1.hjFAQ 9.1.hqFAQ 8.3.hvFAQ 8.3.ibFAQ 8.2.@.272FAQ 8.2.@.281FAQ 8.1.@.300FAQ 8.1.@.311FAQ 7.3.@.315FAQ 7.3.@.324FAQ 7.2.@.338FAQ 7.2.@.346FAQ 7.1.@.363FAQ 7.1.@.372FAQ 6.2.@.396FAQ 6.2.@.405FAQ 6.1.@.426FAQ 6.1.@.435FAQ 5.4.@.438FAQ 5.4.@.459FAQ 5.3.@.462FAQ 5.3.@.514FAQ 5.2.@.517FAQ 5.2.@.535FAQ 5.1.@.538FAQ 5.1.@.571FAQ 4.3.@.581FAQ 4.3.@.590FAQ 4.2.@.638FAQ 4.2.@.646FAQ 4.1.@.670FAQ 4.1.@.677FAQ 3.3.@.689FAQ 3.3.@.697FAQ 3.2.@.718FAQ 3.2.@.719FAQ 3.2.@.726FAQ 3.1.@.731FAQ 3.1.@.739FAQ 2.2.@.763FAQ 2.2.@.772FAQ 2.1.@.782FAQ 2.1.@.791FAQ 1.3.@.823FAQ 1.3.@.831FAQ 1.2.@.839FAQ 1.2.@.849FAQ 1.1.@.903FAQ 1.1.@.912FAQ 12.3.@.915FAQ 12.2.@.916FAQ 12.1.@.917FAQ 11.3.@.918FAQ 11.2.@.919FAQ 11.1.@.920FAQ 10.2.@.921FAQ 10.1.@.922FAQ 9.3.@.923FAQ 9.2.@.924FAQ 9.1.@.925FAQ 8.3.@.926FAQ 8.2.@.927FAQ 8.1.@.928FAQ 7.3.@.929FAQ 7.2.@.930FAQ 7.1.@.931FAQ 6.2.@.932FAQ 6.1.@.933FAQ 5.4.@.934FAQ 5.3.@.935FAQ 5.2.@.936FAQ 5.1.@.937FAQ 4.3.@.938FAQ 4.2.@.939FAQ 4.1.@.940FAQ 3.3.@.941FAQ 3.2.@.942FAQ 3.1.@.943FAQ 2.2.@.944FAQ 2.1.@.945FAQ 1.3.@.946FAQ 1.2.@.947FAQ 1.1.@.948FAQ

FAQ 12.3.kFAQ 12.2.tFAQ 12.2.wFAQ 12.2.abFAQ 12.1.axFAQ 12.1.beFAQ 11.3.bhFAQ 11.3.byFAQ 11.2.coFAQ 11.1.ddFAQ 11.1.dkFAQ 10.2.efFAQ 10.2.eoFAQ 10.1.faFAQ 10.1.fhFAQ 9.3.geFAQ 9.3.goFAQ 9.2.gtFAQ 9.2.hcFAQ 9.1.hkFAQ 9.1.hrFAQ 8.3.hwFAQ 8.3.icFAQ 8.2.@.273FAQ 8.2.@.282FAQ 8.1.@.301FAQ 8.1.@.312FAQ 7.3.@.316FAQ 7.3.@.325FAQ 7.2.@.339FAQ 7.2.@.347FAQ 7.1.@.364FAQ 7.1.@.373FAQ 6.2.@.397FAQ 6.2.@.406FAQ 6.1.@.427FAQ 6.1.@.436FAQ 5.4.@.439FAQ 5.4.@.460FAQ 5.3.@.463FAQ 5.3.@.515FAQ 5.2.@.518FAQ 5.2.@.536FAQ 5.1.@.539FAQ 5.1.@.572FAQ 4.3.@.582FAQ 4.3.@.591FAQ 4.2.@.639FAQ 4.2.@.647FAQ 4.1.@.671FAQ 4.1.@.678FAQ 3.3.@.690FAQ 3.3.@.698FAQ 3.2.@.719FAQ 3.2.@.720FAQ 3.2.@.727FAQ 3.1.@.732FAQ 3.1.@.740FAQ 2.2.@.764FAQ 2.2.@.773FAQ 2.1.@.783FAQ 2.1.@.792FAQ 1.3.@.824FAQ 1.3.@.832FAQ 1.2.@.840FAQ 1.2.@.850FAQ 1.1.@.904FAQ 1.1.@.913FAQ 12.3.@.916FAQ 12.2.@.917FAQ 12.1.@.918FAQ 11.3.@.919FAQ 11.2.@.920FAQ 11.1.@.921FAQ 10.2.@.922FAQ 10.1.@.923FAQ 9.3.@.924FAQ 9.2.@.925FAQ 9.1.@.926FAQ 8.3.@.927FAQ 8.2.@.928FAQ 8.1.@.929FAQ 7.3.@.930FAQ 7.2.@.931FAQ 7.1.@.932FAQ 6.2.@.933FAQ 6.1.@.934FAQ 5.4.@.935FAQ 5.3.@.936FAQ 5.2.@.937FAQ 5.1.@.938FAQ 4.3.@.939FAQ 4.2.@.940FAQ 4.1.@.941FAQ 3.3.@.942FAQ 3.2.@.943FAQ 3.1.@.944FAQ 2.2.@.945FAQ 2.1.@.946FAQ 1.3.@.947FAQ 1.2.@.948FAQ 1.1.@.949FAQ 12.3 (continued)

FAQ 12.3.aFAQ 12.3.lFAQ 12.2.uFAQ 12.2.xFAQ 12.2.acFAQ 12.1.ayFAQ 12.1.bfFAQ 11.3.biFAQ 11.3.bzFAQ 11.2.cpFAQ 11.1.deFAQ 11.1.dlFAQ 10.2.egFAQ 10.2.epFAQ 10.1.fbFAQ 10.1.fiFAQ 9.3.gfFAQ 9.3.gpFAQ 9.2.guFAQ 9.2.hdFAQ 9.1.hlFAQ 9.1.hsFAQ 8.3.hxFAQ 8.3.idFAQ 8.2.@.274FAQ 8.2.@.283FAQ 8.1.@.302FAQ 8.1.@.313FAQ 7.3.@.317FAQ 7.3.@.326FAQ 7.2.@.340FAQ 7.2.@.348FAQ 7.1.@.365FAQ 7.1.@.374FAQ 6.2.@.398FAQ 6.2.@.407FAQ 6.1.@.428FAQ 6.1.@.437FAQ 5.4.@.440FAQ 5.4.@.461FAQ 5.3.@.464FAQ 5.3.@.516FAQ 5.2.@.519FAQ 5.2.@.537FAQ 5.1.@.540FAQ 5.1.@.573FAQ 4.3.@.583FAQ 4.3.@.592FAQ 4.2.@.640FAQ 4.2.@.648FAQ 4.1.@.672FAQ 4.1.@.679FAQ 3.3.@.691FAQ 3.3.@.699FAQ 3.2.@.720FAQ 3.2.@.721FAQ 3.2.@.728FAQ 3.1.@.733FAQ 3.1.@.741FAQ 2.2.@.765FAQ 2.2.@.774FAQ 2.1.@.784FAQ 2.1.@.793FAQ 1.3.@.825FAQ 1.3.@.833FAQ 1.2.@.841FAQ 1.2.@.851FAQ 1.1.@.905FAQ 1.1.@.914FAQ 12.3.@.917FAQ 12.2.@.918FAQ 12.1.@.919FAQ 11.3.@.920FAQ 11.2.@.921FAQ 11.1.@.922FAQ 10.2.@.923FAQ 10.1.@.924FAQ 9.3.@.925FAQ 9.2.@.926FAQ 9.1.@.927FAQ 8.3.@.928FAQ 8.2.@.929FAQ 8.1.@.930FAQ 7.3.@.931FAQ 7.2.@.932FAQ 7.1.@.933FAQ 6.2.@.934FAQ 6.1.@.935FAQ 5.4.@.936FAQ 5.3.@.937FAQ 5.2.@.938FAQ 5.1.@.939FAQ 4.3.@.940FAQ 4.2.@.941FAQ 4.1.@.942FAQ 3.3.@.943FAQ 3.2.@.944FAQ 3.1.@.945FAQ 2.2.@.946FAQ 2.1.@.947FAQ 1.3.@.948FAQ 1.2.@.949FAQ 1.1.@.950FAQ 12.3, Figure 1 | Types of changes to a region’s hazard profile. The first five panels illustrate how climate changes can alter a hazard’s intensity (or magnitude), frequency, duration, and timing (by seasonality and speed of onset) in relation to a hazard threshold (horizontal grey line, marked ‘H’). The difference between the historical climate (blue) and future climate (red) shows the changing aspects of climate change that stakeholders will have to manage. The bottom right-hand panel shows how a given climate hazard (such as a current once-in-100-year river flood, geographic extent in blue) may reach new geographical areas under a future climate change (extended area in red).

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FAQ 12.3.fFAQ 12.3.qFAQ 12.2.zFAQ 12.2.acFAQ 12.2.ahFAQ 12.1.bdFAQ 12.1.bkFAQ 11.3.bnFAQ 11.3.ceFAQ 11.2.cuFAQ 11.1.djFAQ 11.1.dqFAQ 10.2.elFAQ 10.2.euFAQ 10.1.fgFAQ 10.1.fnFAQ 9.3.gkFAQ 9.3.guFAQ 9.2.gzFAQ 9.2.hiFAQ 9.1.hqFAQ 9.1.hxFAQ 8.3.icFAQ 8.3.iiFAQ 8.2.@.279FAQ 8.2.@.288FAQ 8.1.@.307FAQ 8.1.@.318FAQ 7.3.@.322FAQ 7.3.@.331FAQ 7.2.@.345FAQ 7.2.@.353FAQ 7.1.@.370FAQ 7.1.@.379FAQ 6.2.@.403FAQ 6.2.@.412FAQ 6.1.@.433FAQ 6.1.@.442FAQ 5.4.@.445FAQ 5.4.@.466FAQ 5.3.@.469FAQ 5.3.@.521FAQ 5.2.@.524FAQ 5.2.@.542FAQ 5.1.@.545FAQ 5.1.@.578FAQ 4.3.@.588FAQ 4.3.@.597FAQ 4.2.@.645FAQ 4.2.@.653FAQ 4.1.@.677FAQ 4.1.@.684FAQ 3.3.@.696FAQ 3.3.@.704FAQ 3.2.@.725FAQ 3.2.@.726FAQ 3.2.@.733FAQ 3.1.@.738FAQ 3.1.@.746FAQ 2.2.@.770FAQ 2.2.@.779FAQ 2.1.@.789FAQ 2.1.@.798FAQ 1.3.@.830FAQ 1.3.@.838FAQ 1.2.@.846FAQ 1.2.@.856FAQ 1.1.@.910FAQ 1.1.@.919FAQ 12.3.@.922FAQ 12.2.@.923FAQ 12.1.@.924FAQ 11.3.@.925FAQ 11.2.@.926FAQ 11.1.@.927FAQ 10.2.@.928FAQ 10.1.@.929FAQ 9.3.@.930FAQ 9.2.@.931FAQ 9.1.@.932FAQ 8.3.@.933FAQ 8.2.@.934FAQ 8.1.@.935FAQ 7.3.@.936FAQ 7.2.@.937FAQ 7.1.@.938FAQ 6.2.@.939FAQ 6.1.@.940FAQ 5.4.@.941FAQ 5.3.@.942FAQ 5.2.@.943FAQ 5.1.@.944FAQ 4.3.@.945FAQ 4.2.@.946FAQ 4.1.@.947FAQ 3.3.@.948FAQ 3.2.@.949FAQ 3.1.@.950FAQ 2.2.@.951FAQ 2.1.@.952FAQ 1.3.@.953FAQ 1.2.@.954FAQ 1.1.@.955FAQ 12.3: How will climate change affect climate hazards?

FAQ 12.3.gFAQ 12.3.rFAQ 12.2.aaFAQ 12.2.adFAQ 12.2.aiFAQ 12.1.beFAQ 12.1.blFAQ 11.3.boFAQ 11.3.cfFAQ 11.2.cvFAQ 11.1.dkFAQ 11.1.drFAQ 10.2.emFAQ 10.2.evFAQ 10.1.fhFAQ 10.1.foFAQ 9.3.glFAQ 9.3.gvFAQ 9.2.haFAQ 9.2.hjFAQ 9.1.hrFAQ 9.1.hyFAQ 8.3.idFAQ 8.3.ijFAQ 8.2.@.280FAQ 8.2.@.289FAQ 8.1.@.308FAQ 8.1.@.319FAQ 7.3.@.323FAQ 7.3.@.332FAQ 7.2.@.346FAQ 7.2.@.354FAQ 7.1.@.371FAQ 7.1.@.380FAQ 6.2.@.404FAQ 6.2.@.413FAQ 6.1.@.434FAQ 6.1.@.443FAQ 5.4.@.446FAQ 5.4.@.467FAQ 5.3.@.470FAQ 5.3.@.522FAQ 5.2.@.525FAQ 5.2.@.543FAQ 5.1.@.546FAQ 5.1.@.579FAQ 4.3.@.589FAQ 4.3.@.598FAQ 4.2.@.646FAQ 4.2.@.654FAQ 4.1.@.678FAQ 4.1.@.685FAQ 3.3.@.697FAQ 3.3.@.705FAQ 3.2.@.726FAQ 3.2.@.727FAQ 3.2.@.734FAQ 3.1.@.739FAQ 3.1.@.747FAQ 2.2.@.771FAQ 2.2.@.780FAQ 2.1.@.790FAQ 2.1.@.799FAQ 1.3.@.831FAQ 1.3.@.839FAQ 1.2.@.847FAQ 1.2.@.857FAQ 1.1.@.911FAQ 1.1.@.920FAQ 12.3.@.923FAQ 12.2.@.924FAQ 12.1.@.925FAQ 11.3.@.926FAQ 11.2.@.927FAQ 11.1.@.928FAQ 10.2.@.929FAQ 10.1.@.930FAQ 9.3.@.931FAQ 9.2.@.932FAQ 9.1.@.933FAQ 8.3.@.934FAQ 8.2.@.935FAQ 8.1.@.936FAQ 7.3.@.937FAQ 7.2.@.938FAQ 7.1.@.939FAQ 6.2.@.940FAQ 6.1.@.941FAQ 5.4.@.942FAQ 5.3.@.943FAQ 5.2.@.944FAQ 5.1.@.945FAQ 4.3.@.946FAQ 4.2.@.947FAQ 4.1.@.948FAQ 3.3.@.949FAQ 3.2.@.950FAQ 3.1.@.951FAQ 2.2.@.952FAQ 2.1.@.953FAQ 1.3.@.954FAQ 1.2.@.955FAQ 1.1.@.956Intensity and Magnitude

FAQ 12.3.hFAQ 12.3.sFAQ 12.2.abFAQ 12.2.aeFAQ 12.2.ajFAQ 12.1.bfFAQ 12.1.bmFAQ 11.3.bpFAQ 11.3.cgFAQ 11.2.cwFAQ 11.1.dlFAQ 11.1.dsFAQ 10.2.enFAQ 10.2.ewFAQ 10.1.fiFAQ 10.1.fpFAQ 9.3.gmFAQ 9.3.gwFAQ 9.2.hbFAQ 9.2.hkFAQ 9.1.hsFAQ 9.1.hzFAQ 8.3.ieFAQ 8.3.ikFAQ 8.2.@.281FAQ 8.2.@.290FAQ 8.1.@.309FAQ 8.1.@.320FAQ 7.3.@.324FAQ 7.3.@.333FAQ 7.2.@.347FAQ 7.2.@.355FAQ 7.1.@.372FAQ 7.1.@.381FAQ 6.2.@.405FAQ 6.2.@.414FAQ 6.1.@.435FAQ 6.1.@.444FAQ 5.4.@.447FAQ 5.4.@.468FAQ 5.3.@.471FAQ 5.3.@.523FAQ 5.2.@.526FAQ 5.2.@.544FAQ 5.1.@.547FAQ 5.1.@.580FAQ 4.3.@.590FAQ 4.3.@.599FAQ 4.2.@.647FAQ 4.2.@.655FAQ 4.1.@.679FAQ 4.1.@.686FAQ 3.3.@.698FAQ 3.3.@.706FAQ 3.2.@.727FAQ 3.2.@.728FAQ 3.2.@.735FAQ 3.1.@.740FAQ 3.1.@.748FAQ 2.2.@.772FAQ 2.2.@.781FAQ 2.1.@.791FAQ 2.1.@.800FAQ 1.3.@.832FAQ 1.3.@.840FAQ 1.2.@.848FAQ 1.2.@.858FAQ 1.1.@.912FAQ 1.1.@.921FAQ 12.3.@.924FAQ 12.2.@.925FAQ 12.1.@.926FAQ 11.3.@.927FAQ 11.2.@.928FAQ 11.1.@.929FAQ 10.2.@.930FAQ 10.1.@.931FAQ 9.3.@.932FAQ 9.2.@.933FAQ 9.1.@.934FAQ 8.3.@.935FAQ 8.2.@.936FAQ 8.1.@.937FAQ 7.3.@.938FAQ 7.2.@.939FAQ 7.1.@.940FAQ 6.2.@.941FAQ 6.1.@.942FAQ 5.4.@.943FAQ 5.3.@.944FAQ 5.2.@.945FAQ 5.1.@.946FAQ 4.3.@.947FAQ 4.2.@.948FAQ 4.1.@.949FAQ 3.3.@.950FAQ 3.2.@.951FAQ 3.1.@.952FAQ 2.2.@.953FAQ 2.1.@.954FAQ 1.3.@.955FAQ 1.2.@.956FAQ 1.1.@.957TimeTime

FAQ 12.3.iFAQ 12.3.tFAQ 12.2.acFAQ 12.2.afFAQ 12.2.akFAQ 12.1.bgFAQ 12.1.bnFAQ 11.3.bqFAQ 11.3.chFAQ 11.2.cxFAQ 11.1.dmFAQ 11.1.dtFAQ 10.2.eoFAQ 10.2.exFAQ 10.1.fjFAQ 10.1.fqFAQ 9.3.gnFAQ 9.3.gxFAQ 9.2.hcFAQ 9.2.hlFAQ 9.1.htFAQ 9.1.iaFAQ 8.3.ifFAQ 8.3.ilFAQ 8.2.@.282FAQ 8.2.@.291FAQ 8.1.@.310FAQ 8.1.@.321FAQ 7.3.@.325FAQ 7.3.@.334FAQ 7.2.@.348FAQ 7.2.@.356FAQ 7.1.@.373FAQ 7.1.@.382FAQ 6.2.@.406FAQ 6.2.@.415FAQ 6.1.@.436FAQ 6.1.@.445FAQ 5.4.@.448FAQ 5.4.@.469FAQ 5.3.@.472FAQ 5.3.@.524FAQ 5.2.@.527FAQ 5.2.@.545FAQ 5.1.@.548FAQ 5.1.@.581FAQ 4.3.@.591FAQ 4.3.@.600FAQ 4.2.@.648FAQ 4.2.@.656FAQ 4.1.@.680FAQ 4.1.@.687FAQ 3.3.@.699FAQ 3.3.@.707FAQ 3.2.@.728FAQ 3.2.@.729FAQ 3.2.@.736FAQ 3.1.@.741FAQ 3.1.@.749FAQ 2.2.@.773FAQ 2.2.@.782FAQ 2.1.@.792FAQ 2.1.@.801FAQ 1.3.@.833FAQ 1.3.@.841FAQ 1.2.@.849FAQ 1.2.@.859FAQ 1.1.@.913FAQ 1.1.@.922FAQ 12.3.@.925FAQ 12.2.@.926FAQ 12.1.@.927FAQ 11.3.@.928FAQ 11.2.@.929FAQ 11.1.@.930FAQ 10.2.@.931FAQ 10.1.@.932FAQ 9.3.@.933FAQ 9.2.@.934FAQ 9.1.@.935FAQ 8.3.@.936FAQ 8.2.@.937FAQ 8.1.@.938FAQ 7.3.@.939FAQ 7.2.@.940FAQ 7.1.@.941FAQ 6.2.@.942FAQ 6.1.@.943FAQ 5.4.@.944FAQ 5.3.@.945FAQ 5.2.@.946FAQ 5.1.@.947FAQ 4.3.@.948FAQ 4.2.@.949FAQ 4.1.@.950FAQ 3.3.@.951FAQ 3.2.@.952FAQ 3.1.@.953FAQ 2.2.@.954FAQ 2.1.@.955FAQ 1.3.@.956FAQ 1.2.@.957FAQ 1.1.@.958TimeTime

FAQ 12.3.jFAQ 12.3.uFAQ 12.2.adFAQ 12.2.agFAQ 12.2.alFAQ 12.1.bhFAQ 12.1.boFAQ 11.3.brFAQ 11.3.ciFAQ 11.2.cyFAQ 11.1.dnFAQ 11.1.duFAQ 10.2.epFAQ 10.2.eyFAQ 10.1.fkFAQ 10.1.frFAQ 9.3.goFAQ 9.3.gyFAQ 9.2.hdFAQ 9.2.hmFAQ 9.1.huFAQ 9.1.ibFAQ 8.3.igFAQ 8.3.imFAQ 8.2.@.283FAQ 8.2.@.292FAQ 8.1.@.311FAQ 8.1.@.322FAQ 7.3.@.326FAQ 7.3.@.335FAQ 7.2.@.349FAQ 7.2.@.357FAQ 7.1.@.374FAQ 7.1.@.383FAQ 6.2.@.407FAQ 6.2.@.416FAQ 6.1.@.437FAQ 6.1.@.446FAQ 5.4.@.449FAQ 5.4.@.470FAQ 5.3.@.473FAQ 5.3.@.525FAQ 5.2.@.528FAQ 5.2.@.546FAQ 5.1.@.549FAQ 5.1.@.582FAQ 4.3.@.592FAQ 4.3.@.601FAQ 4.2.@.649FAQ 4.2.@.657FAQ 4.1.@.681FAQ 4.1.@.688FAQ 3.3.@.700FAQ 3.3.@.708FAQ 3.2.@.729FAQ 3.2.@.730FAQ 3.2.@.737FAQ 3.1.@.742FAQ 3.1.@.750FAQ 2.2.@.774FAQ 2.2.@.783FAQ 2.1.@.793FAQ 2.1.@.802FAQ 1.3.@.834FAQ 1.3.@.842FAQ 1.2.@.850FAQ 1.2.@.860FAQ 1.1.@.914FAQ 1.1.@.923FAQ 12.3.@.926FAQ 12.2.@.927FAQ 12.1.@.928FAQ 11.3.@.929FAQ 11.2.@.930FAQ 11.1.@.931FAQ 10.2.@.932FAQ 10.1.@.933FAQ 9.3.@.934FAQ 9.2.@.935FAQ 9.1.@.936FAQ 8.3.@.937FAQ 8.2.@.938FAQ 8.1.@.939FAQ 7.3.@.940FAQ 7.2.@.941FAQ 7.1.@.942FAQ 6.2.@.943FAQ 6.1.@.944FAQ 5.4.@.945FAQ 5.3.@.946FAQ 5.2.@.947FAQ 5.1.@.948FAQ 4.3.@.949FAQ 4.2.@.950FAQ 4.1.@.951FAQ 3.3.@.952FAQ 3.2.@.953FAQ 3.1.@.954FAQ 2.2.@.955FAQ 2.1.@.956FAQ 1.3.@.957FAQ 1.2.@.958FAQ 1.1.@.959Time

FAQ 12.3.kFAQ 12.3.vFAQ 12.2.aeFAQ 12.2.ahFAQ 12.2.amFAQ 12.1.biFAQ 12.1.bpFAQ 11.3.bsFAQ 11.3.cjFAQ 11.2.czFAQ 11.1.doFAQ 11.1.dvFAQ 10.2.eqFAQ 10.2.ezFAQ 10.1.flFAQ 10.1.fsFAQ 9.3.gpFAQ 9.3.gzFAQ 9.2.heFAQ 9.2.hnFAQ 9.1.hvFAQ 9.1.icFAQ 8.3.ihFAQ 8.3.inFAQ 8.2.@.284FAQ 8.2.@.293FAQ 8.1.@.312FAQ 8.1.@.323FAQ 7.3.@.327FAQ 7.3.@.336FAQ 7.2.@.350FAQ 7.2.@.358FAQ 7.1.@.375FAQ 7.1.@.384FAQ 6.2.@.408FAQ 6.2.@.417FAQ 6.1.@.438FAQ 6.1.@.447FAQ 5.4.@.450FAQ 5.4.@.471FAQ 5.3.@.474FAQ 5.3.@.526FAQ 5.2.@.529FAQ 5.2.@.547FAQ 5.1.@.550FAQ 5.1.@.583FAQ 4.3.@.593FAQ 4.3.@.602FAQ 4.2.@.650FAQ 4.2.@.658FAQ 4.1.@.682FAQ 4.1.@.689FAQ 3.3.@.701FAQ 3.3.@.709FAQ 3.2.@.730FAQ 3.2.@.731FAQ 3.2.@.738FAQ 3.1.@.743FAQ 3.1.@.751FAQ 2.2.@.775FAQ 2.2.@.784FAQ 2.1.@.794FAQ 2.1.@.803FAQ 1.3.@.835FAQ 1.3.@.843FAQ 1.2.@.851FAQ 1.2.@.861FAQ 1.1.@.915FAQ 1.1.@.924FAQ 12.3.@.927FAQ 12.2.@.928FAQ 12.1.@.929FAQ 11.3.@.930FAQ 11.2.@.931FAQ 11.1.@.932FAQ 10.2.@.933FAQ 10.1.@.934FAQ 9.3.@.935FAQ 9.2.@.936FAQ 9.1.@.937FAQ 8.3.@.938FAQ 8.2.@.939FAQ 8.1.@.940FAQ 7.3.@.941FAQ 7.2.@.942FAQ 7.1.@.943FAQ 6.2.@.944FAQ 6.1.@.945FAQ 5.4.@.946FAQ 5.3.@.947FAQ 5.2.@.948FAQ 5.1.@.949FAQ 4.3.@.950FAQ 4.2.@.951FAQ 4.1.@.952FAQ 3.3.@.953FAQ 3.2.@.954FAQ 3.1.@.955FAQ 2.2.@.956FAQ 2.1.@.957FAQ 1.3.@.958FAQ 1.2.@.959FAQ 1.1.@.960FrequencyDuration

FAQ 12.3.lFAQ 12.3.wFAQ 12.2.afFAQ 12.2.aiFAQ 12.2.anFAQ 12.1.bjFAQ 12.1.bqFAQ 11.3.btFAQ 11.3.ckFAQ 11.2.daFAQ 11.1.dpFAQ 11.1.dwFAQ 10.2.erFAQ 10.2.faFAQ 10.1.fmFAQ 10.1.ftFAQ 9.3.gqFAQ 9.3.haFAQ 9.2.hfFAQ 9.2.hoFAQ 9.1.hwFAQ 9.1.idFAQ 8.3.iiFAQ 8.3.ioFAQ 8.2.@.285FAQ 8.2.@.294FAQ 8.1.@.313FAQ 8.1.@.324FAQ 7.3.@.328FAQ 7.3.@.337FAQ 7.2.@.351FAQ 7.2.@.359FAQ 7.1.@.376FAQ 7.1.@.385FAQ 6.2.@.409FAQ 6.2.@.418FAQ 6.1.@.439FAQ 6.1.@.448FAQ 5.4.@.451FAQ 5.4.@.472FAQ 5.3.@.475FAQ 5.3.@.527FAQ 5.2.@.530FAQ 5.2.@.548FAQ 5.1.@.551FAQ 5.1.@.584FAQ 4.3.@.594FAQ 4.3.@.603FAQ 4.2.@.651FAQ 4.2.@.659FAQ 4.1.@.683FAQ 4.1.@.690FAQ 3.3.@.702FAQ 3.3.@.710FAQ 3.2.@.731FAQ 3.2.@.732FAQ 3.2.@.739FAQ 3.1.@.744FAQ 3.1.@.752FAQ 2.2.@.776FAQ 2.2.@.785FAQ 2.1.@.795FAQ 2.1.@.804FAQ 1.3.@.836FAQ 1.3.@.844FAQ 1.2.@.852FAQ 1.2.@.862FAQ 1.1.@.916FAQ 1.1.@.925FAQ 12.3.@.928FAQ 12.2.@.929FAQ 12.1.@.930FAQ 11.3.@.931FAQ 11.2.@.932FAQ 11.1.@.933FAQ 10.2.@.934FAQ 10.1.@.935FAQ 9.3.@.936FAQ 9.2.@.937FAQ 9.1.@.938FAQ 8.3.@.939FAQ 8.2.@.940FAQ 8.1.@.941FAQ 7.3.@.942FAQ 7.2.@.943FAQ 7.1.@.944FAQ 6.2.@.945FAQ 6.1.@.946FAQ 5.4.@.947FAQ 5.3.@.948FAQ 5.2.@.949FAQ 5.1.@.950FAQ 4.3.@.951FAQ 4.2.@.952FAQ 4.1.@.953FAQ 3.3.@.954FAQ 3.2.@.955FAQ 3.1.@.956FAQ 2.2.@.957FAQ 2.1.@.958FAQ 1.3.@.959FAQ 1.2.@.960FAQ 1.1.@.961Spatial extentTiming

FAQ 12.3.mFAQ 12.3.xFAQ 12.2.agFAQ 12.2.ajFAQ 12.2.aoFAQ 12.1.bkFAQ 12.1.brFAQ 11.3.buFAQ 11.3.clFAQ 11.2.dbFAQ 11.1.dqFAQ 11.1.dxFAQ 10.2.esFAQ 10.2.fbFAQ 10.1.fnFAQ 10.1.fuFAQ 9.3.grFAQ 9.3.hbFAQ 9.2.hgFAQ 9.2.hpFAQ 9.1.hxFAQ 9.1.ieFAQ 8.3.ijFAQ 8.3.ipFAQ 8.2.@.286FAQ 8.2.@.295FAQ 8.1.@.314FAQ 8.1.@.325FAQ 7.3.@.329FAQ 7.3.@.338FAQ 7.2.@.352FAQ 7.2.@.360FAQ 7.1.@.377FAQ 7.1.@.386FAQ 6.2.@.410FAQ 6.2.@.419FAQ 6.1.@.440FAQ 6.1.@.449FAQ 5.4.@.452FAQ 5.4.@.473FAQ 5.3.@.476FAQ 5.3.@.528FAQ 5.2.@.531FAQ 5.2.@.549FAQ 5.1.@.552FAQ 5.1.@.585FAQ 4.3.@.595FAQ 4.3.@.604FAQ 4.2.@.652FAQ 4.2.@.660FAQ 4.1.@.684FAQ 4.1.@.691FAQ 3.3.@.703FAQ 3.3.@.711FAQ 3.2.@.732FAQ 3.2.@.733FAQ 3.2.@.740FAQ 3.1.@.745FAQ 3.1.@.753FAQ 2.2.@.777FAQ 2.2.@.786FAQ 2.1.@.796FAQ 2.1.@.805FAQ 1.3.@.837FAQ 1.3.@.845FAQ 1.2.@.853FAQ 1.2.@.863FAQ 1.1.@.917FAQ 1.1.@.926FAQ 12.3.@.929FAQ 12.2.@.930FAQ 12.1.@.931FAQ 11.3.@.932FAQ 11.2.@.933FAQ 11.1.@.934FAQ 10.2.@.935FAQ 10.1.@.936FAQ 9.3.@.937FAQ 9.2.@.938FAQ 9.1.@.939FAQ 8.3.@.940FAQ 8.2.@.941FAQ 8.1.@.942FAQ 7.3.@.943FAQ 7.2.@.944FAQ 7.1.@.945FAQ 6.2.@.946FAQ 6.1.@.947FAQ 5.4.@.948FAQ 5.3.@.949FAQ 5.2.@.950FAQ 5.1.@.951FAQ 4.3.@.952FAQ 4.2.@.953FAQ 4.1.@.954FAQ 3.3.@.955FAQ 3.2.@.956FAQ 3.1.@.957FAQ 2.2.@.958FAQ 2.1.@.959FAQ 1.3.@.960FAQ 1.2.@.961FAQ 1.1.@.962Seasonal shift Shift in speed of onset

FAQ 12.3.nFAQ 12.3.yFAQ 12.2.ahFAQ 12.2.akFAQ 12.2.apFAQ 12.1.blFAQ 12.1.bsFAQ 11.3.bvFAQ 11.3.cmFAQ 11.2.dcFAQ 11.1.drFAQ 11.1.dyFAQ 10.2.etFAQ 10.2.fcFAQ 10.1.foFAQ 10.1.fvFAQ 9.3.gsFAQ 9.3.hcFAQ 9.2.hhFAQ 9.2.hqFAQ 9.1.hyFAQ 9.1.ifFAQ 8.3.ikFAQ 8.3.iqFAQ 8.2.@.287FAQ 8.2.@.296FAQ 8.1.@.315FAQ 8.1.@.326FAQ 7.3.@.330FAQ 7.3.@.339FAQ 7.2.@.353FAQ 7.2.@.361FAQ 7.1.@.378FAQ 7.1.@.387FAQ 6.2.@.411FAQ 6.2.@.420FAQ 6.1.@.441FAQ 6.1.@.450FAQ 5.4.@.453FAQ 5.4.@.474FAQ 5.3.@.477FAQ 5.3.@.529FAQ 5.2.@.532FAQ 5.2.@.550FAQ 5.1.@.553FAQ 5.1.@.586FAQ 4.3.@.596FAQ 4.3.@.605FAQ 4.2.@.653FAQ 4.2.@.661FAQ 4.1.@.685FAQ 4.1.@.692FAQ 3.3.@.704FAQ 3.3.@.712FAQ 3.2.@.733FAQ 3.2.@.734FAQ 3.2.@.741FAQ 3.1.@.746FAQ 3.1.@.754FAQ 2.2.@.778FAQ 2.2.@.787FAQ 2.1.@.797FAQ 2.1.@.806FAQ 1.3.@.838FAQ 1.3.@.846FAQ 1.2.@.854FAQ 1.2.@.864FAQ 1.1.@.918FAQ 1.1.@.927FAQ 12.3.@.930FAQ 12.2.@.931FAQ 12.1.@.932FAQ 11.3.@.933FAQ 11.2.@.934FAQ 11.1.@.935FAQ 10.2.@.936FAQ 10.1.@.937FAQ 9.3.@.938FAQ 9.2.@.939FAQ 9.1.@.940FAQ 8.3.@.941FAQ 8.2.@.942FAQ 8.1.@.943FAQ 7.3.@.944FAQ 7.2.@.945FAQ 7.1.@.946FAQ 6.2.@.947FAQ 6.1.@.948FAQ 5.4.@.949FAQ 5.3.@.950FAQ 5.2.@.951FAQ 5.1.@.952FAQ 4.3.@.953FAQ 4.2.@.954FAQ 4.1.@.955FAQ 3.3.@.956FAQ 3.2.@.957FAQ 3.1.@.958FAQ 2.2.@.959FAQ 2.1.@.960FAQ 1.3.@.961FAQ 1.2.@.962FAQ 1.1.@.963Current climate

FAQ 12.3.oFAQ 12.3.zFAQ 12.2.aiFAQ 12.2.alFAQ 12.2.aqFAQ 12.1.bmFAQ 12.1.btFAQ 11.3.bwFAQ 11.3.cnFAQ 11.2.ddFAQ 11.1.dsFAQ 11.1.dzFAQ 10.2.euFAQ 10.2.fdFAQ 10.1.fpFAQ 10.1.fwFAQ 9.3.gtFAQ 9.3.hdFAQ 9.2.hiFAQ 9.2.hrFAQ 9.1.hzFAQ 9.1.igFAQ 8.3.ilFAQ 8.3.irFAQ 8.2.@.288FAQ 8.2.@.297FAQ 8.1.@.316FAQ 8.1.@.327FAQ 7.3.@.331FAQ 7.3.@.340FAQ 7.2.@.354FAQ 7.2.@.362FAQ 7.1.@.379FAQ 7.1.@.388FAQ 6.2.@.412FAQ 6.2.@.421FAQ 6.1.@.442FAQ 6.1.@.451FAQ 5.4.@.454FAQ 5.4.@.475FAQ 5.3.@.478FAQ 5.3.@.530FAQ 5.2.@.533FAQ 5.2.@.551FAQ 5.1.@.554FAQ 5.1.@.587FAQ 4.3.@.597FAQ 4.3.@.606FAQ 4.2.@.654FAQ 4.2.@.662FAQ 4.1.@.686FAQ 4.1.@.693FAQ 3.3.@.705FAQ 3.3.@.713FAQ 3.2.@.734FAQ 3.2.@.735FAQ 3.2.@.742FAQ 3.1.@.747FAQ 3.1.@.755FAQ 2.2.@.779FAQ 2.2.@.788FAQ 2.1.@.798FAQ 2.1.@.807FAQ 1.3.@.839FAQ 1.3.@.847FAQ 1.2.@.855FAQ 1.2.@.865FAQ 1.1.@.919FAQ 1.1.@.928FAQ 12.3.@.931FAQ 12.2.@.932FAQ 12.1.@.933FAQ 11.3.@.934FAQ 11.2.@.935FAQ 11.1.@.936FAQ 10.2.@.937FAQ 10.1.@.938FAQ 9.3.@.939FAQ 9.2.@.940FAQ 9.1.@.941FAQ 8.3.@.942FAQ 8.2.@.943FAQ 8.1.@.944FAQ 7.3.@.945FAQ 7.2.@.946FAQ 7.1.@.947FAQ 6.2.@.948FAQ 6.1.@.949FAQ 5.4.@.950FAQ 5.3.@.951FAQ 5.2.@.952FAQ 5.1.@.953FAQ 4.3.@.954FAQ 4.2.@.955FAQ 4.1.@.956FAQ 3.3.@.957FAQ 3.2.@.958FAQ 3.1.@.959FAQ 2.2.@.960FAQ 2.1.@.961FAQ 1.3.@.962FAQ 1.2.@.963FAQ 1.1.@.964Climate change

FAQ 12.3.pFAQ 12.3.aaFAQ 12.2.ajFAQ 12.2.amFAQ 12.2.arFAQ 12.1.bnFAQ 12.1.buFAQ 11.3.bxFAQ 11.3.coFAQ 11.2.deFAQ 11.1.dtFAQ 11.1.eaFAQ 10.2.evFAQ 10.2.feFAQ 10.1.fqFAQ 10.1.fxFAQ 9.3.guFAQ 9.3.heFAQ 9.2.hjFAQ 9.2.hsFAQ 9.1.iaFAQ 9.1.ihFAQ 8.3.imFAQ 8.3.isFAQ 8.2.@.289FAQ 8.2.@.298FAQ 8.1.@.317FAQ 8.1.@.328FAQ 7.3.@.332FAQ 7.3.@.341FAQ 7.2.@.355FAQ 7.2.@.363FAQ 7.1.@.380FAQ 7.1.@.389FAQ 6.2.@.413FAQ 6.2.@.422FAQ 6.1.@.443FAQ 6.1.@.452FAQ 5.4.@.455FAQ 5.4.@.476FAQ 5.3.@.479FAQ 5.3.@.531FAQ 5.2.@.534FAQ 5.2.@.552FAQ 5.1.@.555FAQ 5.1.@.588FAQ 4.3.@.598FAQ 4.3.@.607FAQ 4.2.@.655FAQ 4.2.@.663FAQ 4.1.@.687FAQ 4.1.@.694FAQ 3.3.@.706FAQ 3.3.@.714FAQ 3.2.@.735FAQ 3.2.@.736FAQ 3.2.@.743FAQ 3.1.@.748FAQ 3.1.@.756FAQ 2.2.@.780FAQ 2.2.@.789FAQ 2.1.@.799FAQ 2.1.@.808FAQ 1.3.@.840FAQ 1.3.@.848FAQ 1.2.@.856FAQ 1.2.@.866FAQ 1.1.@.920FAQ 1.1.@.929FAQ 12.3.@.932FAQ 12.2.@.933FAQ 12.1.@.934FAQ 11.3.@.935FAQ 11.2.@.936FAQ 11.1.@.937FAQ 10.2.@.938FAQ 10.1.@.939FAQ 9.3.@.940FAQ 9.2.@.941FAQ 9.1.@.942FAQ 8.3.@.943FAQ 8.2.@.944FAQ 8.1.@.945FAQ 7.3.@.946FAQ 7.2.@.947FAQ 7.1.@.948FAQ 6.2.@.949FAQ 6.1.@.950FAQ 5.4.@.951FAQ 5.3.@.952FAQ 5.2.@.953FAQ 5.1.@.954FAQ 4.3.@.955FAQ 4.2.@.956FAQ 4.1.@.957FAQ 3.3.@.958FAQ 3.2.@.959FAQ 3.1.@.960FAQ 2.2.@.961FAQ 2.1.@.962FAQ 1.3.@.963FAQ 1.2.@.964FAQ 1.1.@.965Hazard threshold

FAQ 12.3.qFAQ 12.3.abFAQ 12.2.akFAQ 12.2.anFAQ 12.2.asFAQ 12.1.boFAQ 12.1.bvFAQ 11.3.byFAQ 11.3.cpFAQ 11.2.dfFAQ 11.1.duFAQ 11.1.ebFAQ 10.2.ewFAQ 10.2.ffFAQ 10.1.frFAQ 10.1.fyFAQ 9.3.gvFAQ 9.3.hfFAQ 9.2.hkFAQ 9.2.htFAQ 9.1.ibFAQ 9.1.iiFAQ 8.3.inFAQ 8.3.itFAQ 8.2.@.290FAQ 8.2.@.299FAQ 8.1.@.318FAQ 8.1.@.329FAQ 7.3.@.333FAQ 7.3.@.342FAQ 7.2.@.356FAQ 7.2.@.364FAQ 7.1.@.381FAQ 7.1.@.390FAQ 6.2.@.414FAQ 6.2.@.423FAQ 6.1.@.444FAQ 6.1.@.453FAQ 5.4.@.456FAQ 5.4.@.477FAQ 5.3.@.480FAQ 5.3.@.532FAQ 5.2.@.535FAQ 5.2.@.553FAQ 5.1.@.556FAQ 5.1.@.589FAQ 4.3.@.599FAQ 4.3.@.608FAQ 4.2.@.656FAQ 4.2.@.664FAQ 4.1.@.688FAQ 4.1.@.695FAQ 3.3.@.707FAQ 3.3.@.715FAQ 3.2.@.736FAQ 3.2.@.737FAQ 3.2.@.744FAQ 3.1.@.749FAQ 3.1.@.757FAQ 2.2.@.781FAQ 2.2.@.790FAQ 2.1.@.800FAQ 2.1.@.809FAQ 1.3.@.841FAQ 1.3.@.849FAQ 1.2.@.857FAQ 1.2.@.867FAQ 1.1.@.921FAQ 1.1.@.930FAQ 12.3.@.933FAQ 12.2.@.934FAQ 12.1.@.935FAQ 11.3.@.936FAQ 11.2.@.937FAQ 11.1.@.938FAQ 10.2.@.939FAQ 10.1.@.940FAQ 9.3.@.941FAQ 9.2.@.942FAQ 9.1.@.943FAQ 8.3.@.944FAQ 8.2.@.945FAQ 8.1.@.946FAQ 7.3.@.947FAQ 7.2.@.948FAQ 7.1.@.949FAQ 6.2.@.950FAQ 6.1.@.951FAQ 5.4.@.952FAQ 5.3.@.953FAQ 5.2.@.954FAQ 5.1.@.955FAQ 4.3.@.956FAQ 4.2.@.957FAQ 4.1.@.958FAQ 3.3.@.959FAQ 3.2.@.960FAQ 3.1.@.961FAQ 2.2.@.962FAQ 2.1.@.963FAQ 1.3.@.964FAQ 1.2.@.965FAQ 1.1.@.966Variable starts to decline

FAQ 12.3.rFAQ 12.3.acFAQ 12.2.alFAQ 12.2.aoFAQ 12.2.atFAQ 12.1.bpFAQ 12.1.bwFAQ 11.3.bzFAQ 11.3.cqFAQ 11.2.dgFAQ 11.1.dvFAQ 11.1.ecFAQ 10.2.exFAQ 10.2.fgFAQ 10.1.fsFAQ 10.1.fzFAQ 9.3.gwFAQ 9.3.hgFAQ 9.2.hlFAQ 9.2.huFAQ 9.1.icFAQ 9.1.ijFAQ 8.3.ioFAQ 8.3.iuFAQ 8.2.@.291FAQ 8.2.@.300FAQ 8.1.@.319FAQ 8.1.@.330FAQ 7.3.@.334FAQ 7.3.@.343FAQ 7.2.@.357FAQ 7.2.@.365FAQ 7.1.@.382FAQ 7.1.@.391FAQ 6.2.@.415FAQ 6.2.@.424FAQ 6.1.@.445FAQ 6.1.@.454FAQ 5.4.@.457FAQ 5.4.@.478FAQ 5.3.@.481FAQ 5.3.@.533FAQ 5.2.@.536FAQ 5.2.@.554FAQ 5.1.@.557FAQ 5.1.@.590FAQ 4.3.@.600FAQ 4.3.@.609FAQ 4.2.@.657FAQ 4.2.@.665FAQ 4.1.@.689FAQ 4.1.@.696FAQ 3.3.@.708FAQ 3.3.@.716FAQ 3.2.@.737FAQ 3.2.@.738FAQ 3.2.@.745FAQ 3.1.@.750FAQ 3.1.@.758FAQ 2.2.@.782FAQ 2.2.@.791FAQ 2.1.@.801FAQ 2.1.@.810FAQ 1.3.@.842FAQ 1.3.@.850FAQ 1.2.@.858FAQ 1.2.@.868FAQ 1.1.@.922FAQ 1.1.@.931FAQ 12.3.@.934FAQ 12.2.@.935FAQ 12.1.@.936FAQ 11.3.@.937FAQ 11.2.@.938FAQ 11.1.@.939FAQ 10.2.@.940FAQ 10.1.@.941FAQ 9.3.@.942FAQ 9.2.@.943FAQ 9.1.@.944FAQ 8.3.@.945FAQ 8.2.@.946FAQ 8.1.@.947FAQ 7.3.@.948FAQ 7.2.@.949FAQ 7.1.@.950FAQ 6.2.@.951FAQ 6.1.@.952FAQ 5.4.@.953FAQ 5.3.@.954FAQ 5.2.@.955FAQ 5.1.@.956FAQ 4.3.@.957FAQ 4.2.@.958FAQ 4.1.@.959FAQ 3.3.@.960FAQ 3.2.@.961FAQ 3.1.@.962FAQ 2.2.@.963FAQ 2.1.@.964FAQ 1.3.@.965FAQ 1.2.@.966FAQ 1.1.@.967River

FAQ 12.3.sFAQ 12.3.adFAQ 12.2.amFAQ 12.2.apFAQ 12.2.auFAQ 12.1.bqFAQ 12.1.bxFAQ 11.3.caFAQ 11.3.crFAQ 11.2.dhFAQ 11.1.dwFAQ 11.1.edFAQ 10.2.eyFAQ 10.2.fhFAQ 10.1.ftFAQ 10.1.gaFAQ 9.3.gxFAQ 9.3.hhFAQ 9.2.hmFAQ 9.2.hvFAQ 9.1.idFAQ 9.1.ikFAQ 8.3.ipFAQ 8.3.ivFAQ 8.2.@.292FAQ 8.2.@.301FAQ 8.1.@.320FAQ 8.1.@.331FAQ 7.3.@.335FAQ 7.3.@.344FAQ 7.2.@.358FAQ 7.2.@.366FAQ 7.1.@.383FAQ 7.1.@.392FAQ 6.2.@.416FAQ 6.2.@.425FAQ 6.1.@.446FAQ 6.1.@.455FAQ 5.4.@.458FAQ 5.4.@.479FAQ 5.3.@.482FAQ 5.3.@.534FAQ 5.2.@.537FAQ 5.2.@.555FAQ 5.1.@.558FAQ 5.1.@.591FAQ 4.3.@.601FAQ 4.3.@.610FAQ 4.2.@.658FAQ 4.2.@.666FAQ 4.1.@.690FAQ 4.1.@.697FAQ 3.3.@.709FAQ 3.3.@.717FAQ 3.2.@.738FAQ 3.2.@.739FAQ 3.2.@.746FAQ 3.1.@.751FAQ 3.1.@.759FAQ 2.2.@.783FAQ 2.2.@.792FAQ 2.1.@.802FAQ 2.1.@.811FAQ 1.3.@.843FAQ 1.3.@.851FAQ 1.2.@.859FAQ 1.2.@.869FAQ 1.1.@.923FAQ 1.1.@.932FAQ 12.3.@.935FAQ 12.2.@.936FAQ 12.1.@.937FAQ 11.3.@.938FAQ 11.2.@.939FAQ 11.1.@.940FAQ 10.2.@.941FAQ 10.1.@.942FAQ 9.3.@.943FAQ 9.2.@.944FAQ 9.1.@.945FAQ 8.3.@.946FAQ 8.2.@.947FAQ 8.1.@.948FAQ 7.3.@.949FAQ 7.2.@.950FAQ 7.1.@.951FAQ 6.2.@.952FAQ 6.1.@.953FAQ 5.4.@.954FAQ 5.3.@.955FAQ 5.2.@.956FAQ 5.1.@.957FAQ 4.3.@.958FAQ 4.2.@.959FAQ 4.1.@.960FAQ 3.3.@.961FAQ 3.2.@.962FAQ 3.1.@.963FAQ 2.2.@.964FAQ 2.1.@.965FAQ 1.3.@.966FAQ 1.2.@.967FAQ 1.1.@.968

Back Matter, Footnotes, Figures, Tables, Boxes

Footnotes

Back Matter, Footnotes, Figures, Tables, Boxes